Topic 2 Content

This lecture covers:

Corresponds to Chapters 2
• Nodes, Branches and Loops/Meshes and 3 of your textbook
• Kirchhoff’s Laws
• Series and Parallel Connection of Circuit Elements
• Voltage and Current Division
• Nodal Analysis
• Mesh Analysis

Addressed learning outcomes:

• LO1: Systematically analyse DC and AC electric circuits by deriving and
solving equations using circuit laws and theorems.
• LO6: Evaluate relevant information to design simple engineering systems that
use electrical circuits.
Nodes, branches and loops/meshes
• Circuit elements can be interconnected in multiple ways.
• To understand this, we need to be familiar with some network topology concepts:
– A branch represents a single element such as a voltage source or a resistor.
– A node is the point of connection between two or more branches.
– A loop is any closed path in a circuit.
– A mesh is a loop that contains no other loop.
n3
nk = node k
bk = branch k
ℓk = loop/mesh k
n1 b2
b1 b3 b4 b5
ℓ2
ℓ1 ℓ3
n2
Series and parallel
• Two or more elements are in series if they exclusively share a single
node and consequently carry the same current.
• Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected to the same
two nodes and consequently have the same voltage across them.
In the following example:
– Series: 5 Ω resistor and 10 V source.
– Parallel: 2 A source and 3 Ω and 2 Ω resistors.
Exercise 1
• Count the number of branches, nodes, and meshes.
• Identify series and parallel elements.

1Ω 3Ω

7Ω
10 A 8Ω 4Ω 6V
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
• The algebraic sum of all currents entering a node is zero.
𝑁

෍ 𝑖𝑛 = 0
𝑛=1
𝑁 is the number of branches connected to the node

– You may consider the currents entering the node to be positive and those leaving the
node to be negative or vice versa.
– You may also consider that the sum of currents entering the node is equal to the sum
of currents leaving the node.
i1 i2 i1 i2

i3 i3

i1 + i2 + i3 = 0 i1 + i2 − i3 = 0
i1 + i2 = −i3 i1 + i2 = i3
Exercise 2
Given the following circuit:
i1 i2
i3
i1 =10 A v i2 =5 A
R=2Ω

• How much current flows through the resistor?

• What is the voltage across the resistor?

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
• The algebraic sum of all voltage drops around a closed path (or a loop) is
zero.
𝑀

෍ 𝑣𝑚 = 0
𝑚=1
𝑀 is the number of voltage drops in the loop

• You may start from any node in the loop and go around the loop clockwise (CW)
or counterclockwise (CCW).
• Use the sign of the terminal that you first encounter as you go around the loop.

−𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣3 − 𝑣4 + 𝑣5 = 0 𝑣4 − 𝑣3 − 𝑣2 + 𝑣1 − 𝑣5 = 0

or
Exercise 3 v2 = 2 V i
Given the following circuit: + -
+
+
+
v3
v1 = 5 V + R=6Ω
- -

• What is the voltage across the resistor?

• What is the current in the loop?

 Voltage sources in series
• Kirchoff’s Voltage Law
(KVL) gives:

+ v1 1+−v2𝑣+2 v−3 𝑣−3iR

−𝑣 = 0= 0
+ 𝑖𝑅
v1
(v1 + v2 + v3 ) = iR

v2 + i R veq + i R • Equivalent voltage:

veq = iR
v3 + veq = v1 + v2 + v3
• Voltage sources in series
are summed.
Resistors in series
• Current is the same in all
resistors:
i1 = i2 = i3 = i
• KVL gives:
i1 v −+iR
R1 −𝑣 𝑖𝑅1 1−+iR𝑖𝑅
2 −
2+iR3𝑖𝑅=3 0= 0
v = i ( R1 + R2 + R3 )
+ i2 R2 v + i Req
• Equivalent resistance:
i3 R3 𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅𝑒𝑞

Req = R1 + R2 + R3

• Resistors in series are

summed.
Resistors in series
• The equivalent resistance of any number of series resistors is the
sum of the individual resistances.

R1 R2

Req
RN Req

𝑁
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑁 = ෍ 𝑅𝑛
𝑛=1
Current sources in parallel

• We can find the current in the

i resistor by KCL:
i1 i2 i3 R i1 + i2 + i3 = i
• The equivalent current source
would put the same current
through the resistor, so:

ieq = i1 + i2 + i3
i
ieq R • Current sources in parallel are
summed.
Resistors in parallel
• Voltages across the resistors are
i the same:
𝑣 = 𝑖1 𝑅1 = 𝑖2 𝑅2

+ Therefore:
v i1 R1 i2 R2 𝑣 𝑣
𝑖1 = ;𝑖 =
𝑅1 2 𝑅2
• Using KCL:
1 1
𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 = 𝑣 +
𝑅1 𝑅2
i 𝑖 1 1 1
= = +
v + Req 𝑣 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2

1 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = =
1 1 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
+
𝑅1 𝑅2

13
Resistors in parallel
• The reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of any number of
parallel resistors is the sum of the individual reciprocal
resistances.

Req
R1 R2 RN Req

1 1 1 1
= + ⋯+ or 𝐺eq = 𝐺1 + 𝐺2 + ⋯ + 𝐺𝑁
𝑅eq 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑁

1
or 𝑅𝑒𝑞 =
1 1 1
+ + ⋯+
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑁
Exercise 4
Find the equivalent resistance 𝑅eq.
Voltage divider
• A voltage divider is a simple circuit that divides a voltage in proportion
to the series resistances (the higher the resistance, the higher the
voltage).
• The current through the resistors is:
v
i=
R1 + R2
• The voltage across the resistors:
v1 = iR1 ; v2 = iR2
R1 R2
v1 = v ; v2 = v
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
Voltage divider
• In general, the voltage drop across the nth resistor in a voltage
divider with N series resistors is obtained as follows:

R1 R2 Rn

v1 − v2 − vn −

+
+

+
𝑣 vN RN
−

𝑅𝑛 𝑅𝑛
𝑣𝑛 = 𝑣 =𝑣
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ⋯ + 𝑅𝑁 𝑅𝑒𝑞

Remark: As long as we know the input voltage to be divided, this voltage can be provided by any element or circuit, not
necessarily a voltage source.
Exercise 5
• Find the voltage across the 15 kΩ resistor.

10 kΩ
5V +
+
15 kΩ vout
-

𝑅𝑛
𝑣𝑛 = 𝑣
𝑅𝑒𝑞
Current divider
• A current divider is a simple circuit that divides the current among
parallel resistors in inverse proportion to their resistance (the higher
the resistance, the lower the current).

i • The voltage across the resistors is:

𝑣 = 𝑖 𝑅1 ‖𝑅2
i1 i2

i • The current through each resistor:

R1 R2
𝑣 𝑅1 ‖𝑅2
𝑖1 = =𝑖
𝑅1 𝑅1
𝑣 𝑅1 ‖𝑅2
𝑖2 = =𝑖
𝑅2 𝑅2
Current divider
• In general, the current through the nth resistor in a current divider with N
parallel resistors is obtained as follows:
i

i1 i2 in iN

𝑣 R1 R2 Rn RN

𝑅1 ‖𝑅2 ‖ ⋯ ‖𝑅𝑁 𝑅𝑒𝑞

𝑖𝑛 = 𝑖 =𝑖
𝑅𝑛 𝑅𝑛

• If conductances are used instead of resistances, then:

𝐺𝑛 1
𝑖𝑛 = 𝑖
𝐺1 +𝐺2 ⋯+𝐺𝑁
, where 𝐺𝑛 = 𝑅
𝑛

Remark: As long as we know the input current to be divided, this current can be provided by any element or circuit, not
necessarily a current source.
Exercise 6
• Find the current in the 5 Ω resistor.

1A 10Ω 10Ω 5Ω

𝑅𝑒𝑞
𝑖𝑛 = 𝑖
𝑅𝑛
Current divider
Specific cases

• Short circuit: The entire current

𝒊 flows through the smallest
resistance (short circuit), Req
effectively bypassing 𝑅1.

𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 0

• Open circuit: The entire current

𝒊 flows through the smallest
resistance (𝑅1 ). Req

𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1
Exercise 7
Find 𝑣𝑜 and 𝑖𝑜 in the circuit below.
Circuit ground
• Voltage is a differential quantity, so we need a reference node, usually
at zero volts.
• Any node in a circuit can be defined as zero volts.
• The zero volt point is referred to as the circuit ground.
• Symbol:
10 V 5V
5V + +
5V
5V 0V
5V + +
5V
0V -5 V
Different choice of circuit ground leads to different
voltages with respect to ground.
Earth
• An earthed ground is literally a connection to the earth, which provides
provides an important role in electrical safety.
• Symbol:
Circuit analysis
• Using Kirchhoff’s laws and Ohm’s law we can analyse any circuit to
determine the currents and voltages; however, this might result in
many simultaneous equations.
• The challenge of formal circuit analysis is to derive the smallest set of
simultaneous equations that completely define the operating
characteristics of a circuit (voltages and currents).
• Nodal and mesh analysis are two very useful methods for analysing
any circuit.
– They are based on the systematic application of Kirchhoff’s laws.
Nodal analysis
Nodes
• A branch represents a single element such as a voltage source or a resistor.
• A node is the point of connection between two or more branches.

n3
nk = node k
bk = branch k

n1 b2
b1 b3 b4 b5

n2
Nodal analysis
• It is based on KCL.
• We use node voltages (potential of each node) as the main circuit
variables.
– Voltages are relative to a reference node.

• Objective: To solve for these node voltages.

– In general, an N-node circuit will need N-1 voltages and N-1
equations.
– It will also require the solution of a N-1 system of equations.
– KCL will be applied at each node except for one – the reference
node.
Nodal analysis
Reference node
Any node can be chosen as the reference node.
Most common choices are:
• the ground node,
• top or bottom node, or
• node connected to the highest number of branches.
Nodal analysis
• Given a circuit with 𝒏 nodes, the nodal analysis is accomplished via the
following steps:

1. Select a node as the reference node.

2. Assign voltages 𝒗𝟏 , 𝒗𝟐 ,…𝒗𝒏 to the remaining 𝑛 − 1 nodes. These
voltages are relative to the reference node.
3. Apply KCL to each of the 𝑛 − 1 non-reference nodes.
– For resistors, use Ohm’s law to express the currents in terms of node
voltages. Keep in mind the passive sign convention.
4. Solve the resulting 𝑛 − 1 simultaneous equations to obtain the
unknown node voltages.

NOTE: Always simplify the circuit before you start doing the analysis.
Nodal analysis
Before starting, simplify the circuit (if
possible) and identify all the nodes.
node 1 node 2
1. Choose ground as reference node
(𝑣0 = 0 V).

2. Assign voltages 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 to nodes 1 v1 v2

and 2.
𝑣𝑅2
• Recall that:
𝑣𝑅1 𝑣𝑅3
𝑣𝑅1 = 𝑣1 − 0
𝑣𝑅2 = 𝑣1 − 𝑣2 v0
𝑣𝑅3 = 𝑣2 − 0 Ref. node

Ground
Nodal analysis
3. Apply KCL to nodes 1 and 2.
node 1: 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 + 𝑖1 + 𝑖2
node 2: 𝐼2 + 𝑖2 = 𝑖3
v1 v2
– For resistors, use Ohm’s law to express the branch
currents in terms of node voltages. Keep in mind the
passive sign convention.
𝑣𝑅2
𝑣𝑅1 𝑣𝑅3
𝑣𝑅 𝑣higher − 𝑣lower
𝑖𝑛 = 𝑛 =
𝑅𝑛 𝑅𝑛
v0
𝑣𝑅1 𝑣1 − 0
𝑖1 = =
𝑅1 𝑅1 Ground
𝑣𝑅2 𝑣1 − 𝑣2
𝑖2 = =
𝑅2 𝑅2
𝑣1 𝑣1 − 𝑣2
𝑣𝑅 𝑣2 − 0 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 + +
𝑖3 = 3 = 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅3 𝑅3
𝑣1 − 𝑣2 𝑣2
– Substitute back 𝑖1 , 𝑖2 , and 𝑖3 into the node equations 𝐼2 + =
𝑅2 𝑅3
4. Solve simultaneous equations (for 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 ).
Exercise 8
Obtain the node voltages in the circuit below and find the power dissipated
in the 4Ω resistor.
Nodal analysis with voltage sources
• Voltage sources generate or dissipate power at a specified voltage with
whatever current is required.
– The voltage is known at the terminals, but the current is not (and Ohm’s law does
not apply).

• There are 2 cases for nodal analysis with (independent or dependent) voltage
sources. 4Ω
• Case 1: Voltage source is between
i4
the reference node and a non-
i1 5V
reference node. 2Ω v2
v1 v3
– Set the voltage at the non-reference
i2 i3
node to the voltage of the source.
𝑣1 = 10 V
10 V 8Ω 6Ω

Case 1
Nodal analysis with voltage sources
Supernode
• Case 2: Voltage source is between 4Ω
two non-reference nodes.
i4
– The two nodes form a supernode.
i1 5V
– The voltage across the voltage source 2Ω v2
v1 v3
can be expressed in terms of node
voltages (KVL in bottom-right mesh). i2 i3
𝑣2 − 𝑣3 = 5 V Case 2
10 V 8Ω 6Ω
A supernode is formed by enclosing a
voltage source connected between two
Case 1
non-reference nodes and any element
connected in parallel with it.

Supernode properties
1. The voltage source inside the supernode provides a constraint equation needed
to solve node voltages.
2. A supernode has no voltage of its own.
3. A supernode requires the application of both KCL and KVL.
Exercise 9
Find the node voltages in the circuit below.
Mesh analysis
Meshes
• A loop is any closed path in a circuit.
• A mesh is a loop that contains no other loop.

6Ω Loop 5Ω

Mesh Mesh
2V + 4Ω + 8V

2Ω
Mesh analysis
Planar vs non-planar circuits
• A planar circuit is a circuit that can be drawn in a
plane with no crossing branches.
• Mesh analysis is only applicable to planar circuits.
– Nodal analysis can be applied to both.

Non-planar circuit.
The branch with the 13Ω resistor prevents Planar circuit.
the circuit from being drawn without crossing (a) Original, (b) Redrawn circuit.
branches.
Mesh analysis
• It is based on KVL.
• We use mesh currents instead of element currents as the main
circuit variables.
– It reduces the number of equations that must be solved simultaneously.
• Objective: To solve for these mesh currents.
– In general, an N-mesh circuit will need N currents and N equations.
– It will also require the solution of a N system of equations.
– KVL will be applied at each mesh.
Mesh analysis
• Given a circuit with 𝒏 meshes, the mesh analysis is accomplished via
the following steps:

1. Assign mesh currents 𝒊𝟏 , 𝒊𝟐 ,…𝒊𝒏 to the 𝑛 meshes with a direction

(generally clockwise).
2. Apply KVL to each of the 𝑛 meshes (following the same direction
as mesh currents).
– For resistors, use Ohm’s law to express the voltages in terms of mesh
currents.
3. Solve the resulting 𝑛 simultaneous equations to obtain the
unknown mesh currents.

NOTE: Always simplify the circuit before you start doing the analysis.
 Mesh analysis
Before starting, simplify the circuit (if
possible) and identify all the meshes.
1. Assign currents 𝑖1 and 𝑖2 to
meshes 1 and 2.
• Current for each branch is:
𝐼1 = 𝑖1
𝐼2 = 𝑖2
𝐼3 = 𝑖1 − 𝑖2

The current in the common branch between two meshes is the

difference of the two mesh currents according to the current direction
assigned to that branch.

NOTE: You can use 𝑰 for current branch and 𝒊 for mesh current or the other way round to distinguish between
two types of currents, although most of the time we work directly with the mesh currents.
Mesh analysis
3. Apply KVL to meshes 1 and 2.
mesh 1: −𝑉1 + 𝑣𝑅1 + 𝑣𝑅3 = 0
mesh 2: −𝑣𝑅3 + 𝑣𝑅2 + 𝑉2 = 0

– For resistors, use Ohm’s law to 𝑣𝑅1 𝑣𝑅2

express the voltages in terms of
mesh currents.
𝑣𝑅3
𝑣𝑅1 = 𝑅1 𝐼1 = 𝑅1 𝑖1
𝑣𝑅2 = 𝑅2 𝐼2 = 𝑅2 𝑖2
𝑣𝑅3 = 𝑅3 𝐼3 = 𝑅3 (𝑖1 − 𝑖2 )

– Substitude back 𝑣𝑅1 , 𝑣𝑅2 , and 𝑣𝑅3 −𝑉1 + 𝑅1 𝑖1 + 𝑅3 (𝑖1 − 𝑖2 ) = 0

൝
into the mesh equations. −𝑅3 (𝑖1 − 𝑖2 ) + 𝑅2 𝑖2 + 𝑉2 = 0

4. Solve simultaneous equations (for 𝑖1 and 𝑖2 ).

Exercise 10
Calculate the mesh currents 𝑖1 and 𝑖2 in the circuit below and find the
power in the 40 V voltage source.
Mesh analysis with current sources
• Current sources generate or dissipate power at a specified current with
whatever voltage is required.
– The current is known at the terminals, but the voltage is not (and Ohm’s law does
not apply).

• There are 2 cases for mesh analysis with (independent or dependent) current
sources. Case 1
10 A
• Case 1: Current source exists only in
one mesh.
– Set the mesh current to the current i2
5V
of the source. 2Ω

𝑖2 = 10 A
8Ω
i1 i3
2Ω 6Ω

6A

i1 i3
Mesh analysis with current sources
• Case 2: Current source is between two Case 1
meshes. 10 A

– The two meshes form a supermesh by Exclude

excluding the branch with current source. them
i2
– The current through the current source can 2Ω
5V
be expressed in terms of mesh currents
(KCL in bottom node).
𝑖3 = 𝑖1 + 6 A 8Ω
i1 i3
2Ω 6Ω
A supermesh is formed by merging 6A Case 2
two meshes and excluding the shared
current source and any element i1 i3
connected in series with it.
Supermesh
Mesh analysis with current sources
Case 1
Supermesh properties 10 A

1. The current source inside the Exclude

supermesh provides a i2 them
constraint equation needed to 5V
2Ω
solve mesh currents.
2. A supermesh has no current of
its own. 8Ω
3. A supermesh requires the i1 i3
2Ω 6Ω
application of both KVL and
6A Case 2
KCL.
4. Intersecting supermeshes in a i1 i3
circuit must be combined to form
a larger supermesh. Supermesh
Exercise 11
In the circuit below, use mesh analysis to determine 𝑖1 , 𝑖2 , and 𝑖3 .
Nodal analysis vs mesh analysis
• We aim to select the method that results in the smaller number of
equations.
− We prefer nodal analysis for circuits with fewer nodes than meshes.
− We prefer mesh analysis for circuits with fewer meshes than nodes.
Question? Questions?