FORMAT: QP10 BS3171 PHYSICS LABORATORY

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES

SUBJECT CODE – BS3171

SUBJECT: PHYSICS LABORATORY

SEMESTER: I

PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

Prepared by
S.ANURADHA / Asst. Prof.

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FORMAT: QP10 BS3171 PHYSICS LABORATORY

ACADEMIC YEAR 2021 – 22 (ODD SEMESTER)

BS3171 / PHYSICS LABORATORY

SYLLABUS

Ex.No. Title of the Experiment

1. Determination of Young’s Modulus by non-Uniform Bending method.

2. Determination of Young’s Modulus by Uniform Bending method.

3. Torsional Pendulum – Determination of rigidity modulus of wire and moment

of inertia of regular and irregular objects.

4. Determination of the wavelength of the LASER using grating.

5. Determination of Thickness of a Thin wire – Air wedge method.

6. Determination of Velocity of sound and compressibility of liquid- Ultrasonic

interferometer method.

7. Determination of Band Gap of a semiconductor.

SIGNATURE OF STAFF INCHARGE HOD/S&H

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BS 3171 PHYSICS LABORATORY LTPC

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS 0 042
1. Determination of Young’s Modulus by non-Uniform Bending method.

2. Determination of Young’s Modulus by Uniform Bending method.

3. Torsional Pendulum – Determination of rigidity modulus of wire and moment of inertia of

regular and irregular objects.

4. Determination of the wavelength of the LASER using grating.

5. Determination of Thickness of a Thin wire – Air wedge method.

6. Determination of Velocity of sound and compressibility of liquid-Ultrasonic interferometer

method.

7. Determination of Band Gap of a semiconductor.

TOTAL: 60 PERIODS

SIGNATURE OF STAFF INCHARGE HOD/S&H

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DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES

COURSE PLAN
Sub. Code : BS3171 Branch / Year / Sem : All (UG) / I / I
Sub. Name : Physics Laboratory Batch : 2021-2025
Staff Name : Mrs. S. ANURADHA Academic Year : 2021-22(Odd)

COURSE OBJECTIVE
 To learn the proper use of various kinds of physics laboratory equipment.
 To learn how data can be collected, presented and interpreted in a clear and concise
manner.
 To learn problem solving skills related to physics principles and interpretation of
experimental data.
 To determine error in experimental measurements and techniques used to minimize
such error.
 To make the student an active participant in each part of all lab exercises.

LEARNING OUTCOME
Upon completion of this course, the students should be able to
 Understand the functioning of various physics laboratory equipment.
 Use graphical models to analyze laboratory data.
 Use mathematical models as a medium for quantitative reasoning and describing
physical reality.
 Access, process and analyze scientific.
 Solve problems individually and collaboratively.

PRE-REQUISITE
 Knowledge on material science, light & properties of sound.

EQUIPMENTS / COMPONENTS
 Travelling Microscope, Two knife edge supports, Meter scale, Pin, Thread,
Weight hanger with set of weights, Vernier Calipers, Screw Gauge.
 Torsional pendulum, two symmetrical masses, Stop clock, Screw Gauge,
Meter scale.
 Travelling Microscope, Sodium vapour lamp, two optically plane rectangular
glass plates, Condensing lens, Reading lens, Thin wire.
 Ultrasonic interferometer, liquid, power supply.
 Band gap apparatus, Thermometer, Diode, Beaker, Oil, Heater apparatus.
 A diode LASER, LASER grating, scale, screen.

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Cumulative
EX. No. of hours
Date Title of the Experiment No. of
No. required
periods
Determination of Young’s Modulus by non-
1. 4 4
Uniform Bending method.

Determination of Young’s Modulus by Uniform

2. 4 8
Bending method.

Torsional Pendulum – Determination of

3. rigidity modulus of wire and moment of 4 12
inertia of regular and irregular objects.

Determination of the wavelength of the LASER

4. 4 16
using grating.

Determination of Thickness of a Thin wire –

5. 4 20
Air wedge method.

Determination of Velocity of sound and

6. compressibility of liquid-Ultrasonic 4 24
interferometer method.

Determination of Band Gap of a

7. 4 28
semiconductor.

8. Model Lab. 2 30

CONTENT BEYOND SYLLABUS

 Newton’s Rings - Determination of wavelength of light by forming interference

fringes.

OPTIONAL EXPERIMENT

 Meter bridge - Determination of Unknown Resistance.

 Spectrometer - Determination of dispersive power of the prism.

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INTERNAL ASSESSMENT DETAILS

MODEL I

PORTIONS All 7 experiments

DATE

Prepared by. Verified by.

S.ANURADHA HOD/S&H

Approved by.
PRINCIPAL

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GUIDELINES FOR AWARD OF INTERNAL MARK

Observation : 15

Completion of experiment Mark to be awarded

On Scheduled date. 15
Within 3 days after scheduled date. 10

Avg. of observation marks obtained to be converted to 5 at the end.

Record : 15

Submission of record notebook /

Mark to be awarded
sheets
On Subsequent lab slot. 15

Within 3 days after scheduled date. 10

Avg. of record marks obtained to be converted to 5 at the end.

Attendance : 10
Attendance mark : No periods attended by the students x 5
Total No. of periods conducted

Model : 10

Total : 50 Marks

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EX.NO:1 DETERMINATION OF YOUNG’S MODULUS

DATE: NON-UNIFORM BENDING

AIM:
To determine the Young’s modulus of the given bar (wooden metre scale) by non-
uniform bending method.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

APPARATUS QUANTITY

Traveling microscope 1
Knife edges 2
Weight hanger with slotted weight 1
Pin 1
Metre scale 1
Vernier caliper 1
Screw gauge 1

DIAGRAM:

Fig.1.1. Young’s modulus by non-uniform bending

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PROCEDURE:
 The bar AB is supported symmetrically on two knife-edges.
 A weight hanger is suspended at the center of the beam.
 A pin is fixed vertically at the midpoint of the bar.
 Weights are successively placed on the hangers and the depression at the midpoint
of the bar is measured in each case, with the help of the pin and microscope
(Fig.1.1).
 Similar observations are made while loading and unloading and the readings are
tabulated in Table 1.1.
 The bar is removed and its mean breath (b) is determined with a vernier caliper from
the Table 1.2 and its mean thickness (d) with a screw gauge from the Table 1.3.
 Substituting the values in the formula, Young’s modulus can be calculated.

Table: 1.1 To find the depression of the material: Least Count = 0.001x 10-2m

Microscope Reading

Increasing load Decreasing load

S.n Load(M)
o.
Depression
X10-3kg
MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR Mean (y)
X10-2m div x10-2m x10-2m div X10-2m X10-2m
X10-2m

1. W

2. W+50

3. W+100

4. W+150

5. W+200

6. W+250

7. W+300

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Table : 1.2 Determination of the breadth of the beam (b): Least Count = 0.01x 10-2m

Main
Vernier Scale V.S.R = Total Reading =
Scale
Coincidence (V.S.C x L.C) M.S.R + V.S.R
S. No. Reading
(V.S.C) x 10-2m x 10-2m
(M.S.R)
(division)
x 10-2m

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.
Mean (b) = ………………… x10-2m

Table:1.3 Determination of the thickness of the beam (d): Zero Error = …………division
Least Count = 0.01x 10-3m Zero correction = …….0.01x 10-3m
Pitch Scale Head Scale H.S.R = Observed Correct
Reading Coincidence (H.S.C x Reading (O.R) = Reading =
S. No. (P.S.R) (H.S.C) L.C) (P.S.R + H.S.R) O.R + Z.C
x 10-3m Division x 10-3m x 10-3m x10-3m
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Mean (d) = ………………… x10-3m

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FORMULAE :
𝑀𝑔𝑙3
Young modulus of the material 𝐸 = 𝑁/𝑚2.
4𝑏𝑑3 𝑦

Where
M -load applied in kilogram.
g - Acceleration due to gravity in ms-2.
y - Mean depression for a load in metre.
l - Distance between the two knife edges in metre.
b - Breadth of the beam in metre.
d - Thickness of the beam in metre.

CALCULATION :
Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.8 m /s2.
Distance between two knife edges l = ………………. x 10-2m.
Depression y = ……………… x 10-2m.
Breadth of the beam b= ……………… x 10-2m.
Thickness of the beam d = ……………….x 10-3m.

𝑀𝑔𝑙3
Young modulus of the material 𝐸= 𝑁/𝑚2.
4𝑏𝑑3 𝑦

RESULT :

Young modulus of the given uniform bar (E) = ------------------N / m2.

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 FORMAT: QP10 BS3171 PHYSICS LABORATORY

EX.NO:2 DETERMINATION OF YOUNG’S MODULUS

DATE: UNIFORM BENDING

AIM:
To determine the Young’s modulus of the given bar (wooden meter scale) by
uniform bending method.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

APPARATUS QUANTITY

Traveling microscope 1
Knife edges 2
Weight hanger with slotted weight 1
Pin 1
Metre scale 1
Vernier caliper 1
Screw gauge 1

DIAGRAM:

Fig.2.1. Young’s modulus by uniform bending

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PROCEDURE:
 The bar AB is supported symmetrically on two knife-edges.
 Two weight hangers are suspended, one each on either side of the knife edge at
equal distance from the knife edge.
 A pin is fixed vertically at the midpoint of the bar.
 Weights are successively placed on the hangers and the elevation at the midpoint of
the bar is measured in each case, with the help of the pin and microscope (Fig.2.1).
 Similar observations are made while loading and unloading and the readings are
tabulated in Table 2.1.
 The bar is removed and its mean breath (b) is determined with a vernier caliper from
the Table 2.2 and its mean thickness ( d ) is determined with a screw gauge from the
Table 2.3.
 Substituting the values in the formula, Young’s modulus can be calculated.
Table: 2.1 To find the depression of the material: Least Count = 0.001x 10-2m

Microscope Reading

Increasing load Decreasing load

Load(M)
S.no.
Mean Depression
X10-3kg
MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR X10-2m (y)
X10-2m div x10-2m x10-2m div X10-2m
X10-2m

1. W

2. W+50

3. W+100

4. W+150

5. W+200

6. W+250

7. W+300

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Table : 2.2 Determination of the breadth of the beam (b): Least Count = 0.01x 10-2m

Main
Vernier Scale V.S.R = Total Reading =
Scale
Coincidence (V.S.C x L.C) M.S.R + V.S.R
S. No. Reading
(V.S.C) x 10-2m x 10-2m
(M.S.R)
(division)
x 10-2m

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Mean (b) = ………………… x10-2m

Table:2.3 Determination of the thickness of the beam (d):

Least Count = 0.01x 10-3m. Zero Error = ……division Zero correction = …….0.01x 10-3m

Pitch Scale Head Scale H.S.R = Observed Correct

Reading Coincidence (H.S.C x Reading (O.R) = Reading =
S. No. (P.S.R) (H.S.C) L.C) (P.S.R + H.S.R) O.R + Z.C
x 10-3m Division x 10-3m x 10-3m x10-3m
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Mean (d) = ………………… x10-3m.

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FORMULAE :
3𝑀𝑔𝑎𝑙2
Young modulus of the material 𝐸 = 𝑁/𝑚2
2𝑏𝑑3 𝑦

Where
M - load applied in kilogram.
g - Acceleration due to gravity in ms-2.
y - Mean depression for a load in metre.
l - Distance between the two knife edges in metre.
b - Breadth of the beam in metre.
d - Thickness of the beam in metre.
a - Distance between the knife edges and point of application of load in metre.
CALCULATION :
Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.8 m /s2.
Distance between two knife edges l = ………………. x 10-2m.
Depression y = ……………… x 10-2m.
Breadth of the beam b = ………………x 10-2m.
Thickness of the beam d = ………………x 10-3m.
Distance between the knife edges and point of application of load a = ……x10-2m.

3𝑀𝑔𝑎𝑙2
Young modulus of the material 𝐸 = 𝑁/𝑚2 .
2𝑏𝑑3 𝑦

RESULT :

Young modulus of the given uniform bar (E) = ------------------N / m2.

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EX.NO:3 DETERMINATION OF RIGIDITY MODULUS OF A THIN

DATE : WIRE TORSIONAL PENDULUM

AIM :
To determine (i) the moment of inertia of the disc and (ii) the rigidity modulus of the
suspension wire by torsional oscillations.

APPARATUS REQUIRED :
APPARATUS QUANTITY
Torsional Pendulum 1
Cylindrical mass 2
Stop clock 1
Screw gauge 1
Metre scale 1

DIAGRAM :

(a) (b) (c)

Fig.3.1. Torsional Pendulum.

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PROCEDURE :

a) To determine T0: Fig.3.1 (a)

 The length of the suspension wire between the two chucks is measured
carefully. Standing in front of the pendulum, gently set it in torsional oscillation
without any lateral movement.
 Note the time for 10 oscillations, the period of oscillation (T0) of the pendulum
without any mass is calculated.
b) To determine T1: Fig.3.1 (b)

 Two equal cylindrical masses (m) are placed on the disc symmetrically on
either side, nearer to the suspension wire.
 The closest distance 'd1' from the centre of the mass of the cylinder and the
centre of the suspension wire is found.
 Then the oscillations are produced in the pendulum and the time taken for 10
oscillations are noted.
 Two trials are taken and its mean value is calculated. From that, the period of
oscillation T1 (time for one oscillation) is calculated.
c) To determine T2: Fig.3.1(c)

 Two equal masses are now moved to the extreme ends so that the edges of
masses coincide with the edge of the disc and the centers are at equal-
distant.
 The distance 'd2' from the centre of the mass of the cylinder and the centre of
the suspension wire is noted.
 Then the oscillations are produced in the pendulum and the time taken for 10
oscillations are noted.
 Two trials are taken and its mean value is calculated. From that, the period of
oscillation T2 (time for one oscillation) is calculated.
d) To determine the radius of the wire:
 The diameter (2r) of the wire at various places is measured, with the help of
the screw gauge. From the mean value of the diameter, the radius of the
wire(r) is calculated.
 The moments of inertia of the disc (I) and the rigidity modulus of the wire (η)
are calculated using the formula.

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 FORMAT: QP10 BS3171 PHYSICS LABORATORY

Length of the suspension wire (l) = ------- x 10-2m

Table: 3.1 To find the time period of oscillation:
Position of the Time Period
symmetrical Time for 10 oscillations (Time for 1
masses Oscillation)

Trial – 1 Trial – 2 Mean

Unit Second
Second Second second

Without masses.
T0 =

With masses at
minimum distance
T1 =
d1 = ×10-2 m.

With masses at
maximum distance
T2 =
d2 = ×10-2 m.

Least Count = 0.01 x 10-3 Zero Error = …………division. Zero correction = …….….. division.
Table: 3.2 To measure the radius of the suspension wire(r) :
Pitch Scale Head Scale
Observed Reading Corrected Reading
Reading Coincidence
S.No. P.S.R + ( H.S.C x L.C) = O.R + Z.C
(P.S.R) (H.S.C) -3
x 10 m x10-3m
x 10-3m Division
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Mean diameter of the wire (d) = ……… x10-3m

Radius of the wire (r) = d/2 = ……… x10-3m

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FORMULAE:

2m(d 2  d1 )T0
2 2 2
Moment of Inertia of the circular disc I= 2 2
Kg m2
T2 _ T1

8Il
Rigidity modulus of the material of the wire  2 4
N/ m2
T0 r
Where
m - Mass of the cylindrical disc placed on the circular disc (50 x10-3kg).
d1 – Closest distance between the suspension wire and the centre of
of the cylinder (metre).
d2 - Farthest distance between suspension wire and centre of the
cylinder (metre).
T0 - Time period without mass (second).
T1 - Time period when equal masses are placed at closest distance
(d1) (second).
T2 - Time period when equal masses are placed at farthest distance
(d2) (second).
l - Length of the suspension wire (metre).
r - Radius of the wire (metre).
CALCULATIONS :
Time period of oscillation (without masses) To = …………second.
Time period when masses are at a distance ‘d1’ T1 =…………. second.
Time period when masses are at a distance ‘d2’ T2 = ………….second.
Closest distance between the suspension wire and
the centre of the cylinder d1 =…………....metre.
Farthest distance between the suspension wire and
the centre of the cylinder d2 = …………..metre.

Mass of one of the cylinders m =…….…x10-3kg.

Length of the suspension wire l = ………× 10-2 m.
Mean diameter of the wire d = ………× 10-3 m.
Radius of the wire r = d/2 = ………× 10-3 m.

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2m(d 2  d1 )T0
2 2 2
Moment of Inertia of the circular disc I = 2 2
kg m2.
T2 _ T1

8Il
Rigidity modulus of the material of the wire   2 4
N/ m2.
T0 r

RESULT :

(i) Moment of Inertia of the disc I = ………………….. kg.m2

(ii) Rigidity modulus of the material of the wire η = ……………. Newton / m2

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EX.NO:4 DETERMINATION OF THE WAVELENGTH OF THE LASER

DATE: USING GRATING

AIM :

To determine the wavelength of the given LASER source, using grating.

APPARATUS REQUIRED :

APPARATUS QUANTITY
Diode LASER. 1
LASER grating. 1
Scale . 1
Screen . 1

DIAGRAM :

Fig. 4.1 LASER Grating and Diffraction Pattern

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PROCEDURE :
To find wavelength of the LASER source
 The LASER source and the LASER grating are mounted on separate stands as
shown in Fig. 4.1.
 A fixed distance (D) is kept between the LASER grating and the screen.
 The LASER source is switched ON and the beam of LASER is allowed to fall on the
LASER grating.
 The diffracted beams are collected on the screen. The diffracted beams are in the
form of spots as shown in Fig. 4.2.
 In the Fig 4.2 the intensity of the irradiance is found to decrease, from lower to
higher orders, i.e. the first order is brighter than the second order and so on.
 The positions X1, X2, X3 …. Of the spots belonging to the first order, second order,
third order etc., on either side of the central maximum are marked on the screen and
is noted.
 The experiment is repeated for various values of (D) and the positions of the spots
are noted.
 Then by using the given formula the wavelength of the LASER source can be
calculated and the mean is taken.
Table: 4.1

Xm Mean
Order
S.No X2m D2 √𝑿𝒎𝟐 + 𝑫𝟐 ‫ג‬
(m)
LHS RHS Xm

Unit No. x104m x10-2m x10-2m x10-4m2 X104m2 X104m Aᵒ

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

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Distance between grating and screen (D) = …………., cm = ………. x10 -2 metre.
Number of lines in grating per metre (N) = ………………………… lines / metre.
Xm - Distance of different orders from the central spot.

FORMULAE:

Wavelength of the given LASER source ‫= ג‬ Xm Aᵒ

Nm√𝑿𝒎𝟐 + 𝑫𝟐
‫ – ג‬Wavelength of the LASER source (Aᵒ).
N – Number of rulings in the grating (lines / metre).
m – Order of spectrum (Unit).
Xm – Distance of the mth order form the central spot (metre).

CALCULATION:
Wavelength of the LASER source ‫……………… =ג‬ (Aᵒ).
Number of rulings in the grating N= ……………. (lines / metre).
Order of spectrum m= ……………………………. (Unit).
Distance of the mth order form the central spot Xm = …….(metre).

RESULT :
The wavelength of the given LASER source = ……………………….. Aᵒ.

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EX.NO:5 DETERMINATION OF THICKNESS OF A THIN WIRE

DATE : AIR WEDGE METHOD

AIM :

To determine the thickness of the given thin wire by forming interference fringes
using an air wedge setup.

APPARATUS REQUIRED :
APPARATUS QUANTITY
Travelling microscope 1
Sodium vapour lamp 1
Optically plane rectangular glass plate 1
Condensing lens 1
Thin wire 1

Wooden box with glass plate inclined at an

1
angle of 45 o

Reading lens 1

DIAGRAM :

Fig. 5.1. Air wedge method

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PROCEDURE :

 An air wedge setup (Fig.5.1) is formed by placing two optically plane glass
plates one above the other.
 One end of the glass plates are fastened by a rubber band.
 Nearer to the other end, a thin wire is introduced between the glass plates, so
that it is perpendicular to the length of the glass plates.
 The light falling on this air wedge setup is rendered parallel by a convex lens
placed near the sodium vapour lamp.
 These parallel rays are then incident on a glass plate inclined at 450 to the
horizontal.
 Now this light is made to fall on the air wedge setup mounted on the pedestal
of the traveling microscope.
 The light rays getting reflected from the upper and lower glass plates will
interfere with each other and form an interference fringe pattern with alternate
dark and bright bands.
 The horizontal screw is rotated and the readings for the n, (n+5), (n+10),
(n+15),…….(n+50) for dark bands are noted.
 From these values, the mean width of one band β is calculated.
 The distance between the edge of contact and the thin wire(l) is measured.
 From the known value of the wavelength of the light (λ), the thickness of the
wire (t) can be calculated.

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Table: 5.1 Determination of the band width ( ): Least Count = 0.001 x 10-2m.

Microscope Reading Width of Mean width

Order of 5 bands of one band
the ()
band MSR VSC TR

10-2m div 10-2m 10-2m 10-2m

N

N +5

N + 10

N + 15

N + 20

N + 25

N + 30

N + 35

N + 40

N + 45

N + 50

Total Reading (TR) = MSR + (VSC x LC).

FORMULAE:
l
Thickness of thin wire ( t ) = metre.
2
Where  - Wavelength of sodium light (5893 X 10-10m).
l - Distance of the thin wire from the edge of contact (metre).

 - Mean width of one fringe (metre).

CALCULATION:

Wavelength of sodium light  = 5893 X 10-10m.

Distance of the thin wire from the edge of contact (l) = m.

Mean width of one fringe  = m.

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RESULT :

Thickness of the given thin wire (t) = m.

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EX.NO:6 DETERMINATIONS OF VELOCITY OF SOUND AND

DATE: COMPRESSIBILITY OF IQUID – ULTRASONIC INTERFEROMETER

AIM:
To determine the velocity of ultrasonic sound waves in a liquid and the compressibility of
the liquid using ultrasonic interferometer.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

APPARATUS QUANTITY
Ultrasonic interferometer 1

Liquid -

DIAGRAM:

Fig.6.1.Ultrasonic interferometer

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PROCEDURE:
 Initially the high frequency R.F. generator is switched ON and the alternating
field is applied to the Quartz crystal.
 The ultrasonic sound waves produced by the crystal are passed through the
liquid. The ultrasonic sound waves get reflected at the surface of the reflector
plate.
 When the distance between the quartz crystal and the reflector is exactly a
whole multiple of wavelength of ultrasonic waves, standing waves are set up
in the liquid medium.
 Hence the anode current of the generator attains a maximum value. Thus the
maxima and the minima occur alternately.
 The distance of separation between the successive maxima and the minima
in the anode current is equal to the half of the wavelength ‘λ’ of the ultrasonic
waves in the liquid.
 Therefore, by noting the initial and final position of the micrometer screw for
one complete oscillation (maxima-minima- maxima), the distance(d) moved
by the reflector can be determined (Fig.6.1).
 From the value of ‘λ’ , the velocity of ultrasonic sound wave is calculated
using the formula v   f    ms 1

 After determining the velocity of ultrasonic sound wave ,the compressibility

1
of liquid is calculated using the formula K = .
𝜈2 𝜌

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Table: 6.1 To find the velocity of ultrasonic waves in the liquid: Least count = 0.01cm

Reading for ‘x’ Oscillations

2d
No. of   m
D X V = f
S. No. Oscillations
TR =
(x) PSR HSC PSR + (HSC x
LC)
X 10-3 m div. X 10-3 m X 10-3 m X 10-3 m ms-1

1. n

2. n+5

3. n+10

4. n+15

5. n+20

6. n+25

7. n+30
Mean:
FORMULAE:
Velocity of ultrasonic waves in a liquid

v   f    ms 1

Where
f - is the frequency of ultrasonic waves.( 2 MHz= 2×106Hz ).
‫ ג‬- is the wavelength of the ultrasonic waves.
Where
x - is the number of oscillations.
d - is the total distance moved by the micrometer screw.

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1
Compressibility of the liquid K  metre2 / N
v 2

Where
ρ - is the density of the liquid (Kg/m3).
𝜈 - is the velocity of ultrasonic waves(metre/second).

CALCULATION:

1
K  metre2 / N
v 
2

Density of water (ρ) = 1000Kg/m3.

RESULT :
Velocity of ultrasonic waves in a liquid using ultrasonic interferometer is
v = ----------------- m / s.
The compressibility of liquid is K = ----------------- m2 / N.

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EX.NO : 7
DETERMINATION OF BAND GAP OF A SEMICONDUCTOR
DATE:

AIM :

To determine the band gap energy (Eg) of a Semiconductor (Thermistor) using post
office box experiment.

APPARATUS REQUIRED :

APPARATUS QUANTITY

Thermistor 1

Post office box 2

Power supply 1

Galvanometer 1

Glass beaker 1

DIAGRAM :

Fig.7.1. Determination of band gap of a semiconductor

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Fig.7.2. Graph

PROCEDURE:

 The battery and the galvanometer are connected to the terminals respectively (Fig.7.1).
 The unknown resistor which the resistance to be determined is connected to the
terminal marked ‘X’.
 Keep the multiply ratio at 10 and divide ratio at 1000 and dial of x1 at 1 (1x1) and press
the B and G keys.
 Note the direction of deflection in the galvanometer
 Now keep the multiply ratio at 1000 and divide at 10 and the x1000 dial at 10 (1000x10).
 Now the deflection in the galvanometer should be to the opposite direction (say to the
right).
 Set the multiplying ratio at 100 and dividing ratio at 10, battery and galvanometer
switches are pressed.
 Now the galvanometer reading is set to zero by putting the resistance in R (4 dial box).
 Thus the resistance of the thermistor is found at room temperature.
 Then the thermistor is heated by keeping it immersed in water bath.
 For every 100C rise in temperature (T), the resistance of the thermistor (s) is found out.
 The readings are entered in tabular column.
 Calculate ‘1/T ‘and ‘log 2.303log10s’’,values are tabulated.
 A graph (Fig.7.2) is plotted taking ‘1/T ‘along ‘X’ axis and ‘log 2.303log10s’’ along
‘Y’-axis.
 A straight line is obtained as shown in model graph. The slope of the straight line is
determined and using the formula, band gap energy(Eg) can be calculated.
.

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Table : 7.1 To find the resistance of the thermistor at different temperatures:

Resistance in the Resistance

resistance boxes of the
Temperature of RT= 2.303log10 S
1/T P , Q and R thermistor
S.No. the thermistor
S = (P/Q) x R
P Q R

°C Kelvin K-1 Ohm Ohm Ohm Ohm Ohm

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

FORMULAE :
Band gap energy Eg = 2k (slope of the graph) Joules.
2k
Eg = (slope of the graph) eV.
e

2k  dy 
Eg =  dx  eV.
e
Where
k - Boltzmann’s constant (1.38 x10-23 J / K) .
RT - Resistance of the thermistor (ohm).

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CALCULATION:

Boltzmann’s constant k = 1.38 x10-23 J / K .

Charge of electron e = 1.6 x 10-19 C.

2k  dy 
Band gap energy Eg =  dx  eV.
e

 dy 
Eg = 0.198   eV.
 dx 

RESULT :

Band gap energy of the given semiconductor (Thermistor)

(Eg) = _________eV.

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QUICK REFERENCE

FORMULAE

1. Determination of Young’s modulus by Non-uniform bending method.

𝑀𝑔𝑙3
Young modulus of the material 𝐸 = 𝑁/𝑚2 .
4𝑏𝑑3 𝑦
Where
m -load applied in kilogram.
g - Acceleration due to gravity in ms-2.
y - Mean depression for a load in metre.
l - Distance between the two knife edges in metre.
b - Breadth of the beam in metre.
d - Thickness of the beam in metre.
2. Determination of Young’s modulus by Uniform bending method.

3𝑀𝑔𝑎𝑙2
Young modulus of the material 𝐸 = 𝑁/𝑚2.
2𝑏𝑑3 𝑦

Where
m -load applied in kilogram.
g - Acceleration due to gravity in ms-2.
y - Mean depression for a load in meter.
l - Distance between the two knife edges in meter.
b - Breadth of the beam in meter.
d - Thickness of the beam in meter.
a - Distance between the knife edges and point of application of load in metre.

3. Determination of rigidity Modulus of a thin wire – Torsional pendulum.

2m(d 2  d1 )T0
2 2 2
Moment of Inertia of the circular disc I = 2 2
kg m2.
T2 _ T1

8Il
Rigidity modulus of the material of the wire  2
N/ m2.
T0 r 4
Where
m - Mass of the cylindrical disc placed on the circular disc (50 x10 -3 kg).
d1 – Closest distance between the suspension wire and the centre of
of the cylinder (meter).

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d2 - Farthest distance between suspension wire and centre of the

cylinder (metre).
T0 - Time period without mass (second).
T1 - Time period when equal masses are placed at closest distance
(d1) (second).
T2 - Time period when equal masses are placed at farthest distance
(d2) (second).
l - Length of the suspension wire (metre).
r - Radius of the wire (metre).
I - Moment of Inertia (kilogram metre 2 ).

4. Determination of Thickness of a Thin wire – Air wedge method.

l
Thickness of thin wire t = metre.
2
Where  - Wavelength of sodium light (5893 X 10 -10m).
l - Distance of the thin wire from the edge of contact (metre).

 - Mean width of one fringe (metre).

5. Determination Of The Wavelength Of The Laser Using Grating.

Wavelength of the given laser source ‫= ג‬ Xm Aᵒ

Nm√𝑿𝒎𝟐 + 𝑫𝟐
‫ – ג‬Wavelength of the laser source (Aᵒ).
N – Number of rulings in the grating (lines / metre).
m – Order of spectrum (Unit).
Xm – Distance of the mth order form the central spot (metre).

6. Determination of velocity of sound and compressibility of liquid –

Ultrasonic interferometer.

Velocity of ultrasonic waves in a liquid

v   f    ms 1
.

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Where
f - is the frequency of ultrasonic wave.
λ - is the wavelength of the ultrasonic wave.
Where
x - is the number of oscillation.
D - is the total distance moved by the micrometre screw.
1
Compressibility of the liquid K  metre2 / N
v2 

7. Determination of Band Gap of a semiconductor.

 
 2.303 log 10 RT 
Eg = 2k   Joule.
1
 
 T 
 
2 k  2.303 log 10 RT 
Eg =  eV.
e  1

 T 
2k
Eg = (slope of the graph) eV.
e

2k  dy 
Eg =  dx  eV.
e

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