lOMoARcPSD|6453875

Fundamentals OF Surveying Notes

Civil Engineering Orientation (Mapúa University)

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

Downloaded by Miguel Ivan Barreno ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|6453875

LECTURE 1:  Thus, surveying is a basic

INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING requirement for all Civil
Engineering projects.
 The course deals with
fundamental surveying concepts Other principal works in which surveying
and principles including distance is primarily utilized are;
measurement, leveling, area  to fix the national and state
computation, subdivision, boundaries;
topographic and hydrographic  to chart coastlines, navigable
survey; an overview of the general streams, and lakes;
principles of GPS and GIS and its  to establish control points;
applications.  to execute hydrographic and
 Surveying is defined as the oceanographic charting and
science of making measurements mapping; and
of the earth, specifically the  to prepare a topographic map of
surface of the earth. This is being the land surface of the earth.
carried out by finding the spatial
location (relative/absolute) of OBJECTIVES OF SURVEYING
points on or near the surface of  To collect field data;
the earth.  To prepare a plan or map of the
 Different methods and instruments area surveyed;
are being used to facilitate the  To analyze and calculate the field
work of surveying. parameters for setting out the
operation of actual engineering
PRIMARY AIMS OF FIELD SURVEYING works.
 to measure the Horizontal  To set outfield parameters at the
Distance between points. site for further engineering works.
 to measure the Vertical elevation
between points. DIVISION OF SURVEYING
 to find out the Relative direction
of lines by measuring horizontal
angles with reference to any  Geodetic Surveying
arbitrary direction.  In this branch of surveying, the
 to find out Absolute direction by true shape of the earth is taken
measuring horizontal angles with into consideration.
reference to a fixed direction.  This type of surveying is being
carried out for highly precise work
IMPORTANCE OF SURVEYING TO and is adopted for surveying large
CIVIL ENGINEERS areas.
 The planning and design of all
Civil Engineering projects such as
the construction of highways,  Plane Surveying
bridges, tunnels, dams, etc are  In this method of surveying, the
based upon surveying mean surface of the earth is
measurements. considered to be a plane surface.
 Moreover, during execution, the This type of survey is applicable
project of any magnitude is to small areas (less than 200
constructed along the lines and square kilometers). Thus for most
points established by surveying. of the Civil Engineering projects,
methods of plane surveying are
valid.

Downloaded by Miguel Ivan Barreno ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|6453875

 This course is restricted to the and underground mining

different aspects of plane purposes.
surveying. Henceforth, in this 8. Engineering survey: To collect
course work, the word surveying requisite data for planning,
implies plane surveying. design, and execution of
engineering projects. Three broad
Fundamental Assumptions in Plane steps are;
Surveying  Reconnaissance survey: To
 All distances and directions are explore site conditions and
horizontal; availability of infrastructures.
 The direction of the plumb line is  Preliminary survey: To collect
the same at all points within the adequate data to prepare a
limits of the survey; plan/map of the area to be used
 All angles (both horizontal and for planning and design.
vertical) are plane angles;  Location survey: To set out work
 Elevations are with reference to a on the ground for actual
datum. construction/execution of the
CLASSIFICATIONS OF SURVEYING project.
1. Control surveying: To establish PRINCIPLES OF SURVEYING
horizontal and vertical positions of The fundamental principles upon which
control points. the surveying is being carried out are;
2. Land surveying: To determine  working from whole to part.
the boundaries and areas of  after deciding the position of any
parcels of land, also known as point, its reference must be kept
property survey, boundary survey, from at least two permanent
or cadastral survey. objects or stations whose
3. Topographic survey: To prepare positions have already been well
a plan/ map of a region which defined.
includes natural as well as and  The purpose of working from
man-made features including whole to part is to localize the
elevation. errors.
4. Route survey: To plan, design,  to control the accumulation of
and laying out of routes such as errors. This is being achieved by
highways, railways, canals, establishing a hierarchy of
pipelines, and other linear networks of control points.
projects.
5. Construction surveys: Surveys OPERATIONS IN SURVEYING
which are required for the Operations in Surveying consists of:
establishment of points, lines, 1. Planning –
grades, and for staking out  The planning operation needs a
engineering works (after the plans prior field visit and this is known
have been prepared and the as reconnaissance.
structural design has been done).  To decide the methods to be
6. Astronomic surveys: To adopted for surveying;
determine the latitude, longitude  To decide the resources
(of the observation station), and (instruments & personnel) to be
azimuth (of a line through the used;
observation station) from  To decide the control
astronomical observation. points/stations to be used ( those
7. Mine surveys: To carry out already available and/ or to set
surveying specific for opencast up).

Downloaded by Miguel Ivan Barreno ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|6453875

2. Field Observation – 2. Indirect Measurements -- When

 It involves the collection of field it is not possible to apply a
data by making necessary measuring instrument directly to a
measurements, recording quantity to be measured an
observed data in a systematic indirect measurement is made. In
manner. this type of measurement, the
 Before starting any field observed value is determined by
observation, the permanent its relationship to some other
adjustments of all the instruments known values.
need to be checked thoroughly by
trained personnel and if required, Units of Measurement
it must be adjusted. The usual surveying type of
3. Office Work – measurement entails both angular and
 It involves processing, analyzing, linear measurements. When using SI, all
and calculation of observed data. linear measurements, as earlier stated,
 It involves the preparation of are based upon the meter.
necessary data (for making a plan
or map of the area); • Making of a
plan or map of the area; 1. Linear, Area, and Volume
 It involves the computation of Measurements.
relevant field parameters as per  The common units for length are
design for setting out engineering the kilometer, meter, centimeter,
works at the site. and millimeter. Length may also
4. Setting out Works – refer to other linear dimensions
 To locate and establish different such as width, depth, thickness,
parameters/dimensions at the site height, or distance. The unit of
as per design for further area in SI is the square meter
engineering works. while the volume is the cubic
meter.
LECTURE 2: 2. Angular Measurements
Surveying Measurements  The SI unit for plane angles is the
 Measurement is the process of radian. The radian is defined as
determining the extent, size, or the angle subtended by an arc of
dimensions of a particular quantity a circle having a length equal to
in comparison to a given the radius of the circle.
standard.  In the Philippines, the
 In surveying, measurements are sexagesimal units are used with
usually concentrated on angles, SI for angular measurements. The
elevations, times, lines, areas, sexagesimal units of angular
and volumes. measurement are the degree,
minute, and second. The unit of
2 Ways to Perform Measurements the angle used in surveying is the
1. Direct Measurements -- A direct degree which is defined as
measurement is a comparison of 1/360th of a circle.
the measured quantity with a
standard measuring unit or units Surveying Field Practice
employed for measuring a  In an elementary surveying
quantity of that kind. course, the student acquires a
certain extent of field practice.
 It is expected, however, that the
course will give the student a

Downloaded by Miguel Ivan Barreno ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|6453875

working knowledge of surveying operational control of the survey

instruments and their uses. party.
 Members of the student field 2. Assistant Chief of party - the
parties should from time to time person whose duty is to assist the
alternately assume the various chief of party in the
duties involved in the fieldwork. accomplishment of the task
The ability to hold the rod properly assigned to the survey party.
is as essential as the knowledge 3. Instrumentman - the person
of how to manipulate the whose duty is to set up, level, and
operate surveying instruments
Surveying Field Notes such as the transit, engineer’s,
 Surveying field notes constitute level, total station, etc. he sees to
the only reliable and permanent it that instruments to be used in a
record of actual work done in the survey operation are in good
field. condition.
 Field notes are usually worked 4. Computer- the person whose duty
over in the office into some more is to perform all computations of
advanced form of presentation, survey data and works out
such as a map, a report, or a necessary computational checks
computation. The notes are then required in fieldwork operations.
kept for future reference. 5. Recorder - the person whose duty
is to keep a record of all sketches
Types of Notes drawings, measurements, and
1. Sketches. A good sketch will help observations taken or needed for
to convey a correct impression a fieldwork operation.
and are drawn approximately to 6. Head Tapeman - the person
scale. responsible for the accuracy and
2. Tabulations. A series of numerical speed of all linear measurements
values observed in the field are with tape. He determines and
best shown in a tabulated format. directs the marking of stations to
Tabulated forms should be used be occupied by the instruments.
wherever possible. 7. Rear Tapeman - the person
3. Explanatory Notes. Explanatory whose duty is to assist the head
notes provide a written description tapeman during taping operations
of what has been done in the field. and in other related works.
These are employed to make 8. Flagman - the person whose duty
clear what the numerical data and is to hold the flagpole or range
sketches fail to do. pole at selected points as directed
4. Computations. Most surveying- by the instrument man. He helps
type computations are made the tapeman in making
algebraically by the use of simple measurements.
arithmetical steps and 9. Rodman - the person whose duty
trigonometric functions. is to hold the stadia or leveling rod
when sights are to be taken.
10. Pacer - the person whose duty is
to check all linear measurements
made by the tapeman. He assists
The Field Survey Party the tapeman in reducing errors.
1. Chief of party - the person who is
responsible for the overall Errors and Mistakes
direction, supervision, and

Downloaded by Miguel Ivan Barreno ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|6453875

 An error is defined as the mathematically using functional

difference between the true value relationships or models.
and the measured value of a 2. Random Error - after mistakes are
quantity. They may be caused by eliminated and systematic errors
the type of equipment used or by are corrected, a survey
the way in which the equipment is measurement is associated with
employed. random error only. This error is
Sources of Error in Measurement small and is equally liable to be
Depending on sources of origin, errors in plus or minus thus partly
measurements fall into three classes. compensating in nature. Random
They are: errors are unpredictable and they
 Natural Errors - These are caused cannot be evaluated or quantified
due to variations in nature i.e., exactly.
variations in wind, temperature,
humidity, refraction, gravity, and
magnetic field of the earth.
 Instrumental Errors - These result Quality of a Measurement
from imperfection in the 1. Accuracy - The accuracy of a set
construction or adjustment of of repeated observations is being
surveying instruments, and defined as the amount of
movement of their individual parts. closeness of their mean to the
 Personal Errors - These arise population or distribution mean,
from the limitations of the human i.e., the closeness of the mean of
senses of sight, touch, and observations to the true value.
hearing. 2. Precision - precision pertains to
the degree of closeness of
3 Types of Error observations among each other in
1. Gross Error - also known as a set of repeated observations of
blunder or mistakes, results from: measurements. Thus, if a set of
 Carelessness on the part observations for the same
of observer in taking or parameter are clustered together,
recording reading i.e., observations have small
 Faults in equipment deviations from their sample
 Adoption of the wrong mean, then the observations are
technique said to have been obtained with
 misinterpretation high precision.
The blunders or mistakes result in large 3. Relative Precision - relative
errors and thus can easily be detected by precision is defined as a ratio of
comparing with other types of errors. the precision of a given
2. Systematic Error occurs according measurement and the value of the
to a system - these errors follow a measurement itself. Thus, if D is
definite pattern. Thus, if an the measured distance, and SD is
experiment is repeated, under the the standard deviation of the
same conditions, the same measurement, then the relative
pattern of systematic errors precision is SD/D. it is expressed
reoccurs. These errors are as a percentage or a fractional
dependent on the observer, the ratio such as 1/500 or by parts per
instrument used, and the physical million (ppm).
environment of the experiment.
Systematic errors are dealt with Most Probable Value

Downloaded by Miguel Ivan Barreno ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|6453875

 From the theory of probability

basic assumptions that the most
probable value (MPV) of a group
of repeated measurements made Probable Error - is a quantity
under similar conditions is the which, when added to and/or
arithmetic mean or the average. subtracted from the most probable
The most probable value refers to value, defines a range wherein
a quantity that, based on available there is a 50% chance that the
data, has more chances of being true value of the measured
correct than any other. quantity lies inside (or outside) the
limits thus set. The value of the
Error Computations probable error is calculated with
1. Residual - which is sometimes the use of the following formulae
referred to as the deviation, is which are derived from the
defined as the difference between method of least squares.
any measured value of a quantity
and its most probable or
V=X-X LECTURE 3:
where v is the residual in any TAPE CORRECTIONS
measurement, x is a measurement
made of a particular quantity, and “X” is Measurement of Distance Linear
the most probable value of the quantity measurement is the basis of all surveying
measured. and even though angles may be read
precisely, the length of at least one line in
a tract must be measured to supplement
the angles in locating points.
2. Probable Error - is a quantity
which, when added to and/or METHODS OF MEASURING A
subtracted from the most probable HORIZONTAL DISTANCE
value, defines a range wherein  Rough Measuring: Pacing,
there is a 50% chance that the Odometer readings, Tacheometry
true value of the measured (stadia), Taping, EDM, and GPS §
quantity lies inside (or outside) the Only the last three meet survey
limits thus set. accuracy requirements § Distance
from stadia: (High wire-Low wire)
The value of the probable error is  EDM and GPS are most common
calculated with the use of the in today’s surveys
following formulae which are  In pacing, one establishes the #
derived from the method of least of paces/100’ by counting the # of
squares. paces over a pre-measured 300’
line
Error Computations
Types of Tapes
1. Cloth or Linen Tape. These are
closely woven linen or synthetic
material and are varnished to
resist the moisture. These are
available in lengths of 10-30 m
and widths of 12-15 mm. The
disadvantages of such a tape
include: (1) it is affected by

Downloaded by Miguel Ivan Barreno ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|6453875

moisture and gets shrunk; (2) its

length gets altered by stretching;
and (3) it is likely twisted and does
not remain straight in strong
winds.
2. Metallic Tape. It is a linen tape
with brass or copper wires woven
into it longitudinally to reduce
stretching. It is an accurate device
for measuring offsets.
3. Steel Tapes. These are 1-50 m in
length and are 6-10 mm wide. At
the end of the tape a brass ring is
attached to the outer end of which
is zero point of the tape.

Downloaded by Miguel Ivan Barreno ([email protected])