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Introduction to Computer

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER
A Computer is a general purpose device that can be programmed to carry out a set of arithmetic or logical
operations automatically. It has the ability to store, retrieve and process data.
PARTS OF A COMPUTER
1. Monitor: - A computer monitor is an output device that displays information in pictorial or textual form.
2. Keyboard: - A keyboard is an input device that enables a user to input text into a computer.
3. Mouse: - A mouse is an input device that allows the user to navigate one’s computer system. It controls the
movement of the cursor on the computer screen and allows users to move and select folders, text, files, and
icons on a computer.
4. CPU: - The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the brain of the computer. It executes instructions of a
computer program, such as arithmetic, logic, controlling, and input-output operations.
5. Routers: - Routers are networking devices that enable exchanging of data from different networks.
6. Speakers: - It is an output device that generates sound, when connected to a computer.

APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER
1. Business: - Computers are used in business for accounting, keeping all records up-to date, etc.
2. Education: - Computers are a very effective tool which can be used for teaching and learning, result
processing, student data processing, notes preparation, etc.
3. Entertainment: - Different types of entertainment modes such as multimedia, film-making with animation,
graphics, audio and visual design are done with the help of computers.
4. Offices: - Computers are used for preparing reports, storing/deleting reports, updating reports, etc. in the
office, and much more.
What is Data?
Data can be referred to as something that can be recorded in the form of text or pictorial representation. Itis defined
as a representation of facts, concepts, or instructions in a formalized manner, which should be suitable for
communication, interpretation, or processing, by human or electronic machine.

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Introduction to Computer

Data is generally represented by (A-Z), (a-z) and (0-9) sets. It also includes special characters, +,- ,/,*,<,>,= and so
on.
What is information?
Information is organized or classified data, which has some meaningful values for the receiver. Information is the
processed data on which decisions and actions are based.
For the decision to be meaningful, the processed data must qualify for the following characteristics:
● Timely − Information should be available when required.
● Accuracy − Information should be accurate.
● Completeness − Information should be complete.

What is instruction?
It is a command given to a computer in the language only understood to the computer by the user.
What is a program?
It is a set of instructions given to a computer in order to perform some task.
DATA PROCESSING CYCLE
Data processing is the re-structuring or re-ordering of data by people or machines to increase their usefulness and
add values for a particular purpose. Data processing consists of the following basic steps - input, processing, and
output. These three steps constitute the data processing cycle.

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Introduction to Computer

● Input – The input data is received in many forms, for example, when electronic computers are used, the
input data can be recorded on any one of the several types of input medium, such as magnetic disks, tapes,
and so on.
● Processing −In this step, the input data is changed to produce data in a more useful form. For example, pay-
checks can be calculated from the time cards, or a summary of sales for the month can be calculated from
the sales orders.
● Output −In this stage, the result of the proceeding processing step is collected. The particular form of the
output data depends on the use of the data. For example, output data may be pay-checks for employees.

Advantages of Computers

Following are certain advantages of computers.

High Speed: -
● Computersare very fast devices.
● It is capable of performingcalculations of very large amounts of data.
● The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even the picosecond.
Accuracy
● In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate. The calculations are 100% error free.

Storage Capability
● A computer can store large amounts of data and can store any type of data such as images, videos, text,
audio, etc.

Diligence
● Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness, and lack of concentration.
● It can work continuously without any error and boredom.
● It can perform repeated tasks with the same speed and accuracy.

Versatility
● A computer is a very versatile machine.
● A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.
● This machine can be used to solve problems related to various fields.
● At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next moment it may be playing
a card game.
Reliability
● A computer is a reliable machine.
● Modern electronic components have long lives.

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Introduction to Computer

● Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.

Automation
● Computer is an automatic machine. Automation is the ability to perform a given task automatically. Once
the computer receives a program i.e., the program is stored in the computer memory, then the program and
instruction can control the program execution without human interaction.
Reduced Paperwork
● The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to reduction in paperwork and results in
speeding up the process. As data in digital form can be stored and accessed when required.

Secrecyand Protection
● Leakage of information is reduced by creating a login system with password protection.

Plug and Play

● Computers have the ability to automatically configure new hardware and software component. Hence, it
gives an on-the-go feature.

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History of Computers

HISTORY OF COMPUTERS
Early computing devices included sticks and stones before computing devices were invented. With the
advancement of technology, and improved human intellect computing devices were getting produced. Some of the
early age computing devices were,
Abacus: - It is referred to as a counting frame which aids in calculation. It was invented by the Chinese 4000 years
ago. It is believed to be the very first computer. It consists of a wooden rack with metal rods with beads attached
to them.

Napier’s Bone: - Devised by John Napier, the Napier’s bones was a manually operated calculating device. The
instrument used 9 separate calculating strips marked with numbers to perform multiplication and division.

.
Pascaline: - Invented in the 1642 Biaise Pascal, a French mathematician Pascaline was thought to be the first
mechanical and automated calculator.

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History of Computers

Stepped Reckoner or Leibniz wheel: - In 1673, a German mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz made
improvements to Pascal’s instrument. It used fluted drums instead of gears.

Difference Engine: - It was a mechanical computer that could do basic computing. It was invented by Charles
Babbage in the early 1820s.

Analytical Engine: - In the 1830s, Charles Babbage created another calculating machine, the Analytical Engine. It
was a mechanical device that took inputs from users in the form of punch cards.

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History of Computers

Tabulating machine: - Tabulating Machine was a punch card-based mechanical tabulator which was invented by
Herman Hollerith, in the 1890s. It had the capability of recording and sorting data along with computing statistics.

Differential Analyser: - Introduced in the 1930s by Vannevar Bush, the differential analyser was the first electrical
computer. The machine switches electrical impulses to do calculations.

Mark I: - The Mark I computer was constructed in 1944 as a collaboration between IBM and Harvard. It could
conduct massive calculations or calculations using enormous numbers.

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History of Computers

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Generation of Computers

GENERATION OF COMPUTERS
FIRST GENERATION (1940-1956):
This was from the period of 1940 to 1956. This was when machine language was developed for the use of
computers. They used vacuum tubes for the circuitry. For the purpose of memory, they used magnetic drums. These
machines were complicated, large, and expensive. They were mostly reliant on batch operating systems and punch
cards. As output and input devices, magnetic tape and paper tape were implemented. For example, ENIAC,
UNIVAC-1, EDVAC, and so on.

Hardware:
The hardware used in the first generation of computers were:
● Vacuum Tubes
● Punch Cards.

Features:
Following are the features of first generation computers −
• It supported machine language.
• It had slow performance
• It occupied a large size due to the use of vacuum tubes.
• It had a poor storage capacity.
• It consumed a lot of electricity and generated a lot of heat.
Memory:
The memory was 4000 bits.
Data Input:
The input was only provided through hard-wired programs in the computer, mostly through punched cards and
paper tapes.
Examples
The examples of first generation computers are −
o ENIAC
o UNIVACTBM 701
o IBM-701
o IBM-650

SECOND GENERATION (1959-1965):

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Generation of Computers

The years 1959-1965 were referred to as the “second generation of computers” at the time. In second-generation
computers, COBOL and FORTRAN are employed as assembly languages and programming languages. Here they
advanced from vacuum tubes to transistors. This made the computers smaller, faster and more energy-efficient.
And they advanced from binary to assembly languages. For instance, IBM 1620, IBM 7094, CDC 1604, CDC
3600, and so forth.

Hardware:
The hardware used in the second generation of computers were:
• Transistors
• Magnetic Tapes

Features
It had features like −
• Batch operating system
• Faster and smaller in size
• Reliable and energy efficient than the previous generation
• Less costly than the previous generation

Memory
The capacity of the memory was 32,000 bits.

Data Input
The input was provided through punched cards.
Examples
The examples of second generation computers are −
o Honeywell 400
o CDC 1604
o IBM 7030

Third Generation (1965-1971)

The hallmark of this period (1965-1971) was the development of the integrated circuit. A single integrated circuit
(IC) is made up of many transistors, which increases the power of a computer while simultaneously lowering its

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Generation of Computers

cost. These computers were quicker, smaller, more reliable, and less expensive than their predecessors. High-level
programming languages such as FORTRON-II to IV, COBOL, and PASCAL PL/1 were utilized. For example, the
IBM-360 series, the Honeywell-6000 series, and the IBM-370/168.

Hardware:
The hardware used in the third generation of computers were
• Integrated Circuits made from semiconductor materials
• Large capacity disks and magnetic tapes
Features
The features of the third generation computers are −
• Supports time-sharing OS
• Faster, smaller, more reliable and cheaper than the previous generations
• Easy to access
Memory
The capacity of the memory was 128,000 bits.
Data Input
The input was provided through keyboards and monitors.
Examples
The examples of third generation computers are −
• IBM 360/370
• CDC 6600
• PDP 8/11

Fourth Generation (1971-1980):

The invention of the microprocessors brought along the fourth generation of computers. The years 1971-1980 were
dominated by fourth generation computers. C, C++ and Java were the programming languages utilized in this
generation of computers. For instance, the STAR 1000, PDP 11, CRAY-1, CRAY-X-MP, and Apple II. This was
when we started producing computers for home use.

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Generation of Computers

Hardware
The Hardware used in the fourth generation of computers were −
• ICs with Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) technology
• Semiconductor memory
• Magnetic tapes and Floppy
Features
It supports features like −
• Multiprocessing & distributed OS
• Object-oriented high level programs supported
• Small & easy to use; hand-held computers have evolved
• No external cooling required & affordable
• This generation saw the development of networks and the internet
• It saw the development of new trends in GUIs and mouse
Memory
The capacity of the memory was 100 million bits.
Data Input
The input was provided through improved hand held devices, keyboard and mouse.
Examples
The examples of fourth-generation computers are −
• Apple II
• VAX 9000
• CRAY 1 (supercomputers)
• CRAY-X-MP(supercomputer)

Fifth Generation (1980-Present):

This is the present and the future of the computer world. The defining aspect of this generation is artificial
intelligence. The use of parallel processing and superconductors are making this a reality and provide a lot of scope
for the future. Fifth-generation computers use ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology. These are the most
recent and sophisticated computers. C, C++, Java,.Net, and more programming languages are used. For instance,
IBM, Pentium, Desktop, Laptop, Notebook, Ultrabook, and so on.

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Generation of Computers

Hardware
The Hardware used in the fifth generation of computers are −
▪ Integrated Circuits with VLSI and Nanotechnology
▪ Large capacity hard disk with RAID support
▪ Powerful servers, Internet, Cluster computing

Features
It supports features like −
• Powerful, cheap, reliable and easy to use.• Portable and faster due to use of parallel processors and Super
Large Scale Integrated
• Circuits.
• Rapid software development is possible.

Memory
The capacity of the memory is unlimited.
Data Input
The input is provided through CD ROM, Optical Disk and other touch and voice sensitive input devices.

Examples
The examples of fifth generation computers are −
• IBM
• Pentium
• PARAM

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Types of Computers

TYPES OF COMPUTERS

Based on Size
On the basis of size, computers are categorised as follows

1. Microcomputers
These types of computers are the least powerful, yet the most widely used and are also called portable computers.

Microcomputer consists of three basic categories, i.e.system unit,

input/output unit and memory unit.

Some types are: -

a) Desktop Computer: - Based on the microprocessor technology (Integrated Circuit-IC), these are small,
relatively economical computers.
b) Laptop: - These computers are also known as notebooks. These are portable and light weighted containing
batteries, hence can work anywhere.
c) Palmtops: - These are the smallest and are designed to fit into the palm. So, these are also known as
Palmtop. They use the pen for input instead of the keyboard, for example, tablets.
d) Workstation Computer: - computers dedicated to a user or group of users .

2. Minicomputers – A minicomputer is a type of computer that has many of the same features and capabilities as a
larger computer but is smaller in size. Minicomputers, which were relatively small and affordable, were often
employed in a single department of an organization and were often dedicated to a specific task or shared by a small
group.

3. Mainframe computers – It is a computer that is generally utilized by large enterprises for mission-critical
activities such as massive data processing. Mainframe computers were distinguished by massive storage capacities,
quick components, and powerful computational capabilities. Because they were complicated systems, they were
managed by a team of systems programmers who had sole access to the computer. These machines are now
referred to as servers rather than mainframes. Mainframe computers are IBM-370, IBM-S/390, UNIVAC-1110, etc

4.Supercomputers – These are the fastest and most expensive machines. They have high processing speed
compared to other computers. Supercomputers are the most powerful, large in size and memory. The speed of
supercomputers is measured in FLOPS (Floating Point Operations per Second). Example: - CRAY-1, PARAM,
PARAM ISHAN.

Based on Work

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Types of Computers

On the basis of work, computers are categorised as follows

Analog Computers: - Analog computers are built with various components such as gears and levers, with no
electrical components. One advantage of analogue computation is that designing and building an analogue
computer to tackle a specific problem can be quite straightforward.

Digital Computers: - Information in digital computers is represented in discrete form, typically as sequences of 0s
and 1s (binary digits, or bits). A digital computer is a system or gadget that can process any type of information in a
matter of seconds.

Hybrid Computer: - The hybrid computer is a different type of computer that has both features of digital and
analog computer. Main objective of designing this computer is to perform very complicated calculations. Hybrid
computers can be used in large scale organizations to solve logical and technical calculations as well as offer great
processing of differential equations.

Based on Purpose
On the basis of purpose, computers are categorised as follows
General Purpose Computer: - General purpose computers are those computers, which are used to solve a variety
of problems by changing the program or instructions. e.g. to make a small database, calculations, accounting, etc.
Special Purpose Computer: - Special purpose computers are those computers which are used for solving
dedicated problems. Example -Automatic aircraft landing, multimedia computer, etc.

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Operations and Tasks Performed by the Computer

OPERATIONS AND TASKS PERFORMED BY THE COMPUTER

INPUT UNIT
This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into the computer. This unit creates a link between
the user and the computer. The input devices translate the information into a form understandable by the computer.

CPU (CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT)

CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all types of data processing operations. It stores
data, intermediate results, and instructions (program). It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.
OUTPUT UNIT
The output unit consists of devices with the help of which we get the information from the computer. This unit is a
link between the computer and the users. Output devices translate the computer's output into a form understandable
by the users.

CPU (CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT)

CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. It performs all types of data processing operations. It stores data,
intermediate results, and instructions (program). It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.
The CPU itself has the following three components.
● Memory or Storage Unit
● Control Unit
● ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

Memory or Storage Unit

This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit supplies information to other units of the
computer when needed. It is also known as the internal storage unit or the main memory or the primary storage or
Random Access Memory (RAM).

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Operations and Tasks Performed by the Computer

Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory are two types of memories in
the computer. Functions of the memory unit are −

● It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
● It stores intermediate results of processing.
● It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.
● All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.

Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out any actual data processing
operations.
Functions of this unit are −
● It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a computer.
● It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
● It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of the computer.
● It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
● It does not process or store data.

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

This unit consists of two subsections namely,
● Arithmetic Section
● Logic Section
Arithmetic Section
Function of the arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division. All complex operations are done by making repetitive use of the above operations.
Logic Section
Function of the logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting, matching, and merging of
data.

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Input and Output devices

INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES

List of Input Devices

Given below is the list of the most common input devices along with brief information about each of them.

Keyboard
A simple device comprising keys and each key denotes either an alphabet, number or number commands which can
be given to a computer for various actions to be performed. Keyboard controller stores the code of the pressed key
in the keyboard buffer. There are different types of keyboard such as QWERTY, DVORAK and AZERTY.

Mouse
A mouse is a pointing device. It helps us navigate the computer system by clicking and hovering the cursor over
files. A mouse comprises 3 buttons on the top and one trackball at the bottom which helps in selecting and moving
the mouse around, respectively. In case of laptops, the touchpad is given as a replacement of the mouse which helps
in the movement of the mouse pointer. There are three types of mouse as follows
(i) Wireless mouse
(ii) Mechanical mouse
(iii) Optical mouse

JoyStick
It is a device which comprises a stick which is attached at an angle to the base so that it can be moved and
controlled
Mostly used to control the movement in video games
Apart from a computer system, a joystick is also used in the cockpit of an aeroplane, wheelchairs, cranes, trucks,
etc. to operate them well.

Light Pen
It is a wand-like looking device which can directly be moved over the devices screen. It is light-sensitive.

Microphone
Using a microphone, sound can be stored in a device in its digital form
It converts sound into an electrical signal
To record or reproduce a sound created using a microphone, it needs to be connected with an amplifier.

Scanner
This device can scan images or text and convert it into a digital signal
When we place any piece of a document on a scanner, it converts it into a digital signal and displays it on the
computer screen.

Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

OMR is also known as Optical Mark Recognition. It is the process of detecting the presence of intended marked
responses. OMR is mainly used to detect marks on paper. It uses a beam of light that is reflected on the paper with
marks, to capture presence and absence of data.

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Input and Output devices

Optical Character Recognition (OCR): - OCR is a technique for the scanning of a printed page, translating it and
then using the OCR software to recognise the image as ASCII text that is editable. It translates the array of dots into
text that the computer can interpret as words and letters.

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR): - MICR reads the characters by examining theirshapes in a matrix
form and the information isthen passed on to the computer. The charactersare printed using a special ink, which
containsiron particles that can be magnetised. It is generally used in banks to process the cheques for recognising
the magnetic encoding numbers printed at the bottom of a cheque.

Barcode Reader
It is a kind of an optical scanner. It can read bar codes. A source of light is passed through a bar code, and its
aspects and details are displayed on the screen.

List of Output Device

The commonly used output devices have been listed below with a brief summary of what their function is and how
they can be used.

Monitor
The device which displays all the icons, text, images, etc. over a screen is called the Monitor
When we ask the computer to perform an action, the result of that action is displayed on the monitor
Various types of monitors have also been developed over the years.

Printer
A device which makes a copy of the pictorial or textual content, usually over a paper is called a printer. The speed
of a printer is measured in Characters Per Second (CPS), Lines Per Minute (LPM) and Pages Per Minute
(PPM). The resolution of a printer is a numerical measure of print quality that is measured in Dots Per Inch (DPI).
Printers are divided into two basic categories
1. Impact Printers:-
Dot Matrix Printer: - It forms characters using rows of pins which impact the ribbon on top of the paper
therefore also called pin printers.
Daisy Wheel Printer: - These printers produce high resolution output and are more reliable than dot
matrix.
Line Printer: - It is a high-speed printer capable of printing an entire line of text at once instead of one or
more characters at a time.
Drum Printer : - An old line printer technology that uses formed character images around a cylindrical
drum as its printing mechanism.
2. Non-Impact Printer:-
Inkjet Printer It is a printer that places extremely small droplets of ink onto paper to create an image. It
sprays ink onto paper to form characters and prints high quality text and graphics.
Thermal Printer It uses heat on chemically treated paper to form characters.
Laser Printer It provides the highest quality text and images for personal computers.

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Input and Output devices

Electromagnetic Printer Electromagnetic printers are very fast printers and have been developed from the
paper copier technology.
Electrostatic Printers are generally used for large format printing.

Speakers
A device through which we can listen to a sound as an outcome of what we command a computer to do is called a
speaker.
Speakers are attached with a computer system and also are a hardware device which can be attached separately.

Projector
An optical device which presents an image or moving images onto a projection screen is called a projector
Most commonly these projectors are used in auditoriums and movie theatres for the display of the videos or lighting
If a projector is connected to a computer, then the image/video displayed on the screen is the same as the one
displayed on the computer screen

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Computer Memory and Memory Unit

COMPUTER MEMORY AND MEMORY UNIT

Computer memory is the storage space in the computer, where data is to be processed and instructions required
for processing are stored.
The memory is divided into a large number of small parts called cells. Each location or cell has a unique address,
which varies from zero to memory size minus one.
Memory Hierarchy: - The hierarchical arrangement of storage incurrent computer architectures is called the
memory hierarchy. The computer uses a hierarchy of memory that is organised in a manner to enable the fastest
speed and largest capacity of memory as shown in figure. Memory is characterised on the basis of two key factors;
capacity and access time

Memory is primarily of three types −

• Cache Memory
• Primary Memory/Main Memory
• Secondary Memory

Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high-speed semiconductor memory which can speed up the CPU. It acts as a buffer
between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and programs which are most
frequently used by the CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred from the disk to cache memory by the
operating system, from where the CPU can access them.

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Computer Memory and Memory Unit

Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows −

● Cache memory is faster than main memory.

● It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
● It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
● It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows −

● Cache memory has limited capacity.

● It is very expensive.

Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is currently working. It has a limited
capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally made up of semiconductor devices. These
memories are not as fast as registers. The data and instruction required to be processed reside in the main memory.
It is divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM.

Characteristics of Main Memory

● These are semiconductor memories.
● It is known as the main memory.
● Usually volatile memory.
● Data is lost in case power is switched off.
● It is the working memory of the computer.
● Faster than secondary memories.
● A computer cannot run without the primary memory.

Secondary Memory

This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than the main memory. These
are used for storing data/information permanently. CPU directly does not access these memories, instead they are
accessed via input-output routines. The contents of secondary memories are first transferred to the main memory,
and then the CPU can access it. For example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.

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Computer Memory and Memory Unit

Characteristics of Secondary Memory

● These are magnetic and optical memories.
● It is known as the backup memory.
● It is a non-volatile memory.
● Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
● It is used for storage of data in a computer.
● Computers may run without the secondary memory.
● Slower than primary memories.

MEMORY UNIT

Unit Key Points

Bit (Binary Digit) A binary digit is logical 0 and 1 representing
a
passive or an active state of a component in
an
electric circuit
Nibble A group of 4 bits is called nibble.
Byte A group of 8 bits is called byte. A byte is the
smallest unit, which can represent a data item
or a character
Kilobyte (KB) 1 KB = 1024 Bytes
Megabyte (MB) 1 MB = 1024 KB

GigaByte (GB) 1 GB = 1024 MB

TeraByte (TB) 1 TB = 1024 GB

PetaByte (PB) 1 PB = 1024 TB

Exa Byte 1 EB = 1024 PB

Zetta Byte 1 ZB = 1024 EB

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Computer Memory and Memory Unit

Yotta Byte 1 YB = 1024 ZB

Bronto Byte 1 BB = 1024 YB
Geop Byte 1 GB = 1024 BB

Bit is the smallest memory measurement unit. GeopByte is the highest memory measurement unit. A byte
can represent 256 (0-255 or 28) distinct values.

RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY

RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program, and program result.
It is a read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working. As soon as the machine is switched off,
data is erased.
Access time in RAM is independent of the address, that is, each storage location inside the memory is as easy to
reach as other locations and takes the same amount of time. Data in the RAM can be accessed randomly but it is
very expensive.

RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a power failure. Hence, a
backup Uninterruptible Power System (UPS) is often used with computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its
physical size and in the amount of data it can hold.
RAM is of two types −

● Static RAM (SRAM): -It retains the data as long as power is provided to the memory chip. SRAM needs
not be refreshed periodically. It uses multiple transistors for each memory cell. It does not use capacitors.
SRAM is often used in cache memory due to its high speed. SRAM is more expensive and faster than
DRAM

● Dynamic RAM (DRAM): - It is made up of memory cells where each cell is composed of one capacitor
and one transistor. DRAM must be refreshed continually to store information. DRAM is slower, less-
expensive and occupies less space on the computer’s motherboard.

READ ONLY MEMORY

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. It is the memory from which we can only read but cannot write. This type of
memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such memories during manufacture. A ROM
stores such instructions that are required to start a computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap.

Various types of ROMs are: -

1. MROM (Masked ROM)
The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or instructions.
These kinds of ROMs are known as masked ROMs, which are inexpensive.

2. PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)

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Computer Memory and Memory Unit

PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank PROM and
enters the desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM chip, there are small fuses which are
burnt open during programming. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable.

3. EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

It is similar to PROM, but it can be erased by exposure to strong ultraviolet light, then rewritten. So, it is
also known as Ultraviolet Erasable Programmable ROM (UVEPROM)

4. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

It is similar to EPROM, but it can be erased electrically, then rewritten electrically and the burning process
is reversible by exposure to electric pulses.

Comparative study between RAM and ROM

RAM ROM
RAM stands for Random Access Memory ROM stands for Read Only Memory
RAM is expensive ROM is cheaper
The speed of Random Access Memory The speed of Read-only Memory (ROM) is
(RAM) is higher when compared to ROM slower when compared to RAM
Random Access Memory (RAM) has a ROM has a lower capacity compared to
higher capacity when compared to ROM RAM
Data in RAM can be modified, erased, or Data in ROM can only be read, it cannot be
read. modified or erased.
The data stored in RAM is used by the The data stored in ROM is used to bootstrap
Central Processing Unit (CPU) to process the computer.
current instructions
Data stored on RAM can be accessed by the If the Central Processing Unit (CPU) needs
Central Processing Unit. to access the data on ROM, first the data
must be transferred to RAM, and then the
Central Processing Unit (CPU) will be able
to access the data
Data of RAM is very volatile; it will exist as Data present in Read-Only Memory (ROM)
long as there is no interruption in power. is non-volatile, it is permanent. Data will
remain unchanged even when there is a
disruption in the power supply.

SECONDARY MEMORY

Secondary Memory: - Data in secondary memory cannot be processed directly by the CPU, it must first be copied
into primary memory, i.e. RAM. It is the slower of the two, but also cheaper of the two. It is also non-volatile in
nature. Due to this, the data remains in the secondary storage as long as it cannot be overwritten or deleted by the
user. It is permanent.

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Computer Memory and Memory Unit

Hard Disk Drive (HDD): -It is a non-volatile and random access digital data
storage device. HDD is a data storage device used for storing and retrieving digital information using rotating disks
(platters) coated with magnetic material.

Compact Disc (CD): - It is the most popular and the least expensive typeof optical disc. A CD is capable of being
used as a data storage device along with storing digital audio. The files are stored on this particular contiguous
sector.

Digital Video Disc (DVD): - Also known as or Digital Versatile Disc (DVD). It is an optical disc storage media.
DVDs offer higher storage capacity than CDs while having the same dimensions.

Blu-ray Disc: - The name Blu-ray disc refers to the blue laser used to read the disc, which allows information to be
stored at a greater density than the longer- wavelength red laser used in DVDs.

Flash drives: - Flash drives are a data storage device that consists of flash memory (key memory) with a portable
USB (Universal Serial Bus) interface. These are typically removable and re-writable.

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Computer Ports

COMPUTER PORTS
A computer is a device that transforms data into meaningful information. It processes the input according to the set
of instructions provided to it by the user and gives the desired output. As we know that we can connect multiple
external devices with the computer system. Now, these devices are connected with the computer using Ports. The
ports are the physical docking points present in the computer through which the external devices are connected
using cables. Or in other words, a port is an interface between the motherboard and an external device of the
computer. There are different types of ports available:
● Serial port
● Parallel port
● USB port
● PS/2 port
● VGA port
● Modem port
● FireWire Port
● Sockets
● Infrared Port
● Game Port
● Digital Video Interface(DVI) Port
● Ethernet Port

1. Serial port (COM Port): -Serial port is also called a communication port and they are used for connection of
external devices like a modem, mouse, or keyboard . Serial cables are cheaper to make in comparison to parallel
cables and they are easier to shield from interference.

There are two versions of it, which are 9 pin models and 25 pin models. It transmits data at 115 KB/sec.

2. Parallel Port (LPT ports): - Also known as Printer Port or Line Printer Port, parallel ports are generally
used for connecting scanners and printers. It can send several bits at the same time as it uses parallel
communication. Its data transfer speed is much higher in comparison with the serial port. It is a 25 pin model.

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Computer Ports

3. USB (Universal Serial Bus): -First introducedin 1997, an USB is a common interface that allows the connection
between devices and host controllers including a personal computer (PC). It connects peripheral devices including
digital cameras, mice, keyboards, printers, scanners, media devices, external hard drives, and flash drives. USB
operates at 12 Mbps with particular consideration for low-cost peripherals. It provides up to 127 devices with both
synchronous and asynchronous data transfers. A USB cable has a rectangular “TYPE A” plug at the computer end
and a square “TYPE B” plug at the peripheral end.

4. PS/2 Port: - PS/2 ports are special ports used for connecting old computer keyboard and mouse. It was invented
by IBM. In old computers, there are a minimum of two PS/2 Ports, each for the keyboard and the mouse. It is a 6
pin mini Din connector.

5. VGA Port (Video Graphics Array): - VGA ports also known as Video Graphic Array connector are those
which connect the monitor to a computer’s video card. VGA port has 15 holes and it is similar to the serial port
connector. But VGA Ports have holes in it and the serial port connector has pins in it.

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Computer Ports

6. Sockets: - Microphones and speakers are connected with the help of Sockets to the sound card of the computer.

7. FireWire Port: -In simplest terms, FireWire enables high-speed communication between two separate
computers or between a computer and a peripheral, such as a keyboard or a digital camera. Having multiple devices
that all operate together at maximum efficiency is what FireWire is all about.

NOTE: - THE FIREWIRE PORT WAS NAMED BY APPLE. ORIGINALLY IT WAS CALLED IEEE 1394
interface.

8. Infrared Port: - An Infrared (IR) port is used to send and receive infrared signals from other devices. It is a kind
of wireless type port with a limited range of 5-10ft.

9. Game Port: - These ports are used previously to connect a joystick to a PC. But nowadays it is replaced by USB
ports.

10. Modem Port: - A Modem port is used to connect a PC’s modem to the telephone network.

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Computer Ports

11. Digital Video Interface (DVI) Port: - A video display interface used to connect a video source, such as a
video display controller, to a display device, such as a computer monitor. It was developed by the Digital Display
Working Group.

12. Ethernet Port: - Ethernet Port helps to connect to a network and high-speed Internet (provided by LAN or
other sources). It connects the network cable to a computer and resides in an Ethernet card. It provides a data travel
speed of 10 Mb to 1000 Mb (megabits) per second.

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Few Important Topics and One Liners

FEW IMPORTANT TOPICS AND ONE LINERS

● The theory of the Punch Card was given by Jacquard Loom, but was invented by Herman Hollerith.
● The word Computer was first used in 1613, in the book The Young Man’s Gleanings penned by Richard
Braithwaite.
● Whirlwind Machine was the first Computer with RAM, introduced by MIT in 1955.
● Siddhartha was the first computer developed in India.
● Transistors were invented by Bell Laboratory.
● Quantum computer was first introduced by Richard Feynman. It uses quantum mechanical phenomena. It
is the fastest computer imitating brain working.
● Nano computer is a general team used to describe a computer smaller than a microcomputer, usually about
the size of a credit card. Ex. Raspberry Pi.
● Touch Screen is an example of POINTING DEVICE (input device) that accepts input when the user
places their fingertip on the screen. Touch screens have an infrared beam that criss-crosses the surface of the
screen.

The concept of a Switched-Mode Power Supply

A switch mode power supply is a power converter that utilises switching devices such as MOSFETs, that
continuously turn on and off at high frequency; and energy storage devices such as the capacitors and inductors to
supply power during the non-conduction state of the switching device.

The basic switch mode power supplies (SMPS) are categorized based on supply input and output voltage. The main
four groups are:

● AC to DC – Off-line DC power supply

● DC to DC – Converter
● DC to AC – Inverter
● AC to AC – Cycloconverter of frequency changer

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Computer Architecture VS Computer Organization

Computer Architecture VS Computer Organization

Computer Architecture Computer Organization
Computer Architecture is concerned with the Computer Organization is concerned with the
way hardware components are connected structure and behaviour of a computer system
together to form a computer system. as seen by the user.
It acts as the interface between hardware and It deals with the components of a connection
software. in a system.
Computer Architecture helps us to Computer Organization tells us how exactly
understand the functionalities of a system. all the units in the system are arranged and
interconnected.
Computer Architecture deals with high-level Computer Organization deals with low-level
design issues. design issues.

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Evolution of Computing Devices

Evolution of Computing Devices

● ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) was the first computing system designed in the
early 1940s. It consisted of 18,000 buzzing electronic switches called vacuum tubes. It was organized in U -
Shaped around the perimeter of a room with forced air cooling.
● John Vincent Atanasoff and his assistant, Clifford E. Berry in 1937 designed the first digital electronic
computer, Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC).
● Z3, invented by German inventor Konrad Zuse in 1941 was the first working programmable, fully
automatic computing machine, as the Atanasoff-Berry Computer wasn’t fully programmable.
● Transistors were invented in 1947 at Bell Laboratories.
● Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce invented the Integrated Circuit.
● In 1968, Robert Noyce co-founded Intel Electronics company
● In 1983, Lisa was launched as the first personal computer with a graphical user interface (GUI)
● In 1990, Apple released the Macintosh Portable.
● In 1990, Intel introduced the Touchstone Delta supercomputer, which had 512 microprocessors.

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Functional Units of Digital System

Functional Units of Digital System

1. Input unit: - Input units are used by the computer to read the data. The most commonly used input devices
are keyboards, mouse, joysticks, trackballs, microphones, etc.
2. Central processing unit: - The C.P.U is the brain of the computer. It can be referred as an electronic circuit
within a computer that carries out the instructions given by a computer program by performing the basic
arithmetic, logical, control and input/output (I/O) operations specified by the instructions.
3. Memory unit
a) The Memory unit can be referred to as the storage areas in which programs are kept which is
running.
b) The Memory unit can be categorized in two ways namely, primary memory and secondary memory.
c) Primary memory contains a large number of semiconductor storage cells, capable of storing a bit of
information. The word length of a computer is between 16-64 bits. It is also known as the volatile
form of memory, means when the computer is shut down, anything contained in RAM is lost.
d) Cache memory is also a kind of memory which is used to fetch the data very soon. They are highly
coupled with the processor.
e) The most common examples of primary memory are RAM and ROM.
f) Secondary memory is used when a large amount of data and programs have to be stored for a long-
term basis. It is also known as the Non-volatile memory form of memory, meaning the data is stored
permanently irrespective of the state of the machine (i.e. it is logged on or shut down).
g) The most common examples of secondary memory are magnetic d isks, magnetic tapes, and optical
disks.

4. Arithmetic & logical unit: - Most of all the arithmetic and logical operations of a computer are executed
in the ALU (Arithmetic and Logical Unit) of the processor. It performs arithmetic operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division and also logical operations like AND, OR, NOT operations.
5. Control unit: -The control unit is a component of a computer's central processing unit that coordinates the
operation of the processor. It tells the computer's memory, arithmetic/logic unit and input and output devices

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Functional Units of Digital System

how to respond to a program's instructions. The control unit is also known as the nervous system of a
computer system.
6. Output Unit: -The primary function of the output unit is to send the processed results to the user. Output
devices display information in a way that the user can understand. Output devices are pieces of equipment
that are used to generate information or any other response processed by the computer. These devices display
information that has been held or generated within a computer.

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General System Architecture

GENERAL SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

In Computer Architecture, the General System Architecture is divided into two major classification units.
● Store Program Control Concept
● Flynn's Classification of Computers

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Store Program Control Concept

STORE PROGRAM CONTROL CONCEPT

The term Stored Program Control Concept refers to the storage of instructions in computer memory to enable it to
perform a variety of tasks in sequence or intermittently. The idea was introduced in the late 1040s by John von
Neumann who proposed that a program be electronically stored in the binary-number format in a memory device so
that instructions could be modified by the computer as determined by intermediate computational results.
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) was the first computing system designed in the early
1940s. It was based on Stored Program Concept in which machine use memory for processing data.

1. Von-Neumann Model
Von-Neumann proposed his computer architecture design in 1945 which was later known as Von-Neumann
Architecture. It consisted of a Control Unit, Arithmetic, and Logical Memory Unit (ALU), Registers and
Inputs/Outputs.
Von Neumann architecture is based on the stored -program computer concept, where instruction data and program
data are stored in the same memory. This design is still used in most computers produced today.

A Von Neumann-based computer:

● Uses a single processor
● Uses one memory for both instructions and data.
● Executes programs following the fetch-decode-execute cycle

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Store Program Control Concept

Components of Von-Neumann Model

Central Processing Unit
The part of the Computer that performs the bulk of data processing operations is called the Central Processing Unit
and is referred to as the CPU. The Central Processing Unit can also be defined as an electric circuit responsible for
executing the instructions of a computer program.

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

The Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) performs the required micro-operations for executing the instructions. In
simple words, ALU allows arithmetic (add, subtract, etc.) and logic (AND, OR, NOT, etc.) operations to be carried
out.

Control Unit
The Control Unit of a computer system controls the operations of components like ALU, memory and input/output
devices. The Control Unit consists of a program counter that contains the address of the instructions to be fetched
and an instruction register into which instructions are fetched from memory for execution.

Registers
Registers refer to high-speed storage areas in the CPU. The data processed by the CPU are fetched from the
registers.

Buses
Buses are one of the most fundamental and important means by which information is shared between the registers.
A bus structure consists of a set of common lines, one for each bit of a register, through which information is
transferred. Control signals determine which register is selected by the bus during each particular register transfer.

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Store Program Control Concept

2. General Purpose System

The General Purpose Computer System is the modified version of the Von-Neumann Architecture. In simple
words, we can say that a general-purpose computer system is a modern-day architectural representation of a
Computer System.
The CPU (Central Processing Unit) consists of the ALU (Arithmetic and Logic Unit), Control Unit and various
processor registers.

3. Parallel Processing
Parallel processing can be described as a class of techniques which enables the system to achieve simultaneous
data-processing tasks to increase the computational speed of a computer system. A parallel processing system can
carry out simultaneous data processing to achieve faster execution time. For instance, while an instruction is being
processed in the ALU component of the CPU, the next instruction can be read from memory. The primary purpose
of parallel processing is to enhance the computer processing capability and increase its throughput, i.e. the amount
of processing that can be accomplished during a given interval of time.

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Store Program Control Concept

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FLYNN'S Classification of Computers

FLYNN'S CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

M.J. Flynn proposed a classification for the organization of a computer system by the number of instructions and
data items that are manipulated simultaneously. The sequence of instructions read from memory constitutes an
instruction stream. The operations performed on the data in the processor constitute a data stream.
Flynn's classification divides computers into four major groups that are:
● Single instruction stream, single data stream (SISD)
● Single instruction stream, multiple data stream (SIMD)
● Multiple instruction stream, single data stream (MISD)
● Multiple instruction stream, multiple data stream (MIMD)

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Computer Registers

COMPUTER REGISTERS
Registers are a type of computer memory used to quickly accept, store, and transfer data and instructions that are
being used immediately by the CPU. The registers used by the CPU are often termed as Processor registers. The
computer needs processor registers for manipulating data and a register for holding a memory address.

Register Symbol Number of bits Function

Data register DR 16 Holds memory

operand

Address register AR 12 Holds address for the

memory
Accumulator AC 16 Processor register
Instruction register IR 16 Holds instruction
code
Program counter PC 12 Holds address of the
instruction
Temporary register TR 16 Holds temporary data
Input register INPR 8 Carries input
character
Output register OUTR 8 Carries output
character

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Instruction Cycle

INSTRUCTION CYCLE

A program residing in the memory unit of a computer consists of a sequence of instructions. These instructions are
executed by the processor by going through a cycle for each instruction.

BASIC INSTRUCTION CYCLE

A simple instruction cycle consists of the following steps

● Fetching the instruction from the memory.
● Decoding the instruction for operation.
● Executing the instruction.
● Storing in memory

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Interconnection of Units

INTERCONNECTION OF UNITS

The CPU sends data, instructions and information to the components inside the computer as well as to the
peripheral devices attached to it. A bus is a set of wires used for interconnection, where each wire can carry one bit
of data. In other words, bus is a set of electronic signal pathways that allows information and signals to travel
between components inside or outside of a computer.

A computer bus can be divided into two types; the internal bus and the external bus.

1. Internal Bus The internal bus connects components inside the motherboard like CPU and system memory. It is
also called the system bus.

2. External Bus It connects the different external devices; peripherals, expansion slots, I/O ports and drive
connections to the rest of computer. It is also referred to as the expansion bus.

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Instruction Set Architecture

WHAT IS AN INSTRUCTION SET ARCHITECTURE?

An Instruction Set Architecture is part of the abstract model of a computer that defines how the CPU is controlled
by the software. The ISA acts as an interface between the hardware and the software and specifies both what the
processor is capable of doing as well as how it gets done.
WHAT IS A MICROPROCESSOR?

It is the controlling element in a computer system and is sometimes referred to as the chip. Microprocessor is the
main hardware that drives the computer. It is a large Printed Circuit Board (PCB), which is used in all electronic
systems such as computer, calculator, digital system, etc.
Evolution of Microprocessors
First Generation (4 - bit Microprocessors): - Introduced in 1971 by scientist Ted Hoff, it was named Intel 4004
since it was a 4-bit processor.

Second Generation (8 - bit Microprocessor):- Introduced in 1973 by Intel, it was a first 8 - bit microprocessor
which could perform arithmetic and logic operations on 8-bit words.

Third Generation (16 - bit Microprocessor) Introduced in 1978, these were represented by Intel's 8086 which
was a 16 - bit processors with a performance like minicomputers.

Fourth Generation (32 - bit Microprocessors): - Intel 80386.

Fifth Generation (64 - bit Microprocessors): - From 1995 to now we are in the fifth generation. After 80856,
Intel came out with a new processor namely Pentium processor followed by Pentium Pro CPU, which allows
multiple CPUs in a single system to achieve multiprocessing.

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Few Important Topics and One Liners

FEW IMPORTANT TOPICS AND ONE LINERS

● Shakti is the first microprocessor in India to be developed by IIT Madras.

● In Computer Architecture, the address bus carries the information about the device with which the CPU is
communicating and the data bus carries the actual data being processed.
● A Printed Circuit Board is a laminated sandwich structure of conductive and insulating layers. They aid in
fixing the electronic components in the desired locations and also provide reliable electrical connections.
● Cache Memory is a storage buffer that stores the data which is used more often, temporarily and makes
them available to CPU at a fast rate.
● Flash Memory is a kind of a semiconductor based non-volatile rewritable memory, used in digital camera,
mobile phones, printers, etc.
● DMA (Direct Memory Access) is a method that allows an input/output device to send or receive data
directly to or from the main memory, bypassing the CPU to speed up memory operations.
● Machine cycle is defined by the time that takes to fetch two operands from registers and performs ALU
operation and stores the result in a register.
● Pipelining refers to a technique of decomposing a sequential process into sub-operations. It also improves
execution speed by putting the execution steps of several instructions parallelly.
● Sockets are the connecting points of chip on the motherboard.
● Access Time: - It is the time required between the desired modes for a read or write operation till the data is
made available at the desired location.
● DVI (Digital Video Interface): - It is a video connection standard that was created by Digital Display
Working Group (DDWG). It supports high bandwidth signals and can be used for high resolution displays.

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Decimal Number System

NUMBER SYSTEM AND REGISTERS

A digital system can understand positional number system only where there are a few symbols called digits and
these symbols represent different values depending on the position they occupy in the number.
A value of each digit in a number can be determined using
1. The digit
2. The position of the digit in the number
3. The base of the number system (where base is defined as the totalnumber of digits available in the number
system).

DECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM

The number system that we use in our day-to-day life is decimal number system. It consists of 10 digits from 0 to 9.
These digits can be used to represent any numeric value. It is also known as Base 10 system or positional number
system. e.x. 127510.

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Binary Number System

BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM (base 2)

This system is very efficient for computers, but not for humans. It contains only two unique digits 0’sand 1’s. It is
also known as Base 2 system. A string, which has any combination of these two digits (0 and 1 are called a bit) is
called binary number. The computer always calculates input in binary form. e.x. 10111 2

Example
Binary Number: 101112
Calculating Decimal Equivalent:
STEP BINARY DECIMAL NUMBER
NUMBER
Step 1 101112 ((1 x 24 ) + (0 x 23 ) + (1 x 22 )
+ (1 x 21 ) +
0
(1 x 2 ))10
Step 2 101112 (16 + 0 + 4 + 2 + 1)10
Step 3 101112 2310

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Octal Number System

OCTAL NUMBER SYSTEM

● Uses eight digits, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7.

● Also called base 8 number system
● Each position in an octal number represents a 0 power of the base (8). Example: 8 0

Example
Octal Number: 125708

STEP BINARY DECIMAL NUMBER

NUMBER
Step 1 125718 ((1 x 84 ) + (2 x 83 ) + (5 x 82 )
+ (7 x 81 ) + (1
0
x 8 ))10

Step 2 125718 (4096 + 1024 + 320 + 56 +

1)10

Step 3 125718 549710

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Hexadecimal Number System

HEXADECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM (base 16)

● Uses 10 digits and 6 letters, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F.

● Letters represents numbers starting from 10. A = 10, B = 11, C = 12, D =13, E = 14, F = 15.
● Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a 0 power of the base (16). Example 160.
● Last position in a hexadecimal number represents an x power of the base

Example:
Hexadecimal Number: 19FDE16

STEP HEXADECIMAL DECIMAL NUMBER

NUMBER
Step 1 19FDE16 ((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (F x
162) + (D x 161)
+ (E x 160))10
Step 2 19FDE16 ((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (15
x 162) + (13 x161) + (14 x
160))10
Step 3 19FDE16 (65536+ 36864 + 3840 +
208 + 14)10
Step 4 19FDE16 10646210

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Decimal to Other Base System

NUMBER SYSTEM CONVERSION

There are many methods or techniques which can be used to convert numbers from one base to another.
● Decimal to Other Base System
● Other Base System to Decimal
● Other Base System to Non-Decimal

DECIMAL TO OTHER BASE SYSTEM

Steps
● Step 1 - Divide the decimal number to be converted by the value of the desired base.
● Step 2 - Get the remainder from Step 1 as the rightmost digit (least significant digit) of new base number.
● Step 3 - Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the new base.
● Step 4 - Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next digit (to the left)
of the new base number.

Until the quotient becomes zero, Step 3 and Step 4 must be repeated.
The last remainder thus obtained will be the Most Significant Digit (MSD) of the new base number.
Example:
Decimal Number: 3110

Step Operation Result Remainder

1 31 / 2 15 1
2 15 / 2 7 1
3 7/2 3 1

4 3/2 1 1
5 1/2 0 1

The remainders have to be arranged in the reverse order so that the first remainder becomes the Least Significant
Digit (LSD) and the last remainder becomes the Most Significant Digit (MSD). Decimal Number: 31 10 = Binary
Number: 111112 .

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Other Base System to Decimal System

OTHER BASE SYSTEM TO DECIMAL SYSTEM

Steps
● Determine the positional value of each digit.
● Multiply the obtained column values (in Step 1) by the digits in the corresponding columns.
● Sum the products calculated in Step 2. The total is the equivalent value in decimal.

Example
Binary Number: 111012
STEP BINARY DECIMAL NUMBER
NUMBER
Step 1 111012 ((1 x 24 ) + (1 x 23 ) + (1 x 22 )
+ (0 x 21 ) +
0
(1 x 2 ))10

Step 2 111012 ((16 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1))10

Step 3 111012 2910

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Registers

REGISTERS

A Register is a collection of flip flops. A flip flop is used to store single bit digital data. For storing a large number
of bits, the storage capacity is increased by grouping more than one flip flops. If we want to store an n-bit word, we
have to use an n-bit register containing n number of flip flops.

Types of Registers

1. Accumulator Register: - The CPU mostly uses an accumulator register. The accumulator register is used to
store the system result. All the results will be stored in the accumulator register when the CPU produces
some results after processing.
2. Program Counter: - The program counter is also called an instruction address register or instruction
pointer. In simple words, the program counter contains the memory address of the location of the next
instruction.
3. Memory Address Register: - The Memory Address Register is a special type of register that contains the
memory address of the data and instruction.
4. Memory Data Register: - Memory Data Register is a part of the computer's control unit. It contains the
data that we want to store in the computer storage or the data fetched from the computer storage.
5. Index Register: - In CPU, the index register is a processor register used to modify the operand address
during the running program.
6. Memory Buffer Register: - Memory Buffer Register is mostly called MBR. The MBR contains the
Metadata of the data and instructions written in or read from memory.

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Registers

7. Data Register: - The data register is used to temporarily store the data. This data transmits to or from a
peripheral device.

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Hardware

HARDWARE
Computer hardware is the collection of physical parts of a computer system. This includes the computer case,
monitor, keyboard, and mouse. It also includes all the parts inside the computer case, such as the hard disk drive,
motherboard, video card, and many others.
Motherboard:

The motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all of the parts of a computer together. It connects the
CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video card, sound card, and other ports and expansion cards directly or
via cables. It can be considered as the backbone of a computer.

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Software - Types of Software

SOFTWARE
Software is a collection of programs or a set of rules and related data that provide the instructions for telling a
computer what to do and how to do. It is an interface between the user and the computer hardware.

Types of Software
Software can be divided into two major categories
SYSTEM SOFTWARE
It consists of several programs, which are directly responsible for controlling, integrating and managing the
individual hardware components of a computer system. They also provide the interface between the user and
components of the computer. Depending on the functionality, the system software can be further divided into
following categories:
1. Operating System is the software program that manages software and hardware resources of
computer.Operating system manages a computer’s basic functions like storing data in memory, retrieving
files from storage devices, scheduling tasks based on priority, etc. It provides an environment to run the
programs. e.g. MS-DOS, Unix, Linux, Windows XP/2000/98, etc.
2. Device Drivers: -These are software, which are written with the objective of making a device functional
when it is connected to the computer is called device driver. It is a system software that acts like an interface
between the device and the user.
3. Language Translator: - It helps in converting programming languages to machine language.The translated
program is known as the object code.There are three different kinds of language translator:
• Assembler: - Converts assembly level program into machine level program
• Compiler: - Converts high level programs into machine level programs at one go rather than line by
line.
• Interpreter: - Converts high level programs into machine level program line by line.
4. Device Drivers: - System software that controls and monitors functioning of a specific device on computer
is called device driver. Each device like printer, scanner, microphone, speaker, etc. that needs to be attached
externally to the system has a specific driver associated with it. When you attach a new device, you need to
install its driver so that the OperatingSystem (OS) knows how it needs to be managed.
5. Language Processor: - An important function of system software is to convert all user instructions into
machine understandable language.
6. Machine language:- This language is nothing but a collection of 0s & 1s (binary digit) that the machines
can understand. It is completely machine dependent.
7. Assembly language: - This language introduces a layer of abstraction by defining mnemonics. Mnemonics
are English like words or symbols used to denote a collection of 0s&1s. Assembly level language is machine
dependent.
8. High level language: - Also known as the source code, it uses English like statements and is completely
independent of machines and uses translator.

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Software - Types of Software

APPLICATION SOFTWARE
It is a software that performs a single task and nothing else is called application software. Application software are
specialized in their function and approach to solving a problem. It is also called the end-user programs. Application
software are also called the end-user programs. These programs do the real work for users.
There are two types of application software
1. General Purpose Software: -These are used for any general purpose. They allow people to do simple
computer tasks.Some of the general purpose software are as follows
• Word Processing A wordprocessor is a software program capable of creating, storing and printing
documents.
• Spreadsheets are the computer programs that accept data in a tabular form and allow you to create
and manipulate spreadsheets electronically.For example, Microsoft Excel, Corel, Lotus, etc.
• Presentation People, in a variety of settings and situations, use presentation software to make their
presentations more interesting and professional.e.g. Microsoft PowerPoint Presentations, Lotus
Freelance, etc.
• Database Management System (DBMS)A DBMS refers to the software that is responsible for
sorting, maintaining and utilising a database.It enables a user to define, create and maintain the
database and provide controlled access on it. e.g. Microsoft Access, MySQL, etc.
• Graphics Software (Image Editing) It is an application program or collection of programs that
enables a person to manipulate visual images on a computer system. Most graphics software have
the ability to import and export one or more graphics file formats.e.g. DirectX, Adobe Photoshop,
piZap,Microsoft Publisher, Picasa, etc.
• Multimedia Software Multimedia includes a combination of text, audio, still images, animation,
video or interactivity content forms. e.g. Macro-Media Flash,Xilisoft Video Converter, VLC Media
Player,Nimbuzz, etc.

Specific Purpose Software: - These are designed to perform specific tasks. These types of application software
generally have one purpose to execute. For example, a camera application on your phone will only allow you to
take and share pictures. Other examples of special purpose application software are web browsers, calculators,
media players, calendar application programs etc.

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System Utilities

SYSTEM UTILITIES
These programs perform tasks related to the maintenance of the computer system. These are the packages which are
loaded into computer during time of installation of operating system.System utility mainly consists of the following
functions
• Disk Compression It increases the amount of information that can be stored on a harddisk by compressing
all information stored ona hard disk. e.g. DiskDoubler, SuperStor Pro,DoubleDiskGold , etc.
• Disk Fragmenter It detects computer files whose contents are broken across several locations on the hard
disk and moves the fragments to one location to increase efficiency. It can be used to rearrange files and
unused space on your hard disk.e.g.MyDefrag, Diskeeper, Defraggler, etc.
• Backup Utilities It can make a copy of all information stored on a disk and rest or either the entire disk or
selected files.
• Disk Cleaners It is used to find files that have not been used for a long time. This utility also serves to
increase the speed of a slow computer. e.g. Bleach Bit cleaner, etc.
• Anti-virus It is the utility which is used to scan computer for viruses and prevent the computer system files
from being corrupt.e.g. Kaspersky, AVG, McAfee, Avira, etc.
• Text Editor It is a program that facilitates the creation and correction of text. A text editor supports special
commands for text editing, i.e. you can write, delete, find and replace words, lines, paragraphs, etc. e.g.MS-
Word, WordPad, Notepad etc.

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Other Categories of Software

Other categories of software

Freeware: - Freeware is software that is distributed without demanding a fee for its usage. These programs are
available either as fully functional software for an unlimited period.
Crippleware : - Some software are offered as freeware – but with very limited features – or with the major feature
missing. These are referred to as Crippleware.
Donationware: - Sometimes, freeware is distributed to users with a regular reminder or request to make a donation
to the author or to some third-party such as a charity. In such cases, freeware is referred as a Donationware.
Free Software: - Free software is software that gives a user freedom to run, copy, distribute, study, change and
improve software. It essentially means a user can freely use, modify, and distribute a program stipulated to one
condition: any redistributed version of the software must be distributed with the original terms of free use,
modification.
Open Source: - The term ‘Open Source’ is very close to ‘free software’ but not identical to it. We say this because,
the source code of an open-source software is readily available to users but under a copyright, and one is freely
allowed to re-distribute the software.
Shareware: - Shareware is demonstration (demo) software that is distributed for free but for a specific evaluation
period only, say, 10-15days (Trialware). After the evaluation period the program gets expired and a user can no
longer access the program. If the user intends to access it for a longer period of time then he has purchase the
licesnse.
Adware: - Better known as advertising software is software that automatically renders advertisements. Most of
these advertisements appear in the form of annoying pop-ups. However, one can disable the ads by purchasing a
registration key. It is a form of software that automatically displays ads such as banners or pop-ups when a user is
online.
Bundleware: - Bundleware gets its name from people ‘one or more software that comes in bundles as extra The
one installation for bundleware installs the main program that you want along with some other programs that you
do not want.
Spyware: - Spyware is a type of malware (or “malicious software”) that collects and shares information about a
computer or network without the user’s consent.
Malware: - Typically referred as ‘Malicious Software’, Malware is any program with malicious intention, which
exploits data of a computer without its user’s consent.
Scareware: -Malware that is designed to trick users into downloading and buying non-functional or dangerous
software is referred to as Scareware or Rogue Software.

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Other Categories of Software

Hardware Software

Physical parts of the computer are called A set of instructions given to the computer is
hardware. called software

You can touch, see and feel hardware You cannot touch and feel software

Hardware is constructed using physical Software is developed by writing instructions

materials or components. in programming language
Computer is hardware, which operates under The operations of computer are controlled
the control of a software. through software
If hardware is damaged, it is replaced with If software is damaged or corrupted, its
new one backup copy can be reinstalled

Hardware is not affected by computer viruses Software is affected by computer viruses

Hardware cannot be transferred from one Software can be transferred from one place to
place to another electronically through another electronically through network
network

User cannot make new duplicate copies of the User can make many new duplicate copies of
hardware the software

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Introduction

OPERATING SYSTEM

An Operating System is a software that works as an interface between a user and the computer hardware. It
performs basic tasks such as receiving input from the keyboard, processing instructions and sending output to the
screen.

A block diagram depicting the interaction between the different parts

Functions of the Operating System

• Process Management: - The mechanism by which an operating system can control the planning,
monitoring and performance of a CPU. A process is the basic unit of execution in the operating system.
• Memory Management It is a process of controlling and coordinating computer memory. It ensures that all
processes are able to access their memory or not.
• File Management It is the main function of operating system. It manages all data files in a computer
system.
• Device Management It is a process of managing the operation and maintenance of input/output devices. It
also facilitates the interface between all the connected devices.
• Resource allocation and management: - In case of multi-user or multi-tasking environment, resources
such as main memory, CPU cycles and files storage are to be allocated to each user or job.
• Error handling: - The OS constantly checks for possible errors and takes an appropriate action to ensure
correct and consistent computing.

TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEM

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Introduction

1. Batch operating system: - In this type of OS, the users of a batch operating system do not interact with the
computer directly. This operating system is responsible for scheduling the jobs according to priority and the
resource required.
2. Time Sharing Operating System/MULTITASKING: - This operating system allows multiple programs
to simultaneously share the computer resources.The OS handles multitasking in the way that it can handle
multiple operations/executes multiple programs at a time.
3. Real Time Operating System: - These operating systems are designed to respond to an event within a
predetermined time. These are used in military applications, automatically driven cars, flight reservation
system, etc.
4. Multiprogramming OS: - In this the operating system picks and begins to execute one of the jobs from
memory. Once this job needs an I/O operation operating system switches to another job. In Non-
multiprogrammed system, there are moments when CPU sits idle and does not do any work and in an ideal
situation, CPU must never be idle.
5. Distributed Operating System: - In this kind of OS, multiple systems are involved, and users at one site
can utilize the resources of systems at other sites for resource-intensive tasks.

WHAT IS SPOOLING?
Spooling is an acronym for simultaneous peripheral operations online. Spooling refers to putting data of various I/O
jobs in a buffer. In OS, the term buffer refers to an area in memory or hard disk, where the jobs are ready in queues.

SOME TERMINOLOGIES

1. Kernel is the core of the operating system that supports the process by providing a path to the peripheral
devices.
2. Shell is the program which interprets commands given by the user.
3. Thread is a task that runs with other tasks concurrently within the same process. It is also called a
lightweight process.

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Schedulers

SCHEDULERS

Schedulers are special system software which handles process scheduling in various ways. Schedulers are of three
types;

• Long-Term Scheduler: - It is also called a job scheduler. A long-term scheduler determines which
programs are admitted to the system for processing. It selects processes from the queue and loads them into
memory for execution.
• Short-Term Scheduler: - It is also called as CPU scheduler. CPU scheduler selects a process among the
processes that are ready to execute and allocates CPU to one of them.
• Medium-Term Scheduler: - This scheduler removes the processes from memory thus reducing the degree
of multiprogramming.

Scheduling Criteria

CPU utilization: - The CPU must be kept busy all the time. CPU utilization can range from 0 to 100 percent.
Throughput: - It is the measure of work or number of processes that are completed per time unit.
Turnaround time: - Turnaround time is the sum of the time period spent while waiting to get into memory, then
waiting in the ready queue, and after that executing on the CPU, and doing input and output operation.
Waiting time: - It is the sum of the time periods spent while waiting in the ready queue, and the amount of time a
process has been waiting in the ready queue to get control of the CPU.
Response Time: - In short, the difference between the arrival time and the time at which the process first gets the
CPU is called Response Time.
Arrival Time: - The time at which the process enters into the ready queue is called the arrival time

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Memory Management

MEMORY MANAGEMENT
Memory management is the functionality of an operating system which handles or manages primary memory and
moves processes back and forth between main memory and disk during execution.

Memory management Techniques

Contiguous
1. Fixed partition: - The earliest and one of the simplest techniques which can be used to load more than one
process into the main memory is Fixed partitioning or Contiguous memory allocation.
2. Variable partition: - In this technique, the partition size is not declared initially. It is declared at the time of
process loading. The first partition is reserved for the operating system. The remaining space is divided into
parts. The size of each partition will be equal to the size of the process.
Non Contiguous
1. Paging: - In Operating Systems, Paging is a storage mechanism used to retrieve processes from the
secondary storage into the main memory in the form of pages. The main idea behind the paging is to divide
each process in the form of pages. The main memory will also be divided in the form of frames.
2. Multi-level paging: - It is a paging scheme that consists of two or more levels of page tables in a
hierarchical manner. It is also known as hierarchical paging.
3. Inverted paging: - It is a memory management technique that uses a secondary memory as a backing store
for primary virtual memory. It provides a way to manage virtual memory in a system where the physical
address of the virtual memory can’t be directly mapped to a storage device.
4. Segmentation: - It is a memory management technique in which the memory is divided into variable size
parts. Each part is called segment.
5. Segmented paging: - In Segmented paging the main memory is divided into variable size segments which
are further divided into fixed-size pages.

Booting: - It is the process of starting up a computer by a button. It can be initiated by hardware such as a Start
button. There are two types of booting.
• Cold Booting: - when a computer is turned ON after it has been completely shut down.
• Warm Booting: - when a computer is restarted by pressing the combination of Ctrl + Alt + Del keys or by
restart button.

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File System

FILE SYSTEM
Computers store information on several different storage media, such as magnetic disks, magnetic tapes, and optical
disks, flash drives and other memory devices. But, data cannot be written to secondary storage unless they are
within a file. The way the files are stored and the techniques involved in it constitute the File System. It facilitates
on-line storage of and access to both data and programs of the operating system and all the users of the computer
system. The file system consists of two distinct parts: a collection of files, each storing related data, and a
directory structure, which organizes and provides information about all the files in the system.
Attributes of a file are: -
1. Name
2. Identifier
3. Location
4. Size
5. Protection

Operations performed on a file are: -

• Create
• Write
• Read
• Delete
There are different types of files that we use in our daily lives. Some of them are given as follows.

• Executable files: - Most commonly are .EXE, .BAT, .COM, .CMD files.
• Text files: - .txt, .docx etc.
• Audio files: - .mp3, .wav etc.
• Multimedia files: - .mpeg, .mov, .rm, .mp4 etc.

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User Interface

USER INTERFACE

The user interface is one of the most important parts of any operating system when it comes to the user interacting
with it. It allows users to easily access and communicate with the applications and the hardware. The user can
interact with the computer by using mainly two kinds of interfaces;
1. Graphical User Interface (GUI): - The Graphical interface is a program that gives the user the ability to
interact with the computer by using visuals, pointing devices and other symbols. This interface was
designed by the Xerox Palo Research Centre in 1970s.

2. Character User Interface (CUI): - The CUI or as it is commonly referred to as, the Command Line
Interface, is the exact opposite of the GUI. This mechanism gives the user the ability to interact with the
computer system by typing in the commands to make the system perform specific tasks. Example, MS-DOS

MS-DOS (Microsoft-Disk Operating System)

Now that we know that MS-DOS uses CLI OS, let’s dive in to look at some of the impressive features that it boasts.
The DOS OS was developed by Microsoft in 1980 for microcomputers. MS-DOS was the first operating system
that runs on PC developed by IBM Corporation in 1981. DOS is a single user operating system. It is the only
operating system which can be loaded in the main memory of the computer using a single disk.

STRUCTURE OF THE DISK OPERATING SYSTEM

1. The Boot Record: - It includes loading the operating system into main memory. It is the main program of
MS-DOS.
2. The Basic Input/output System (BIOS. sys): - It provides an interface between the hardware and
programs.
3. The MSDOS. sys Program: - It is a collection of program routines and data tables that provides high level
programs such as application programs.
4. The Command.com Program: - It provides a standard set of commands that gives users access to file
management, configuration and miscellaneous functions.

Configuration of DOS
Config. sys, Autoexec.bat and files provide the environment to computer to set commands.

• Config. sys It adjusts the system according to commands. It looks after the hardware configuration of the
machine. Some standard commands include, Break, Buffers, DOS, FILES, INSTALL, etc.
• Autoexec.bat When the system is powered on, this file executes in automatically command line. Some
commands in the Autoexec.bat are PROMPT, MODE, PATH etc.

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User Interface

EXTENSIONS MEANING
.sys System files
.prg Program files

.bat Batch files

.txt Text files
.doc Document files
.exe Executable files

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Directory Structures

DIRECTORY STRUCTURES

The most common directory structure used by multiuser systems is:

• Single level directory: - In a single level directory system, all the files are placed in one directory. It has
significant limitations when the number of files or when there is more than one user.
• Two level directory: - In the two level directory system, the system maintains a master block that has one
entry for each user. This master block contains the address of directories of the users.
• Tree structure directories: - In this structure, the directory are files. This lead to the possibility of having
sub-directories that can contain files and sub-subdirectories.

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Introduction to Unix and Linux Operating System

INTRODUCTION TO UNIX AND LINUX OPERATING SYSTEM

UNIX is an operating system which was first developed in the 1960s by Dennis Ritchie and Ken Thompson and
has been under constant development ever since. It is a stable, multi-user, multi-tasking system for servers,
desktops and laptops.
NOTE: - DENNIS RITCHIE ALSO INVENTED THE C-LANGUAGE
UNIX, runs on the GUI interface and hence gives a user-friendly experience.

Types of UNIX
The most popular varieties of UNIX are Sun Solaris, GNU/Linux, and MacOS X.

Some of the important UNIX commands

LINUX
Just like Windows, iOS, and Mac OS, Linux is an operating system. The first Linux Kernel was released in
September, 1991 by Linus Torvalds, who has been the principal author of the Linux kernel. It is a UNIX-like open-
source operating system, mainly developed by the community of OS developers. Android, one of the most
commonly used platforms on this planet is powered by Linux. Linux can be optimized for different purposes such
as:
• networking performance;
• computation performance;
• deployment on specific hardware platforms; and
• deployment on systems with limited memory, storage or computing resources.

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Introduction to Unix and Linux Operating System

Tux the penguin, the mascot of Linux

Some Linux commands

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Mobile Operating System

MOBILE OPERATING SYSTEM

The Mobile OS most famously operates on Smartphones, Tablets and Digital Mobile devices. It controls mobile
devices and its design supports wireless communication and different types of mobile applications. It has built-in
support for mobile multimedia formats.

Some popular mobile operating systems are: -

1. Android: - It is a mobile OS developed by Google, and powered by Linux (Main part of operating system).
It is basically designed for touchscreen mobile devices like Tablets, Smartphones etc. The latest Android
version, version 13 (Tiramisu) was released in August 15, 2022. The next version on the brink of its release
is the Android 14 (Upside Down cake).
2. iOS: -The iPhone Operating System is the popular mobile operating system developed by Apple
Incorporation. This operating system is commonly used in Apple iPhone, iPod Touch, iPad etc. The latest
version of iOS is iOS 16 which was released on 12th September, 2022.
3. Symbian: - It is the OS developed and sold by Symbian Ltd. It is an open source mobile OS designed for
Smartphones. The latest version of Symbian is Nokia Belle (Symbian OS 10.1) which was released in
October 2012.

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Introduction

DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

When we communicate, we are sharing information. This sharing can be local or remote. Between individuals,
local communication usually occurs face to face, while remote communication takes place over distance.The word
data refers to information presented in whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating and using the data.
Data communication means the exchange of data between two devices via some form of transmission medium such
as a wire cable. For data communications to occur,the communicating devices must be part of a communication
system made up of a combination of hardware (physical equipment) and software (programs). The effectiveness of
a data communications system depends on four fundamental characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and
jitter.
• Delivery: -The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by the intended
device or user and only by that device or user.
• Accuracy: -The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in transmission and
left uncorrected are unusable.
• Timeliness: -The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are useless. In the case of
video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in the same order that they are
produced, and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called real-time transmission.
• Jitter: -Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the delivery of audio
or video packets.

Components in a data communication system

• Message: - The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of information
include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
• Sender: - The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
• Receiver: - The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, television, and so on.
• Transmission medium: - The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from
sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media Include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fibre-
optic cable, and radio waves.
• Protocol: - A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an agreement
between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not
communicating.

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Networking Topologies

Networking Topologies

• Mesh: -In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device

.
• Star: - In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller, usually
called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to one another. Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology
does not allow direct traffic between devices.

• Bus: - A bus topology is a multipoint connection. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices
in a network.

Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a connection running between the
device and the main cable. A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures the sheathing
of a cable to create a contact with the metallic core.

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Networking Topologies

• Ring: - In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the two devices
on either side of it.A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device, until it reaches
its destination.

• Hybrid TopologyA Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to transfer the
data.It is the combination of various different topologies

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Computer Network

What is a Computer Network?

A Computer Network is a group of computers connected with each other through wires, optical fibres, wireless or
optical links so that various devices can interact with each other through a network. The aim of the computer
network is the sharing of resources among various devices.
Uses of Computer Networking
• Resource sharing: - Resource sharing is the sharing of resources such as programs, printers,and data
among the users on the network without the requirement of the physical location of the resource and user.
• E-commerce: -Computer network is also important in businesses. We can do the business over the internet.
For example, amazon.com is doing their business over the internet, i.e.,they are doing their business over
the internet.
• Communication medium: - Computer network behaves as a communication medium among the users. For
example, a company contains more than one computer has an email system which the employees use for
daily communication.
• File sharing: - Files can be transferred on a network faster than any other medium.
• Cost Reduction: -Sharing of resources enables considerable cost reduction of resources.

Categories of network: -
• LAN (Local Area Network): - A LAN connects network devices over a relatively short distance. A
networked office building, school, or home usually contains a single LAN, though sometimes one building
will contain a few small LANs (perhaps one per room), and occasionally a LAN will span a group of nearby
buildings.A LAN is very useful for sharing resources, such as data storage and printers. LANs can be built
with relatively inexpensive hardware, such as hubs, network adapters and Ethernet cables.
• MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): - MAN consists of a computer network across an entire city, college
campus or small region. A MAN is larger than a LAN, which is typically limited to a single building or
site.Depending on the configuration, this type of network can cover an area from several miles to tens of
miles. A MAN is often used to connect several LANs together to form a bigger network.
• WAN(Wide Area Network): -A WAN provides long distance transmission of data, image, audio,and video
information over large geographic areas that may comprise a country, a continent,or even the whole world.
• SAN(Storage Area Network): SAN is a high-speed network of storage devices that also connects those
storage devices with servers.
• CAN (Campus Area Network): - A campus area networks (CANs) is a computer network interconnecting
a few local area networks (LANs) within a university campus or corporate campus Network.
• PAN (Personal Area Network): -A personal area network is a computer network organized around an
individual person. Personal area networks typically involve a mobile computer,Personal area networks can
be constructed with cables or wireless.

What are Protocols?

A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communication.A protocol defines what is communicated,how it is
communicated and when it is communicated.
The key elements of protocol are: -
• Syntax: - syntax refers to the structure or format of the data,meaning the order in which they are presented.
• Semantics: -Semantics refer to the meaning of each section of bits.
• Timing: - Timing refers two characteristics: When data should be sent and how fast they can be sent

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Modes Of Transmission
The way in which data is transmitted from one device to another device is known as transmission mode.Each
communication channel has a direction associated with it, and transmission media provide the direction. Therefore,
the transmission mode is also known as a directional mode.
The transmission mode is defined in the physical layer.
• Simplex mode: -In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, i.e., the data flow in one direction.
Example, a radio station is an example of Simplex mode communication.

• Half-Duplex mode: - In a Half-duplex channel, direction can be reversed, i.e., the station can transmit and
receive the data as well.Messages flow in both the directions, but not at the same time.

• Full-duplex mode: - In Full duplex mode, the communication is bi-directional, i.e., the data flow in both
the directions.Both the stations can send and receive the message simultaneously.

TRANSMISSION MEDIUM

Different transmission medium

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The two broad categories are Guided and Unguided media.

Guided media: -Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another, include
Twisted-Pair Cable,Coaxial Cable, and Fibre-Optic Cable.A signal travelling along any of these media is directed
and contained by the physical limits of the medium.
• Twisted Pair Cable: - This cable is the most commonly used and is cheaper than others. It is lightweight,
cheap, can be installed easily, and they support many different types of network. Its frequency range is 0 to
3.5 kHz. A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own plastic insulation,
twisted together.
Twisted Pair are two types: Shielded and Unshielded.
• Fibre Optics: -It transmits signals in the form of light and is made up of an inner core of glass or plastic.
The core is surrounded by a cladding that reflects light back into the core. Each fibre is surrounded by a
plastic casing. It is very efficient medium because it provides maximum bandwidth, lower attenuation and
is immune to Electromagnetic Interference.
• Coaxial Cable: - These contain two conductors that are parallel to each other. Copper is used in this as
centre conductor which can be a solid wire or a standard one. It is surrounded by PVC installation, a sheath
which is encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid or both.

Unguided Transmission: - Unguided transmission is used when running a physical cable (either fibre or copper)
between two end points is not possible.
• Radio waves: - These are the electromagnetic waves having a frequency range of 3KHz-1GHz. These are
omnidirectional i.e. the senders and receivers do not have to be in line of sight with each other. These can
penetrate walls and are prone to interference.

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• Microwaves: -These are the electromagnetic waves having frequencies ranging from 1 to 300GHz. They
are unidirectional and incorporates two antennas (sending & receiving) which should be aligned or in line of
sight with each other. They provide higher data rate but Very high frequency microwaves are unable to
penetrate the walls.

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Networking Devices & Network Components

Networking Devices & Network Components

Modem: Modem stands for Modulator-Demodulator. It is used to connect computers for communication via
telephone lines.

Hub: It works at the Physical layer. It just acts like a connector of several computers i.e it simply connects all the
devices on its ports together .It broadcasts all the data packets arriving at it with no filtering capacity.

Switch: Switch is data link layer device. A network switch connects computers to each other, like a hub. Where
the switch differs from a hub is in the way it handles packets of data. When a switch receives a packet of data, it
determines what computer or device the packet is intended for and sends it to that computer only. It does not
broadcast the packet to all computers as a hub does which means bandwidth is not shared and makes the network
much more efficient.

Repeater: It operates at the physical layer. It is used to amplify a signal that has lost its original strength so as to
enable them to travel long distances. It can only join the networks that transmit similar data packets. It does not
have filtering capacity i.e. all data including noise is amplified and passed on in the network so don’t help in
reducing network traffic.

Router: It works at the network layer and is used to connect different networks that have different architectures
and protocols. It sends the data packets to desired destination by choosing the best path available thus reducing
network traffic. It routes the data packets using the routing table that contains all the Information regarding all
known network addresses, possible paths and cost of transmission over them.

Gateway: It operates in all the layers of the network architecture. It can be used to connect two different networks
having different architectures, environment and even models. It converts the data packets in form that is suitable to
the destination application. The two different networks may differ in types of communication protocols they
use,language, data formats etc.

Bridge: They are used two connect two LANs with the same standard but using different types of cables. It
provides an intelligent connection by allowing only desired messages to cross the bridge thus improving
performance. It uses physical addresses of the packets for this decision. It works on data link layer of the OSI
model.

Brouter: A brouter is a device that functions as both a bridge and a router. It can forward data between
networks(serving as a bridge), but can also route data to individual systems within a network (serving as a
router).The brouters functions at the network and data link layer of the OSI model.

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Networking Devices & Network Components

Bridge Router

A bridge is a networking device that is used A router is also a networking device that
to connect two local area networks (LANs) sends the data from one network to another
by using media access control addresses and network with the help of their IP addresses
transmit the data between them

A bridge is able to connect only two different A router is capable of connecting the LAN
LAN segments. and WAN

A bridge transfers the data in the form of A router transfers the data in the form of
frames. packets

The bridge does not use any table to forward The router uses a routing table to send the
the data data.

NIC (network interface card): - NIC is a hardware component used to connect a computer with another computer
onto a network. The MAC address or physical address is encoded on the network card chip which is assigned by
the IEEE to identify a network card uniquely. The MAC address is stored in the PROM (Programmable read-only
memory). It is also called network interface controller, network adapter or LAN adapter. There are two types of
NIC: Wired NIC & Wireless NIC.

Computer Network Architecture

Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and logical design of the software, hardware, protocols,
and media of the transmission of data. Simply we can say that how computers are organized and how tasks are
allocated to the computer.

The two types of network architectures are used:

• Peer-To-Peer network: - It is a network in which all the computers are linked together with equal privilege
and responsibilities for processing the data. Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments, usually
up to 10 computers. Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server. Special permissions are assigned to each
computer for sharing the resources, but this can lead to a problem if the computer with the resource is down
• Client/Server network: -It is a network model designed for the end users called clients, to access the
resources such as songs, video, etc. from a central computer known as Server. The central controller is
known as a server while all other computers in the network are called clients. A server performs all the
major operations such as security and network management. A server is responsible for managing all the
resources such as files, directories, printer,etc.

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OSI Model

OSI Model
OSI (Open System Interconnection) Model was developed by International Standards Organisation (ISO) to
standardize the network architecture internationally. The purpose of the OSI Model is to show how facilitate
communication between different system without requiring changes to the logic of the underlying hardware and
software. It is a layered framework having seven layers.

Layers in the OSI Model

Layer 1-The Physical layer: -Physical layer coordinates the function required to carry a bit stream over a physical
medium. It defines the mechanical, electrical & physical specifications of the interface & the transmission medium
used for communication. It determines how a cable is attached with LAN card & is responsible for transmitting bit
stream from one computer to another.
Functions of Physical Layer
1. It defines the characteristics of the interface between the device and the transmission medium.
2. Data in this layer consists of stream of bits. The bits must be encoded into signals for transmission. It
defines the type of encoding i.e. how 0's and 1's are changed to signal.
3. This layer defines the rate of transmission which is the number of bits per second.
4. It deals with the synchronization of the transmitter and receiver. The sender and receiver are synchronized
at bit level.
5. The Physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to the media. It connects the device in Point-
to-Point and Multipoint configuration.

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6. The Physical topology defines how devices are connected to make a network.
7. The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission between two device: simplex,half duplex or full
duplex.

Layer 2- The Data Link Layer: - The data link layer is most reliable node to node delivery of data. It forms
frames from the packets that are received from network layer and gives it to physical layer. It also synchronizes the
information which is to be transmitted over the data. Error controlling is easily done. The encoded data are then
passed to physical.
Data link layer has two sub-layers:
• Logical Link Control: It deals with protocols, flow-control, and error control.
• Media Access Control: It deals with actual control of media

Responsibility of the data link layer:

• Framing: - The datalink layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer into manageable
data units called frames.
• Physical addressing: - The Data Link layer adds a header to the frame in order to define physical address of
the sender or receiver of the frame, if the frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network.
• Flow control: - If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than the rate at which data
are produced in the sender, the data link layer imposes a flow control mechanism to avoid overwhelming the
receiver.
• Error control: -The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding mechanisms to detect and
retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also uses a mechanism to recognize duplicate frames.
• Access control: -When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link layer protocols are
necessary to determine which device has control over the link at any given time.

Layer 3-The Network Layer: -The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet,
possibly across multiple networks(links). The function of network layer called routing.
Responsibility of network layer:
• Logical addressing: - It translates logical network address into physical address. It is concerned with circuit,
message or packet switching.
• Routing: - When independent networks or links are connected to create internetworks (networks of
networks) or a large networks, the connecting device(called routers or switches) routes or switch the packets
to their final destinations.

Layer 4-The Transport Layer: -The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire
message. A process is an application program running on a host, whereas the network layer oversees source-to-
destination delivery of individual packets,it does not recognize any relationship between those packets.
The transport layer on the other hand, ensures that the whole message arrives intact and in order, overseeing both
error control and flow control at the source-to-destination level.
Responsibility of the transport layer:

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• Service-point addressing: -Transport Layer header includes service point address which is port address.
Thislayer gets the message to the correct process on the computer unlike Network Layer, which gets each
packet to the correct computer.
• Segmentation and reassembly:-A message is divided into segments; each segment contains sequence
number,which enables this layer in reassembling the message. Message is reassembled correctly upon
arrival at the destination and replaces packets which were lost in transmission.
• Connection Control: -The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection-oriented. A
connectionless transport layer treats each segment as an independent packet and delivers it to the transport
layer at the destination machine. A connection-oriented transport layer makes a connection with the
transport layer at the destination machine first before delivering the packets. After all the data are transfer,
the connection is terminated.
• Flow control: -In this layer, flow control is performed end to end.
• Error control: -Error Control is performed end to end in this layer to ensure that the complete message
arrivesat the receiving transport layer without any error. Error Correction is done through retransmission.

Layer 5-The Session Layer: -The session layer is the network dialog controller. It establishes, maintains and
synchronizes the interaction among communicating system.
Responsibilities of the session layer
• Dialog Control: -The session layer allows two systems to enter into dialog. It allows the communication
between two processes to take place in either half-dulex or full duplex mode.
• Synchronization: -The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints, or synchronization points, to a
stream of data.

Layer 6-The Presentation Layer: -The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchange between two systems.
Responsibilities of Presentation layer:
• Translation: -Before being transmitted, information in the form of characters and numbers should be
changed to bit streams. The presentation layer is responsible for interoperability between encoding methods
as different computers use different encoding methods. It translates data between the formats the network
requires and the format the computer.
• Encryption: -To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to ensure privacy. Encryption means that
the sender transforms the original information to another form and sends the resulting message out over the
network. Decryption reverse the original process to transform the message back to its original form.
• Compression: -Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the information. Data
compression becomes particularly important in the transmission of multimedia such as text, audio and video

Layer 7-Application Layer: The application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access the
network. It provides user interface and support for services such as electronic mail, remote file access and transfer,
shared database management, and other type of distributed information services.
Services provided by application layer:
• Network Virtual terminal: -It allows a user to log on to a remote host. The application creates software
emulation of a terminal at the remote host. User's computer talks to the software terminal which in turn talks

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to the host and vice versa. Then the remote host believes it is communicating with one of its own terminals
and allows user to log on.
• File transfer, access, and management: -It is a standard mechanism to access files and manages it. Users can
access files in a remote computer and manage it. They can also retrieve files from a remote computer.
• Mail Services: -This layer provides the basis for E-mail forwarding and storage.
• Directory Services:-This layer provides access for global information about various services.

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TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP Model
TCP/IP means Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol. The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed
prior to the OSI model. The layers of the TCP/IP protocol suite contain relatively independent protocol that can be
mixed and matched depending on the needs of the system.

TCP/IP is a layered framework having four layers

Layer 1- Network Interface Layer: -It is responsible for breaking down the data packets from the Internet layer
into frames which are then converted into bits for transmission across the physical media. Here, Ethernet, FDDI,
Token ring etc. The Network Interface layer encompasses the Data Link and Physical layers of the OSI model.
Some features of this layer are:
Ethernet: -Ethernet is the most popular physical layer LAN technology in use today. Other LAN types include
Token Ring, Fast Ethernet, Fibre Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) and
Local Talk. Ethernet is popular because it strikes a good balance between speed, cost and ease of installation.
Fast Ethernet: -For ethernet networks that need higher transmission speeds, the Fast Ethernet standard (IEEE
802.3u) has been established. This standard raises the Ethernet speed limit from 10 Megabits per second (Mbps) to
100 Mbps with only minimal changes to the existing cable structure.
Token Ring: -Token Ring is another form of network configuration which differs from Ethernet in that all
messages are transferred in a unidirectional manner along the ring at all times. Data is transmitted in tokens, which
are passed along the ring and viewed by each device.
FDDI: -FDDI (Fibre-Distributed Data Interface) is a standard for data transmission on fibre optic lines in a local
area network that can extend in range up to 200 km (124 miles). The FDDI protocol is based on the token ring
protocol. In addition to being large geographically, an FDDI local area network can support thousands of users.
Layer 2-The Internet Layer: -The Internet layer is responsible for addressing, packaging, and routing functions.
The core protocols of the Internet layer are IP, ARP, ICMP, and IGMP. The Internet Protocol (IP) is a routable
protocol responsible for IP addressing,routing, and the fragmentation and reassembly of packets.

• The Internet Protocol (IP) is a routable protocol responsible for IP addressing, routing, and the
fragmentation and reassembly of packets.

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• The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is responsible for the resolution of the Internet layer address to the
Network Interface layer address such as a hardware address.
• The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is responsible for providing diagnostic functions and
reporting errors due to the unsuccessful delivery of IP packets.
• The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is responsible for the management of IP multicast
groups.

IP Addressing: -Every host and router on the internet is provided with a unique standard form of network address,
which encodes its network number and host number. The combination is unique; no two nodes have the same IP
addresses. Basically, every device connected to the network has an IP Address.

• Public address: -The public address is also known as an external address as they are grouped under the
WAN.We can also define the public address as a way to communicate outside the network.This address is
used to access the internet.The public address available on our computer provides the remote access to our
computer.This address is generally assigned by the ISP (Internet Service Provider).
• Private address: - A private address is also known as an internal address, as it is grouped under the LAN.It
is used to communicate within the network.These addresses are not routed on the internet so that no traffic
can come from the internet to this private address.

IPv4 Addressing:
The IPv4 addresses are 32-bit long. The main address formats are assigned with network addresses (net id) and
host address (host id) fields of different sizes. The Class A format allows up to 126 networks with 16 million
hosts each. Class B allows up to 16,382 networks with up to 64 K hosts each. Class C allows 2 million networks
with up to 254hosts each. The Class D is used for multicasting and Class E is reserved for future use, or R&D.

Layer 3 – Transport Layer: -It encapsulates raw data received from application layer into data segments and
performs error control and flow control. It is represented by the two protocols i.e. TCP & UDP.
TCP(Transmission Control Protocol): -It is a connection oriented protocol. First a connection is established
between the sender and the receiver and then data is sent across the network. It gives the data segments proper

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sequence numbers for reordering at the destination side and also the acknowledgment numbers are given for the
data packets received. So it is a reliable protocol.
UDP(User Datagram Protocol): -It is an unreliable, connectionless protocol i.e. no reliable connection is
established between sender & receiver before data transmission. It is used for client- server type requests where
prompt delivery of requests-replies is more important than accurate delivery.
Layer 4- Application Layer: -It enables network access to the user. Following are some of the protocols defined
here:-

• File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a TCP/IP client-server application for transfer files between two remote
machines through internet. A TCP connection is set up before file transfer and it persists throughout the
session. It is possible to send more than one file before disconnecting the link. A control connection is
established first with a remote host before any file can be transferred
• HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)provides a standard between a web browser and a web server to
establish communication. It is a set of rules for transferring data from one computer to another. Data such as
text, images, and other multimedia files are shared on the World Wide Web.
• Telnet is a simple remote terminal protocol that provides a remote log-on capability,which enables a user to
log on to a remote computer and behaves as if it is directly connected to it.
• Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is an application layer protocol that uses UDP port
number 161/162.SNMP is used to monitor the network, detect network faults, and sometimes even used to
configure remote devices. There are 3 components of SNMP;
SNMP Manager, SNMP agent, Management Information Base
• Simple Network Management Protocol (SMTP) provides a systematic way for managing network
resources. It uses transport layer protocol for communication. It allows them to monitor switches, routers
and hosts.

HTTP HTTPS

In HTTP, URL begins with “http://”. In HTTPs, URL starts with “https://”.

HTTP uses port number 80 for HTTPs uses 443 port number for
communication communication.

HTTP works at Application Layer. HTTPS works at Transport Layer.

Encryption is absent. Encryption is present.

In HTTP Data is transfer in plain text. In HTTPS Data transfer in cipher text.

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Introduction

PROGRAMMING CONCEPTS
A programming language is a set of commands and instructions used to create a software program. Languages that
programmers used to write code are known as “HIGH-LEVEL LANGUAGES” and the code that is recognized by
the computer hardware is known as “LOW-LEVEL LANGUAGE”. More on these later.
WHAT IS A PROGRAMMING PARADIGM?
A programming paradigm is a basic style of programming, regarding how the solutions to the problems will be
formulated, in a programming language.
Types: -
• Imperative Programming: - A programming paradigm that explains the change of programming state in
terms of the terms of statements. Examples; FORTRAN, BASIC and C.
• Declarative Programming: - It is a non-imperative style of programming in which the programs d escribe
the desired results of the program, without explicitly listing the commands or steps that need to be carried
out to achieve the desired results.
• Functional Programming: - In a functional programming, assignments are not used moreover, uses
recursions to a great extent. These languages, define subroutines and programs as mathematical functions.
Examples, LISP, Scheme, Standard ML
• Logic Programming: -These languages use mathematical logic for computer programming.
• Concurrent Programming: - Concurrent, as its name suggests, allows for multiple computations running
all at once. This means that this kind of programming gives support for multiple threads of programming
execution.
• Object-oriented Programming: - As the name suggests, these kind of programming paradigm, uses
“Objects” consisting of data fields and methods. They also include techniques of abstraction,
polymorphism and inheritance.

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Types of Languages

Types of Languages
• Low Level Language: - Low-level languages those languages which are extremely close to machine
language. These are more appropriate for developing new operating systems or writing firmware codes for
micro-controllers.
• High Level Language: - A high-level language is a programming language such as C or FORTRAN that
enables a programmer to write programs that are more or less independent of a particular type of computer.
Such languages are considered high-level because they are closer to human languages and further from
machine languages.
• Scripting languages: - Scripting languages are computer languages that are not compiled, which means
they are not converted to binary or machine code. Examples of scripting languages include Python,
JavaScript.
• Mark-up languages: - Similar to the scripting languages, these are also not compiled , but are not used for
making programs. These are for making web pages, like HTML (Hypertext Mark-up Language).

Machine Language & Assembly Language

Machine Language: - It is the only language understood by the computers. Sometimes, it referred to as machine
code or object code or binary language. It is a collection of binary digits (0 or 1).
Assembly Language: - It is a low level programming language which is used as an interface with computer
hardware.

LANGUAGE TRANSLATORS

Language translators are features or applications that help in converting programming languages to machine
language.

• Compiler: - It converts High Level Language program into machine language, which can be understood
by the processor. A compiler creates a unique object program, i.e. if a source program is compiled; there is
no need of that source program because output can be obtained by executing that object program.

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Types of Languages

• Assembler: - It converts a program written in assembly language into machine language.

• Interpreter: - It converts a High Level Language program into machine language by converting it line-by-
line. If there is any error in any line, it stops the execution of the program immediately and reports to the
user at the same time. Interpreter is very useful for debugging* and suitable for a beginner.

*De-Bugging is the process of locating and fixing bugs/errors in a computer program code.

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Introduction to C

Introduction to C
Developed by the AT & T’s Bell laboratories and designed & written by Dennis Ritchie is one of the most popular
computer languages owing to its structure, high-level abstraction, machine independent feature.
Keywords used in C
Keywords, also known as Reserved Words are the words whose meaning has already been explained to the C
compiler and are stored in the C library. The keywords cannot be used as variable names because if we do so we
are trying to assign a new meaning to the keyword, which is not allowed by the computer. There are only 32
keywords available in C
Variable: - A variable is a name given to a storage area in the memory that the programming language (here, the C
language) manipulates to carry out its functions. The name of a variable can be composed of letters, digits, and the
underscore character. It must begin with either a letter or an underscore, not with a digit. Upper and lowercase
letters are distinct because C is a case-sensitive language.
Data Types in C:
• int - integer: a whole number.
• float - floating point value: ie a number with a fractional part.
• double - a double-precision floating point value.
• char - a single character.
• void - valueless special purpose type which we will examine closely in later sections. More often than not, it
is used as a return type.

Decision making in C:
Programming languages have the inbuilt feature of making decision but according to the user’s written codes. C
language handles decision-making by supporting the following statements;
• If Statement: - As the name suggests, the if statement means, if a said condition is followed then a set of
statements get executed. These are used to control the program flow based on some given conditions by the
user.
• Switch statements: - It is a control statement that executes a set of logic based on the result obtained as a
result of a comparison between an expression and the labelling specified in the switch block.

switch(expression)
{
case value1: statement_1;
break;
case value2: statement_2;
break;
.
.
.
.

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Introduction to C

case valuen: statement_n;

break;
default: default_statement;
}
Loop Statements in C:
• For loop: - The for loop in C programing follows this particular syntax
for(int i=1;i<=5;i++)
{
//statements to be executed;
…
…
}
The first line “for(int i=1;i<=5;i++)” signifies that the variable “i” has been initialized (given a value) of 1 and it’s
range is up to 5. Now, the loop runs like this, First the initialization happens, then the condition happens and then
updation happens.
1. The initialization step is executed first, and only once. This step allows you to declare and initialize any
loop control variables. You are not required to put a statement here, as long as a semicolon appears.

2. Next, the condition is evaluated. If it is true, the body of the loop is executed. If it is false, the body of the
loop does not execute and the flow of control jumps to the next statement just after the 'for' loop.

3. After the body of the 'for' loop executes, the flow of control jumps back up to the increment statement. This
statement allows you to update any loop control variables. This statement can be left blank, as long as a
semicolon appears after the condition.

4. The condition is now evaluated again. If it is true, the loop executes and the process repeats itself (body of
loop, then increment step, and then again condition). After the condition becomes false, the 'for' loop
terminates.

• While loop: - The while loop repeatedly executes a statement until the condition terminates

while(condition) {
//statements to be executed;
}
When the condition becomes false, the program control passes to the line immediately following the loop.

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• do-while loop: - A do...while loop is similar to a while loop, except the fact that it is guaranteed to execute
at least one time.
do {
statement(s);
} while( condition );

• The Infinite Loop: - A loop becomes an infinite loop if a condition never becomes false. The for loop is
used for this purpose. Since none of the three expressions that form the 'for' loop are required, you can make
an endless loop by leaving the conditional expression empty.

for( ; ; ) {
printf("A forever running loop\n");
}

When the conditional expression is absent, it is assumed to be true. You may have an initialization and
increment expression, but C programmers more commonly use the for(;;) construct to signify an infinite
loop.

Error in Programming
An error in a program is called bug. It is a term used to describe any issue that arises unexpectedly that causes a
computer program to not function properly.
Types of Error
The types of error are classified into four categories which are as follows
1. Syntactical Error: - When the rules of the programming language are not followed, the compiler will show
syntactical/syntax error.
2. Semantic Error: - Semantic errors are reported by the compiler when the statements written in the program
are not meaningful to the compiler.
3. Logical Error: - The presence of logical errors leads to undesired or incorrect output.
4. Runtime Error: - Runtime errors are those errors that occur during the execution of a program. It generally
occurs due to some illegal operation performed in the program.

SOME IMPORTANT TERMS

• Algorithm: - It can be defined as a set of rules or instructions which are to be followed in order to solve a
problem; be it simple or complex.
• Reserved words are words that a programming language has set aside for its own use.

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• Pseudocode is not a programming language, but simply an informal way of describing a program. It does
not follow any syntax strictly.
• Looping is a structure which is used in a program to execute a particular set of statements repeatedly.
Sometimes this may cause an endless repetition resulting in an infinite loop.

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Versions

MICROSOFT WINDOWS
Windows is a general name for Microsoft Windows.Microsoft Windows stands for ‘Microsoft- WideInteractive
Network Development for OfficeWork Solution.’ It is a series of graphical interface operating system developed,
marketed and sold by Microsoft. A user can easily interact with the windows programs or applications by selecting
relevant options,through the mouse or by entering characters through the keyboard.
The first project towards the making of Windows was Interface Manager.

Versions of MS-Windows
Windows NT (NEW TECHNOLOGY)
Introduced in the 1993, this version of windows was made specifically for business enterprises. It offered better
control over workstations to help network administrators. It is based on High Level Language.It is able to run on
DOS, Windows 3 and Win 32 applications.It is a 32-bit application.It provides higher stability and security.

NOTE: - The 64-bit versions of Windows NT were originally intended to run on Itanium and DEC Alpha; the
latter was used internally at Microsoft during early development of 64-bit Windows. This continued for some time
after Microsoft publicly announced that it was cancelling plans to ship 64-bit Windows for Alpha. Because of this,
Alpha versions of Windows NT are 32-bit only.

Windows 95
It is a graphical user interface based operating system. It was released on 24th August, 1995 by Microsoft. It was
also the MS-DOS-based Windows but introduced support for native 32-bit applications. It provided better security
and some added features like plug and play , pre-emptive multitasking and much more.

Windows 98
Developed in the year 1998 by Microsoft, this was released as a two-version product. The first version was plagued
with errors, prompting the makers to release a more stable version.
Essential features included: -
1. It supported many peripheral devices(USB, DVD etc).
2. It supported Internet Explorer version 4.0.1
3. It included a FAT32 converter utility.

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Windows ME
Windows Millennium Edition,developed by Microsoft was a successor to the Windows 98. It introduced the
Multilingual User Interface (MUI). The minimum internal storage was 64 MB with a maximum of 4 GB. This
edition was plagued with numerous bugs and hence was panned by everyone with negative feedback.

Windows 2000
Windows 2000 was a major release of the Windows NT operating system developed by Microsoft and targeted
especially the businesses, workstations, and high-end server users. It introduced the NTFS 3.0 (New Technology
File System), encrypting file system and dynamic disk storage. Four editions of Windows 2000 were released:
Professional, Server, Advanced Server, and Datacentre Server the latter was both released to manufacturing and
launched months after the other editions.

Windows XP
Introduced in the year 2001, Windows XP was a major release of Microsoft's Windows NT operating system. It
was a direct upgrade to its predecessors, Windows 2000 for high-end and business users and Windows Me for
home users. The XP stands for “experience”.

Development of Windows XP began in the late 1990s under the codename "Neptune".
Some versions of Windows XP are Windows XP Home edition; a version made for home users and Windows XP
Professional made for business users.
Other features;

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 With the introduction of Windows XP, the C++ based software-only GDI+ subsystem was introduced to
replace certain GDI (Graphics Device Interface) functions.
 Windows XP included ClearType subpixel rendering, which makes on screen fonts smoother and more
readable on liquid-crystal display (LCD) screens.
 With Windows XP, the Start button has been updated to support Fitts's law. To help the user access a wider
range of common destinations more easily from a single location.
 It supported sound card, CD-ROM,DVD-ROM drive, speakers or headphones

TASKBAR
START START MENU
BUTTON

Windows Vista
It is an operating system developed by Microsoft for use on personal computers, including home and business
desktops, laptops; tablet PCs and media centre PCs.

Windows 7
It is an OS released by Microsoft on 22nd October, 2009. It is an upgrade of Windows XP and Vista. It does not
include some standard applications like Windows Movie Maker, Windows Mail, etc. It supported the 64-bit
processor and provided for touch, speech and handwriting recognition.
Other salient features: -
 It supported a playback of media in MP4.

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 It included Windows Bio-metric framework.

 It provided multiple firewalls.

Windows 8
The development of Windows 8 had started well before Windows 7 had begun shipping worldwide. It had a 64-
bit logical CPU and provided 3D graphic support. Additionally it introduced Internet Explorer 10, USB 3.0 and
cloud computing. Windows 8 was released to a mostly negative critical reception and was succeeded by
Windows 8.1. 8.1 added support for then emerging technologies like high-resolution displays, 3D printing, Wi-
Fi Direct, and Miracast streaming, as well as the ReFS file system.

Windows 10
Windows 10 was released in July of 2015 and was made keeping in mind a strong and efficient user experience.
It supports the Universal Windows Platform apps (universal apps). Universal apps can be designed to run across
multiple Microsoft product families with nearly identical code—including PCs, tablets, smartphones, embedded
systems, Xbox One, Surface Hub and Mixed Reality. The user interface was revised to handle transitions
between a mouse-oriented interface and a touchscreen-optimized interface. It also includes a ‘game DVR’mode
to allow recordings of the last 30 seconds of play, all better for the social gaming.

Windows 11
The latest release of Microsoft’s Windows NT operating system is the Windows 11. It released in the year 2021
and features some major changes to the Windows shell. Windows 11 has a redesigned start menu from its
previous version of 10. Internet Explorer (IE) has been replaced by the Chromium-based Microsoft Edge as the
default web browser.

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The Features of The Windows Operating System

THE FEATURES OF THE WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEM

Desktop
When we switch on our computer, the first thing that we see is our desktop. The background image is called the
wallpaper, and the thick ribbon at the bottom is the taskbar.

SEARCH BAR
TASKBAR TASKBAR WIDGETS

START BUTTON
ICONS
WALLPAPER

Icons
A small image of a program, shown on the desktop with program name is known as icon. Icons are small pictures
that represent files,folders, programs and other items.
This PC/ My Computer
It is the most important icon on the desktop, which contains icons of document folders, hard disk’s partition, and
each removable disk drives.
Task Bar
The long horizontal bar at the bottom of the desktop is known as Task bar. When we open a program or any
window, then the button of that program will be displayed on the task bar.
Generally, task bar consists of three parts

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The Features of The Windows Operating System

(i) Start button (ii) Middle section and (iii) Notification area, containing different widgets.

A windows 10 start menu view

The start menu has been divided into several sections: -
 The left thin strip containing small icons
 The middle strip containing the list of actual programs installed.
 The right thick strip containing two sections of Life at a glance and Play and Explore

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The Features of The Windows Operating System

1
2
3
4
5

1. ACCOUNT
2. DOCUMENTS
3. PICTURES
4. SETTINGS
5. POWER

Files
These are the collection of data stored on storage media. In Windows, files are the basic unit to store data. The
name given to a file or document by the user is called file name.
Each file has a specific filename and has a file extension that identifies the file type. Some common filename
extensions are as follows
 .docx : -MS-Word document
 .txt: - Notepad text file
 .exe: - Executable file
 .xlsx: - MS-Excel file
 .htm&.html: - HTML file (Web page)
 .pptx: - MS-PowerPoint presentation

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Microsoft Word

MICROSOFT OFFICE
Microsoft Office is a collection of software, based on specific purpose and mainly used in office work. It is a word
processor that is used for processing words. The different packages are: -
1. MICROSOFT WORD

MS-Word is a Word processing application for editing, formatting and printing of documents. The documents can
be posters, reports, letters, brochures, Web pages, news letters, and several other documents.
Components of Microsoft Word

File Tab: - The File tab replaces the Office button from Word 2007. You can click it to check the Backstage view.
This is where you come when you need to open or save files, create new documents, print a document, and do other
file-related operations.
Title Bar: - It shows the name of the application and name of the file. It consists of three control buttons, i.e.
Minimize (reduces the window but Word still active), Restore (brings Word window to the maximum original size)
and Close (Close the word window).

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Ruler: - It appears on the top of the document window. It allows formatting the horizontal or vertical alignment of
text in a document.
Ribbon: -It is a set of tools and commands across the top of the screen
Home tab: -Consists of Clipboard (Cut, Copy, and Paste), Font (Size, Colour, Bold, Italic, Underline), Paragraph
(Bullets/ Numbering, Indent), Styles, Editing (Find and Replace).

Insert tab: - Consists of Pages (Cover Page, Blank Page, and Page Break), Tables (Table), Illustrations(Picture,
ClipArt, Shapes, SmartArt, and Chart), Links (Hyperlink, Book mark, and cross-reference),Header & Footer, Text
(Textbox, Date & Time, and Object), Symbols (Equation, Symbol).

Page Layout tab: - Consists of Themes, Page Setup, Page Background, Paragraph, and Arrange.

References tab Consists of Table of Contents, Footnotes, Citations & Bibliography, Captions,Index, and Table of
Authorities.

Mailings tab Consists of Create, Start Mail Merge, Write and Insert Fields, Preview Results and Finish.

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Microsoft Word

Review tab: - Consists of Proofing (Spelling & Grammar, Thesaurus, and Translate), Comments,Tracking,
Changes, Compare,Protect and Ink.

View tab: - Consists of Document Views (Print Layout, Full Screen Reading), Show/Hide,Zoom, Window,
Macros, etc.

Developer tab: - Consists of Code, Add-ins, Controls, XML, Protect and Templates.
This tab is useful for writing macros, running previously recorded macros, using XML commands, working with
Visual Basic and so much more.

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PRINT LAYOUT ZOOM OPTIONS

HORIZONTAL SCROLL BAR
SHOWS CURRRENT PAGE
OUT OF TOTAL PAGES

FEATURES OF MS-WORD
 Object Linking and Embedding: - It is a Microsoft technology used to share application data and objects
written in various formats from different sources. The linking of the object facilitates establishing a connection
between two objects and embedding facilitates application data insertion.
 Editing functions: Any type of correction (insert, delete, change, etc.) can be easily done on demand.
 Formatting functions: The text entered can be created in any form and style (bold, italic, underline, different
fonts, etc.).
 Alignment: You can align your text as you like, for example, left, right, or centred. You can even make a box
set, i.e., aligned from both sides.
 Deleting errors: You can remove a word, line, or paragraph from a stroke, and the rest of the subject will
appear automatically.
 Line Spacing: You can set the line spacing from one to nine according to your preference.
 Page break: You can set a page break at any point in the text so that the next page is printed when printing.
 Search and Replace: You can search for a specific word in the entire document and replace it with another
word.
 Thesaurus: you can exchange a word with one of its synonyms. This way you can avoid the repetition of a
single word in a document and add beauty to the language.
 Indentation: Refers to the space between the text boundaries and the margins of the page. There are three
types of indents: positive, negative, and hanging.
 Header and footer: A header or footer is text or a graphic, such as a page number, a date, or a company logo,
that is typically printed at the top or bottom of each page of a document.
 Page orientation: Refers to whether the text is printed length ways or across. Above the printed side is called
PORTRAIT and the side printed across is called LANDSCAPE.
 Spell Checker: Not only can it check spelling mistakes, but it can also suggest possible alternatives for
misspelled words.
 Mail Merge: This is a function that allows you to print a large number of letters/documents with more or less
similar texts. Below this, the same letter of invitation must be sent to the guests; only the name and address are
changed.
 Watermark: Under the page layout tab, there is an option of inserting Watermark. Watermark feature
indicates that the document is meant to be treated specially, as urgent or confidential.
 Saving as: - Saving as option gives the user the chance to save this word document into other various formats,
like, PDF, webpage, etc.

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Microsoft Word

FUNCTION KEYS
Open a document. Ctrl+O
Create a new document. Ctrl+N
Save the document. Ctrl+S or Shift + F12
Close the document. Ctrl+W
Cut the selected content to the Clipboard. Ctrl+X
Copy the selected content to the Clipboard. Ctrl+C
Paste the contents of the Clipboard. Ctrl+V
Select all document content Ctrl+A
Apply bold formatting to text. Ctrl+B
Apply italic formatting to text. Ctrl+I
Apply underline formatting to text. Ctrl+U
Decrease the font size by 1 point. Ctrl+Right bracket ([) = Ctrl+[
Increase the font size by 1 point. Ctrl+Right bracket (]) = Ctrl+]
Centre the text. Ctrl+E
Align the text to the left. Ctrl+L
Align the text to the right. Ctrl+R
Cancel a command. Esc
Undo the previous action. Ctrl+Z
Redo the previous action, if possible. Ctrl+Y
Split the document window. Ctrl+Alt+S
Remove the document window split. Alt+Shift+C or Ctrl+Alt+S
Print Preview Ctrl + F2
Spelling;Checks the spelling in the active document F7
Format Painter Ctrl + Shift + C
Insert the current date Alt + Shift + D
Insert the current time Alt + Shift + T
Applies a style or records a style Ctrl + Shift + S
Changes the font of the selected text. Ctrl + Shift + F
Changes the font size of the selected text Ctrl + Shift + P
Aligns the paragraph at both right and left indents; Ctrl + J
JUSTIFY
To increase line spacing Ctrl + 5

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Microsoft Excel

MICROSOFT EXCEL
It is an electronic spreadsheet used for analysing, sharing and managing information for accounting, performing
mathematical calculations, budgeting calculations and more. The spreadsheet program also provides tools for
creating graphs, inserting pictures and chart, analysing the data.

COLUMN HEADING
ACTIVE CELL
FORMULA BAR

ROW HEADING

STATUS BAR

WORKSHEETS TO ADD NEW

SHEETS

A view of the MS-Excel window

Components of Microsoft Excel

The components of MS-Excel are as follows

1. Title Bar shows the name of the application and name of the file. It consists of three control buttons, i.e.
minimize, maximize and close.
2. Ribbon consists of a panel of commands which are organised into a set of tabs.
3. Tab contains the button needed to edit characters, text and layout.
 Home tab consists of Clipboard, Font, Alignment, Number, Styles, Cells and Editing.
 Insert tab consists of Tables, Illustrations, Charts, Links and Text.
 Page Layout tab consists of Themes, Page Setup, Scale to Fit, Sheet Options and Arrange.
 Formulas tab consists of Function Library, Defined Names, Formula Auditing and Calculation.
 Data tab consists of Get External Data, Connections, Sort & Filter, Data Tools and Outline.
 The Review tab consists of Proofing, Comments and Changes.
 View tab consists of Workbook Views, Show/Hide. Zoom, Window and Macros.

4. Status Bar It displays information about the currently active worksheet. It includes page number, view
shortcuts,zoom slider, etc.
5. Formula Bar It is located below the ribbon. It is used to enter and edit worksheet data. It includes

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 Name box displays the all references or column and row location of the active cell.
 Functions are predefined formulas that perform calculations by using specific values, called arguments

Microsoft Excel Features

 AutoFormat: It allows the Excel users to use predefined table formatting options.
 AutoSum: AutoSum feature helps us to calculate the sum of a row or column automatically by inserting an
addition formula for a range of cells.
 List AutoFill: It automatically develops cell formatting when a new component is added to the end of a list.
 AutoFill: This feature allows us to quickly fill cells with a repetitive or sequential record such as
chronological dates or numbers and repeated documents. AutoFill can also be used to copy functions. We
can also alter text and numbers with this feature.
 AutoShapes: AutoShapes toolbar will allow us to draw some geometrical shapes, arrows, flowchart items,
stars, and more. With these shapes, we can draw our graphs.
 Wizard: It guides us to work effectively while we work by displaying several helpful tips and techniques
based on what we are doing. Drag and Drop feature will help us to reposition the record and text by simply
dragging the data with the help of the mouse.
 Charts: This feature will help you to present the data in graphical form by using Pie, Bar, Line charts, and
more.
 PivotTable: It flips and sums data in seconds and allows us to execute data analysis and generating
documents like periodic financial statements, statistical documents, etc. We can also analyse complex data
relationships graphically.

Functions in Ms-Excel
The predefined formulas in MS-Excel are called functions.There are different types of functions

Function Description Example

SUM It is used to add all the = SUM

values provided as an (A1 : A10)
argument.

MAX This function is used to = MAX

return maximum value (A1 : A10)
from a list of arguments
MIN This function is used to = MIN
return minimum value (A1 : A10 )
from a list of arguments

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COUNT This function counts the = COUNT

number of cells that contain (A1 : A10)
number.

AVERAGE This function calculates the = AVERAGE

average of all the values =LEFT
provided as arguments.
AVERAGEIF The AVERAGEIF function =AVERAGEIF(range,
is a premade function in criteria, [average_range]).
Excel, which calculates the
[CRITERIA= greater than
average of a range based on a
(>), lesser than(<) or
true or false condition
equal(=)
CONCAT The CONCAT function is =CONCAT(cell1, delimiter,
used to link multiple cells cell2)
without adding any
Delimiters are spacing or
delimiters between the
symbols used to separate
combined cell values
content elements apart
from each other.
IF The IF function is a premade =IF(logical_test,
function in Excel, which [value_if_true],
returns values based on a true [value_if_false])
or false condition.
IFS The IFS function is a =IFS(logical_test1,
premade function in Excel, value_if_true1,
which returns values based [logical_test2,
on one or more true or false value_if_true2],
conditions [logical_test3; ...)
LEFT The LEFT function is used to =LEFT
retrieve a chosen amount of
(A1 : A10)
characters, counting from the
left side of an Excel cell. The
chosen number has to be
greater than 0 and is set to 1
by default.

Where, A1 : A10 is a range between the cells of A1and A10.

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Types of Charts

 Column Chart: -Column Charts are useful to visually compare values across a few categories or for showing
data changes over a period of time
 Line Chart: -Line charts can show continuous data over time on an evenly scaled Axis. Therefore, they are
ideal for showing trends in data at equal intervals, such as days, months, quarters or years.
 Pie Chart: -Pie charts show the size of the items in one data series, proportional to the sum of the items. The
data points in a Pie chart are shown as a percentage of the whole Pie.
 Doughnut Chart: -Doughnut charts show the size of items in a data series, proportional to the sum of the
items. The doughnut chart is similar to a pie chart, but it can contain more than one data series.
 Bar Chart: -Bar charts illustrate the comparisons among individual items. A Bar chart typically displays
categories along the vertical (category) axis and values along the horizontal (value) axis.
 Area Chart: -Area charts can be used to plot change over time (years, months and days) or categories and
draw attention to the total value across a trend. By showing the sum of the plotted values, an Area chart also
shows the relationship of parts to a whole.
 XY (Scatter) Chart: -Scatter (X Y) charts are typically used for showing and comparing numeric values, like
scientific, statistical, and engineering data.
 Bubble Chart: -A Bubble chart is like a Scatter chart with an additional third column to specify the size of
the bubbles it shows to represent the data points in the data series.
 Stock Chart: -Stock charts, as the name indicates are useful to show fluctuations in stock prices. However,
these charts are useful to show fluctuations in other data also, such as daily rainfall or annual temperatures
 Surface Chart: -Surface charts are useful when you want to find the optimum combinations between two
sets of data. As in a topographic map, the colours and patterns indicate the areas that are in the same range
of values.
 Radar Chart: -Radar charts compare the aggregate values of several data series.

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Keys Functions
Ctrl + N Create a new workbook.
Ctrl + O Open an existing workbook.
Ctrl + S Save the active workbook.
F12 Save the active workbook under a new name, displays the Save as
dialog box.
Ctrl + W Close the active workbook.
Ctrl + C Copy the contents of the selected cells to Clipboard.
Ctrl + X Cut the contents of the selected cells to Clipboard.
Ctrl + V Insert the contents of the Clipboard into the selected cell(s).
Ctrl + Z Undo your last action. Panic button :)
Ctrl + P Open the "Print" dialog.
Ctrl + 1 Open the "Format Cells" dialog
Ctrl + T Convert selected cells to a table.
Ctrl + F1 Show / hide the Excel Ribbon. Hide the ribbon to view more than 4
rows of data
Ctrl + Tab Switch to the next open Excel workbook.
Ctrl + G Open the "Go to" dialog. Pressing F5 displays the same dialog.
Ctrl + F Display the "Find" dialog box.
Ctrl + ; Enter the current date
Ctrl + Enter Fill the selected cells with the contents of the current cell.
Ctrl + D Copy the contents and format of the first cell in the selected range into
the cells below. If more than one column is selected, the contents of
the topmost cell in each column will be copied downwards
Ctrl + Y Repeat (Redo) the last action, if possible

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Microsoft Powerpoint

MICROSOFT POWERPOINT
Microsoft PowerPoint is a commercial presentation application written and distributed by Microsoft for Microsoft
Windows and Mac OS X. Microsoft PowerPoint is a presentation tool that supports text, shapes, graphics, pictures
and multimedia along with integration with other Microsoft Office products like Excel. By default, documents
saved in PowerPoint 2010 are saved with the .pptx extension whereas; the file extension of the prior PowerPoint
versions is .ppt.

MENU
SLIDE THUMBNAIL

OUTLINE VIEW TAB

SLIDE PANEL
NOTES

VIEW BUTTONS

1. Title Bar It contains the name of currently opened file followed by software name.
2. Ribbon It is same as Word and Excel, just few tabs are different like Animations, Slide Show, etc.
3. Slide It appears in the centre of the window. You can create your presentation by adding content to the
slides.
4. Slide Panel This area of PowerPoint window displays all the slides that are added in the presentation.
5. Slide View Tab This tab displays a thumbnail view of all the slides.
6. Outline View Tab This tab displays the text contained in the presentation in an outline format.
7. Notes Section This can be used for creating notes.
8. Status Bar It displays the number of the slide that is currently being displayed

PowerPoint Views

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1. Normal View This is the main editing view, where you write and design your presentations, i.e. actual
screen which is displayed.
2. Slide Sorter View It provides a view of slides in thumbnail form. This view makes it easy to sort and
organise the sequence of the slides at the time of creating presentation.
3. Notes Page View In this view, the notes pane is located just below the slide pane. Here, notes that apply to
the current slide can be typed. Later, these notes can be printed and referred while giving actual presentation
4. Slide Show View This is used to deliver a presentation to the audience. Slide Show view takes up the full
computer screen, like an actual presentation. To exit Slide Show view, press Esc key from the keyboard.
5. Master View This view includes Slide view, Handout view and Notes view. They are the main slides that
store information about the presentation, including background color, fonts effects, placeholder sizes and
positions.
6. Presenter view Use Presenter view to view your notes while delivering your presentation. In Presenter
view, your audience cannot see your notes
7. Reading view Most people reviewing a PowerPoint presentation without a presenter will want to use
Reading view. It displays the presentation in a full screen like Slide Show view, and it includes a few simple
controls to make it easy to flip through the slides.

Create new presentation Ctrl+N

Add a new slide. Ctrl+M
Apply bold formatting to the selected text. Ctrl+B
Open the Font dialog box. Ctrl+T
Cut selected text, object, or slide. Ctrl+X
Copy selected text, object, or slide. Ctrl+C
Paste cut or copied text, object, or slide. Ctrl+V
Insert a hyperlink. Ctrl+K
Insert a new comment. Ctrl+Alt+M
Undo the last action. Ctrl+Z
Redo the last action. Ctrl+Y
Go to the next slide. Page down
Go to the previous slide. Page up
Start the slide show. F5
End the slide show. Esc
Print a presentation. Ctrl+P
Save the presentation. Ctrl+S

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Close PowerPoint. Ctrl+Q

Insert a new slide. Ctrl+M
Go to the next slide. Page down
Go to the previous slide. Page up
Zoom out. Ctrl+Minus sign (-)
Zoom in. Ctrl+Plus sign (+)
Zoom to fit. Ctrl+Alt+O

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Microsoft Access

MS ACCESS

Microsoft Access is a Database Management System (DBMS) from Microsoft that combines the relational
Microsoft Jet Database Engine with a graphical user interface and software development tools. It is a member
of the Microsoft Office suite of applications, included in the professional and higher editions.

It can also import or link directly to data stored in other applications and databases.

Access can work with most popular databases that support the Open Database Connectivity (ODBC) standard,
including SQL Server, Oracle, and DB2.

Software developers can use Microsoft Access to develop application software.

Microsoft Access stores information which is called a database. To use MS Access, you will need to follow these
four steps −

 Database Creation − Create your Microsoft Access database and specify what kind of data you will be
storing.
 Data Input − after your database is created, the data of every business day can be entered into the Access
database.
 Query − this is a fancy term to basically describe the process of retrieving information from the database.
 Report− Information from the database is organized in a nice presentation that can be printed in an Access
Report.

Components of MS-Access

 Table stores the data in your database.

 Queries get information from the data stored in the tables
 Reports allow printing of data, based on queries or tables created by the user.
 Forms make it easy to enter data in the tables. A form is an interface for adding and editing data.

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Microsoft Onenote

MICROSOFT ONENOTE

OneNote is an electronic notebook, which is a part of Microsoft Office since 2003. It helps in organizing notes,
files, articles, pictures, and more information in a single digital notebook. It is available approximately for all
devices such as Mobile, Laptops, Desktops, and also for all the operating system (IOS, MAC, Windows, and
Android).

Features of OneNote
 Organize data in Notebook is one of the best features of OneNote. It allows you to store data in the form of
Notebook. A notebook is made up of one or more sections, and each section contains the individual pages or
subpages. In Notebook, we store information in the form of text, image, audio, and video.
 OneNote web clipper allows you to extract information from a web page to OneNote. You can access
clipped webpages on any computer, tablets, or phones.
 The template is a pre-designed layout of OneNote. OneNote 2016 contains several in-built templates,
including decorative page backgrounds, uniform appearance, or a consistent layout.
 OneNote has an ability to search the particular text. You can simply press the Ctrl+E key to enable the
search panel, and type what you want to search.
 A recording is one of the important features of OneNote. In OneNote, you can record audio or video by
clicking on Insert -> Record Audio or video. It helps you to record any interview, important notes on your
own voice, etc.
 OneNote provides password security for each section in a notebook. To make your section password
protected, right-click on the section and select Password-Protect this section.
 Tags in OneNote help you to organize content, remember tasks, or find content based on the tags attached
to it.
 OneNote allows you to translate the notes from one language to your preferred language, which is easily
understandable by you.
 Ink to text is used to convert the handwritten notes into typed text. It helps you for writing the formal
document, resume, and reports.
 Ink to Math is used to covert the equation to formatted equations.

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Microsoft Outlook

MICROSOFT OUTLOOK
It is an E-mail client and personal information manager that is available as a part of Microsoft Office suite.
Windows mobile devices are the version of MS-Outlook, enables users to synchronise their E-mails data to their
smartphones.

MS-Outlook can work with Microsoft exchange server and Microsoft SharePoint server for multiple users in an
organisation such as shared mailboxes, calendars, exchange public folders, SharePoint lists and meeting schedules.
It is one of the best email clients as it has lots of features that individuals can use for personal information
management. It is a part of the Microsoft Office suite. It can be used in both ways as stand-alone software and also
as multiple-user software.

Some of the features of Microsoft Outlook are:

 Task Management
 Contact Management
 Setting Reminders
 Note Taking
 Calendar Management

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Microsoft Onedrive

MICROSOFT ONEDRIVE
Microsoft OneDrive (formerly SkyDrive) is a file hosting service operated by Microsoft. it enables registered users
to share and synchronize their files. OneDrive also works as the storage backend of the web version of Microsoft
Office. OneDrive offers 5 GB of storage space free of charge. Additional storage is available for purchase
OneDrive implements a "recycle bin"; files the user chooses to delete are stored there for a time, without counting
as part of the user's allocation, and can be reinstated until they are ultimately purged from OneDrive

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Microsoft Teams

MICROSOFT TEAMS
Microsoft Teams is a proprietary business communication platform developed by Microsoft, as part of the
Microsoft 365 family of products. Teams replaced other Microsoft-operated business messaging and collaboration
platforms, including Skype for Business and Microsoft Classroom.
Features of Microsoft teams
 Chats: -Teams allows users to communicate in two-way persistent chats with one or multiple participants.
Participants can message using text, emoji, stickers and gifs, as well as sharing links and files.
 “Teams” allows communities, groups, or teams to contribute in a shared workspace where messages and
digital content on a specific topic are shared. Team members can join through invitation sent by a team
administrator or owner or sharing of a specific URL.
 Channels allow team members to communicate without the use of email or group SMS (texting). Users can
reply to posts with text, images, GIFs, and image macros. Direct messages send private messages to
designated users rather than the entire channel. Connectors can be used within a channel to submit
information contacted through a third-party service. Connectors include MailChimp, Facebook Pages,
Twitter, PowerBI and Bing News.
 Group conversations: - Ad-hoc groups can be created to share instant messaging, audio calls (VoIP), and
video calls inside the client software.
 Telephone replacement: -A feature on one of the higher cost licencing tiers allows connectivity to the
public switched telephone network (PSTN) telephone system. This allows users to use Teams as if it were a
telephone, making and receiving calls over the PSTN, including the ability to host 'conference calls' with
multiple participants.
 Meetings can be scheduled with multiple participants able to share audio, video, chat and presented content
with all participants. Multiple users can connect via a meeting link.
 Teams Live Events Teams Live Events replaces Skype Meeting Broadcast for users to broadcast to 10,000
participants on Teams, Yammer, or Microsoft Stream.
 Breakout Rooms: -Breakout rooms split a meeting into small groups.
 Front Row:-Front Row adjusts the layout of the viewer's screen, placing the speaker or content in the centre
of the gallery with other meeting participant's video feeds reduced in size and located below the speaker.
 Microsoft Teams for Education allows teachers to distribute, provide feedback, and grade student
assignments turned in via Teams using the Assignments tab through Office 365 for Education subscribers.
Quizzes can also be assigned to students through integration with Office Forms.

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Introduction

What is Data?
Data can be any information, thought, or media that is being transferred from one person to another. Everything we
say or communicate is the form of data. In computers, it can be used in many forms like raw text, numbers,
characters, bytes, images, etc.
What is Database?
Database is the collection of organized data that is structured and stored electronically on a computer system.
Databases can store data in the form of tables depending upon the type of database. The database's primary goal is
to store a huge amount of data.
What is a DBMS?
Database Management System (DBMS) is a software system that is designed to manage and organize data in a
structured manner. It allows users to create, modify, and query a database, as well as manage the security and
access controls for that database.
Some key features of a DBMS include:
Data modeling: A DBMS provides tools for creating and modifying data models, which define the structure and
relationships of the data in a database.
Data storage and retrieval: A DBMS is responsible for storing and retrieving data from the database, and can
provide various methods for searching and querying the data.
Concurrency control: A DBMS provides mechanisms for controlling concurrent access to the database, to ensure
that multiple users can access the data without conflicting with each other.
Data integrity and security: A DBMS provides tools for enforcing data integrity and security constraints, such as
constraints on the values of data and access controls that restrict who can access the data.
Backup and recovery: A DBMS provides mechanisms for backing up and recovering the data in the event of a
system failure.

Types of Databases

Centralised Database

It is a collection of information at a single location accessible from numerous points. The basic function of a
centralized database management system is to provide facilities and give access to all the connected computers
which fulfill all requirements requested by any single node.

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Introduction

Cloud Database
It is a database that is built, deployed, and accessed in a cloud environment, private, public, or hybrid cloud. It has
two deployment models:

 Traditional Database: - Very similar to an onsite, in-house managed database—except for infrastructure
provisioning. In this case, an organization purchases virtual machine space from a cloud services provider
and the database is deployed to the cloud. It is useful for early age organizations, small size companies.

 Database as a service (DBaaS): - It's a database in which an organization contracts with a cloud services
provider through a fee-based subscription service. The service provider offers a variety of real-time
operational, maintenance, administrative, and database management tasks to the end-user.

Distributed Database

A distributed database is one in which data is stored across different physical locations. It may be stored in multiple
computers located in the same physical location or maybe dispersed over a network of interconnected computers.

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Introduction

Global Schema

End User Database

An end-user database enables storing data created by an end-user. Any database which allows the end-user to create
and manage data comes under this category. This means that the user is able to directly interact with and control the
database and the data that is stored in it.

Hierarchical Database

It is a database model in which the data is arranged in a hierarchical tree manner. As it is arranged based on the
hierarchy, every record of the data tree should have at least one parent, except for the child records in the last level,
and each parent should have one or more child records. The Data can be accessed by following through the
classified structure, always initiated from the Root or the first parent.

Network Database

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Introduction

A network database is based on a network data model, which allows each record to be related to multiple primary
records and multiple secondary records. Network databases allow you to create a flexible model of relationships
between entities.

Object Oriented Database

The database combines object-oriented programming concepts with relational database principles. Think of a class
as a model, and objects as various constructs/instances of it. These instances share the properties they derive from
the class. For example, a class of 'bear', the objects of which could be brown bears, Polar Bears, Black Bears, etc.
Objects are the basic building block and an instance of a class, where the type is either built-in or user-defined.

Relational Database

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Introduction

An RDBMS stores and organizes data points that are related to one another. Based on the model, a relational
database presents data sets as a collection of tables and provides relational operators to manipulate the data in
tabular form. Tables consist of columns containing one or more data categories, and rows, containing a set of data
defined by the category.

DBMS architecture
 The design of a DBMS depends on its architecture.
 The architecture can either be single tier or multi-tier.

1-tier architecture
Here, the DBMS is the only entity, where the user interacts. It sends requests and fetches data through a single unit.
Any changes done here will need to be done on the DBMS itself. These kinds of architectures are devoid of any
tools for the end users.

2-tier architecture
In 2-tier architecture, the DBMS can only be accessed through an application. Programmers usually use and prefer
a 2 tier-architecture where they access the DBMS by means of an application.

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Introduction

3-tier architecture
It is the most widely used architecture where the tiers are separated from each other based on their complexity of
the users and how they use the data present in the database.

Relational and non-relational databases

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Introduction

A relational database is the database management system in which data is stored in distinct tables from where
they can be accessed or reassembled in different ways under user-defined relational tables, whereas a non-
relational database is the database architecture that is not built around tables. This type of database contains data
in the form of forms or a large amount of data which is either unstructured or semi-structured data.
NOTE: - The Relational Database (SQL) was first introduced in 1974 by two colleagues of IBM, whereas a
Non-relational database is already known from the 1960s.

Examples of Relational Databases: MySQL, Oracle.

Examples of Non-Relational Databases: MongoDB, Apache Cassandra.

Data Abstraction and Data Independence

Data Abstraction is a process of hiding unwanted or irrelevant details from the end user. It provides a different view
and helps in achieving data independence which is used to enhance the security of data

Mainly there are three levels of abstraction for DBMS, which are as follows −

 Physical or Internal Level

 Logical or Conceptual Level
 View or External Level

Physical or Internal Level: This is the lowest level of data abstraction. It tells us how the data is actually stored in
memory. The access methods like sequential or random access and file organization methods like B+ trees and
hashing are used for the same. Usability, size of memory, and the number of times the records are factors that we
need to know while designing the database. Suppose we need to store the details of an employee. Blocks of storage
and the amount of memory used for these purposes are kept hidden from the user.It will consist of blocks of
storages (bytes,MB,GB,TB,etc)

Logical or Conceptual Level: This level comprises the information that is actually stored in the database in the
form of tables. It also stores the relationship among the data entities in relatively simple structures. At this level, the
information available to the user at the view level is unknown. We can store the various attributes of an employee
and relationships, e.g. with the manager can also be stored.It will contain the fields and the attributes of data.

View or External Level: This is the highest level of abstraction. Only a part of the actual database is viewed by the
users. This level exists to ease the accessibility of the database by an individual user. Users view data in the form of
rows and columns. Tables and relations are used to store data. Multiple views of the same database may exist.
Users can just view the data and interact with the database, storage and implementation details are hidden from
them.
It works with CLI or GUI access of database

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Introduction

The main purpose of data abstraction is to achieve data independence in order to save the time and cost required
when the database is modified or altered.

Data Independence is mainly defined as a property of DBMS that helps you to change the database schema at one
level of a system without requiring to change the schema at the next level. It helps to keep the data separated from
all programs that makes use of it.

We have namely two levels of data independence arising from these levels of abstraction:

Physical level data independence: It refers to the characteristic of being able to modify the physical schema
without any alterations to the conceptual or logical schema, done for optimization purposes, e.g., the Conceptual
structure of the database would not be affected by any change in storage size of the database system server.

Logical level data independence: It refers to the characteristics of being able to modify the logical schema without
affecting the external schema or application program. The user view of the data would not be affected by any
changes to the conceptual view of the data.These changes may include insertion or deletion of attributes, altering
table structures entities or relationships to the logical schema, etc.

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Introduction

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ER Model

Introduction to ER Model
The E-R in the E-R Model stands for entity-relationship. The Entity Relationship Diagram explains the relationship
among the entities present in the database. It is the structural format of the database.

Components of ER Diagram
ER diagram is created based on three principal components: entities, attributes, and relationships. The components
of ER diagram are as follows:
 Entity
 Attributes
 Relationship
 Weak entity
 Strong entity
 Simple attribute
 Key attribute
 Composite attribute
 Derived attribute
 Multivalued attribute

Entity
It may be an object, person, place or event that stores data in a database. In a relationship diagram an entity is
represented in rectangle form. For example, students, employees, managers, etc.

Entity is characterised into two types as follows −

Strong entity set: The entity types which consist of key attributes or if there are enough attributes for forming a
primary key attribute are called a strong entity set. It is represented by a single rectangle.

Weak entity set: An entity does not have a primary key attribute (concept of keys to be covered in the next
module) and depends on another strong entity via foreign key attribute. It is represented by a double rectangle.

Attributes
It is the name, thing etc. These are the data characteristics of entities or data elements and data fields.

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ER Model

Types of attributes
The types of attributes in the Entity Relationship (ER) model are as follows −

 Single value attribute − These attributes contain a single value. For example, age, salary etc.

 Multivalued attribute − They contain more than one value of a single entity. For example, phone numbers.

 Composite attribute − The attributes which can be further divided. For example, Name-> First name,
Middle name, last name

 Derived attribute − The attribute that can be derived from others. For example, age, which can be derived
from Date of Birth.

Symbols used in E-R diagrams

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ER Model

Relationship Type and Relationship Set

A relationship type represents the association between entity types. For example, ‘Enrolled in’ is a relationship
type that exists between entity type Student and Course.

A set of relationships of the same type is known as a relationship set.

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ER Model

Keys
A key in DBMS is an attribute or set of attribute which helps you to identify a row (tuple) in a relation (table)
uniquely.

Types of Keys
There are mainly four types of keys which are described below:
1. CANDIDATE KEY: - It is a set of attributes that uniquely identifies tuples in a table. Every table must
have at least a single candidate key. The Primary key must be selected from the candidate keys. In short, the
Candidate key is the superset, and the primary key is the subset.
2. PRIMARY KEY: - It is a set of one or more attributes that can uniquely identify tuples (rows) within the
relation. It has to be unique and can’t be NULL. Its values are not updatable.
3. ALTERNATIVE KEY: - Mathematically, Candidate Key – Primary Key relates to the alternate key. By
definition, From the set of candidate keys after selecting one of the keys asprimary key, all other remaining
keys are known as alternate keys.
4. SUPER KEY: - A super key is the superset of Candidate keys. In short, Super Key = Candidate Key + any
other attribute.
5. FOREIGN KEY: - Its main role is to create relationship between two tables. It is a non-key attribute whose
value is derived from the primary key of the same or some another table. It can have duplicate values.

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Introduction to Structured Query Language (SQL)

INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

Structured Query Language is a standard Database language which is used to create, maintain and retrieve the
relational database.SQL is case insensitive. It is the programming language for relational databases. The queries to
deal with relational database can be categories as:
 Data Definition Language (DDL)
 Data Manipulation Language(DML)
 Data Control Language(DCL)
 Transactional Control Language(TCL)

DDLis the short name for Data Definition Language, which deals with database schemas and descriptions, of how
the data should reside in the database. The commands are
CREATE: to create a database and its objects like (table, index, views, store procedure, function, and triggers)
ALTER: alters the structure of the existing database
DROP: delete objects from the database
TRUNCATE: remove all records from a table, including all spaces allocated for the records are removed
COMMENT: add comments to the data dictionary
RENAME: rename an object.

DML is the short name for Data Manipulation Language which deals with data manipulation and includes most
common SQL statements such SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, etc., and it is used to store, modify,
retrieve, delete and update data in a database.
SELECT: retrieve data from a database
INSERT: insert data into a table
UPDATE: updates existing data within a table
DELETE: Delete all records from a database table

DCL is short for Data Control Language which acts as an access specifier to the database (basically to grant and
revoke permissions to users in the database).
GRANT: grant permissions to the user for running DML (SELECT, INSERT, DELETE,…) commands on the
table.
REVOKE: revoke permissions to the user for running DML (SELECT, INSERT, DELETE) command on the
specified table.

TCL is short for Transactional Control Language which acts as a manager for all types of transactional data and all
transactions. Some of the commands of TCL are
ROLL BACK: Used to cancel or Undo changes made in the database
COMMIT: It is used to apply or save changes in the database
SAVE POINT: It is used to save the data on the temporary basis in the database

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Introduction

INTRODUCTION TO INTERNET
The Internet is generally defined as a global network connecting millions of computers. The Internet contains
billions of web pages created by people and companies from around the world, making it a limitless place to locate
information and entertainment. The Internet also has thousands of services that help make life more convenient. For
example, many financial institutions offer online banking that enables a user to manage and view their account
online.
The Internet is the world's largest network of NETWORKS. When you want to access the resources offered by the
Internet, you don't really connect to the Internet; you connect to a network that is eventually connected to the
Internet BACKBONE, a network of extremely fast (and incredibly overloaded!) network components. The
Internet is a network of NETWORKS -- not a network of hosts.

The history of internet

The internet was developed in the United States by the "United States Department of Defence Advanced Research
Projects Agency" (DARPA). It was first connected in October, 1969, and was called ARPANET. The World
Wide Web was created at CERN in Switzerland in 1990 by a British (UK) man named Tim Berners-Lee.
IMPORTANT TERMS:
Internet service provider: - An Internet service provider (ISP) is a company that provides customers with Internet
access. Data may be transmitted using several technologies, including dial-up, DSL, cable modem, wireless or
dedicated high-speed interconnects.
W3C: -Short for World Wide Web Consortium, W3C is an organization founded by Tim Berners-Lee in 1994 to
help with the development of common protocols for the unified evolution of the Web.
Internet Architecture Board (IAB): -Internet Architecture Board defines the architecture for the Internet. The
Internet Architecture Board (IAB) purpose is to provide oversight of the architecture for the protocols and other
procedures used by the Internet.

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Internet Society (ISOC): -The Internet Society (ISOC) is mainly involved in policy, governance, technology,
education & training and development of internet.
Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) & Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
(IANA): -The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers is an international non-profit corporation
which is in charge of Internet Protocol (IP) address allocation (IPv4 and IPv6).
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE): -The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE) develop and maintain standards in every technology field
related with electricity. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) develop and maintain Local
Area Network (LAN) networking standards including Ethernet (IEEE 802.3 family standards) and Wireless LAN
(IEEE802.11 family standards).
Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) & Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF): -The Internet Research
Task Force is a technology research organization which is working on focused long-term research on technical
topics related to standard Internet protocols, applications, architecture and technology.
VPN (Virtual Private Network): - A Virtual Private Network (VPN) is a Network Security Technology, which
is used to secure private network traffic over a public network such as the Internet. A VPN ensures Data
Confidentiality (privacy) and Data Integrity for network data in its journey from the source device to destination
device using network security protocols like IPSec (Internet Protocol Security). IPSec (Internet Protocol Security)
VPN provide Data Confidentiality by encrypting the data at the sending device and decrypting the data at receiving
end. IPSec (Internet Protocol Security) VPN also provides Data Integrity (making sure that the Data is not changed
while its journey) by using Hashing Algorithms like MD5 (Message Digest) and SHA (Secure Hashing Algorithm).

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Internet Connections

INTERNET CONNECTIONS

The two most important factors that help us make a decision which internet to choose are; Bandwidth and cost. The
speed of Internet access depends on the bandwidth.
Dial-Up Connection: -A Dial-up is a method of connecting to the Internet using an existing telephone. Dial-up
connection uses the telephone line to connect to the Internet. When a user initiates a dial-up connection, the modem
dials a phone number of an Internet Service Provider (ISP) that is designated to receive dial-up calls. The ISP then
establishes the connection, which usually takes about ten seconds and is accompanied by several beeping and
buzzing sounds.
Broadband Connection: -The term broadband commonly refers to high speed Internet access that is always on and
faster than the traditional dial-up access. It uses a telephone line to connect to the Internet. Broadband access allows
users to connect to the Internet at greater speed than a standard 256 KB modem or dial-up access.
Wireless Connection Wireless broadband connects a home or business to the Internet using a radio link between
the customer’s location and the service provider’s facility. Wireless broadband can be mobile or fixed. Unlike DSL
and cable, wireless broadband requires neither a modem nor cables.
• Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi) It is a universal wireless networking technology that utilises radio frequencies to
transfer data. Wi-Fi allows high speed Internet connections without the use of cables or wires .Wi-Fi
networks can be used for public Internet access at ‘hotspot’ such as restaurants, coffee shops, hotels,
airports, convention centres and city parks.
• Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access ( Wi-MAX) It is one of the hottest broadband
wireless technologies around today. WiMAX systems are expected to deliver broadband access services to
residential and enterprise customers in an economical way.

Domain Name is a group of network resources assigned to a group of users. A domain name is a way to identify
and locate computers connected to the Internet. A domain name must be unique. It is divided into two or more
parts, separated by period/dot (×). For example, google.com, yahoo.com, guidely.in , etc.
Some common domain abbreviations are: -
• .com: - Commercial
• .info: - The name is derived from information.
• .gov: - Government
• .edu: - Educational
• .mil: - Military
• .net: - Network resources
• .org: - Non-profit organisation
• .in: - Country domain of India
• .uk: - for United Kingdom

Domain Name System (DNS) stores and associates many types of information with domain names, but most
importantly, it translates domain names (computers host names) to IP addresses. It also lists mail exchange servers
accepting E-mail for each domain.DNS is an essential component of contemporary internet use
What is a Cookie?

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Internet Connections

A Cookie is a small message given to a Web browser by a Web server. It stores information about the user’s Web
activity. Cookies are essential to the modern Internet but a vulnerability to our privacy. Cookies help web
developers give you more personal, convenient website visits. Cookies let websites remember you, your website
logins, shopping carts and more.

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Internet Security

INTERNET SECURITY
Internet/Information security is a branch of computer security. It is the protection of computing systems and the
data that they store or access.
Security Threats and Malwares
Network security is any activity designed to protect the usability and integrity of your network and data. It includes
both hardware and software technologies. Effective network security manages access to the network. It targets a
variety of threats and stops them from entering or spreading on your network.
The primary goal of network security is Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability. These three pillars of
Network Security are often represented as CIA triangle.
• Confidentiality: The function of confidentiality is to protect precious business data from unauthorized
persons. Confidentiality part of network security makes sure that the data is available only to the intended
and authorized persons.
• Integrity: This goal means maintaining and assuring the accuracy and consistency of data. The function of
integrity is to make sure that the data is reliable and is not changed by unauthorized persons.
• Availability: The function of availability in Network Security is to make sure that the data, network
resources/services are continuously available to the legitimate users, whenever they require it.

Security Attacks: A useful means of classifying security attacks, used both in X.800 and RFC 2828, is in terms of
passive attacks and active attacks. A passive attack attempts to learn or make use of information from the system
but does not affect system resources. An active attack attempts to alter system resources or affect their operation.
Passive Attacks: Passive attacks are in the nature of eavesdropping on, or monitoring of, transmissions. The goal
of the opponent is to obtain information that is being transmitted. Two types of passive attacks are release of
message contents and traffic analysis. Passive attacks are very difficult to detect because they do not involve any
alteration of the data.
Active attacks: They involve some modification of the data stream or the creation of a false stream and can be
subdivided into four categories: masquerade, replay, modification of messages, and denial of service.
Malware: It is any type of malicious software designed to harm or exploit any programmable device, service or
network. Cybercriminals typically use it to extract data that they can leverage over victims for financial gain.
VIRUS: - Shortened for Vital Information Resources Under Siege, Computer viruses are small programs that can
negatively affect the computer. Viruses can also replicate themselves. Viruses copy themselves to other disks to
spread to other computers.
Trojan Horses: A Trojan horse program has the appearance of having a useful and desired function. A Trojan
horse neither replicates nor copies itself, but causes damage or compromises the security of the computer.
Worms: A computer worm is a self-replicating computer program. It uses a network to send copies of itself to
other nodes (computers on the network) and it may do so without any user intervention. It does not need to attach
itself to an existing program.
Spyware: Spyware is a type of malware installed on computers that collects information about users without their
knowledge. The presence of spyware is typically hidden from the user and can be difficult to detect.
Phishing: It is characterised by attempting to fraudulently acquire sensitive and or personal information such as
passwords, credit card and other sensitive information by posing as imposters.

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Internet Security

Spam: Spam is email that you did not request and do not want. Spam is a common way to spread viruses, Trojans,
etc.
Adware: Adware (short for advertising-supported software) is a type of malware that automatically delivers
advertisements. Common examples of adware include pop-up ads on websites and advertisements that are
displayed by software.
Ransomware: It is a form of malware that essentially holds a computer system captive while demanding a ransom.
It restricts user access to the computer either by encrypting files on the hard-drive or locking down the system and
displaying messages that are intended to force the user to pay the malware creator to remove the restrictions and
regain access to their computer.
Solutions to Computer Security Threats
• Antivirus Software: -It is an application software that is designed to prevent, search for, detect and remove
viruses and other malicious software like worms, Trojans, adware and more. It consists of computer
programs that attempt to identify threats and eliminate computer viruses and other malware.
• Digital Certificate: - It is the attachment to an electronic message used for security purposes. The common
use of a digital certificate is to verify that a user sending a message is who he or she claims to be, and to
provide the receiver with the means to encode a reply.
• Digital Signature: - It is an electronic form of a signature that can be used to authenticate the identity of the
sender of a message or the signer of a document, and also ensure that the original content of the message or
document that has been sent is unchanged.
• Firewall: -A firewall forms a barrier through which the traffic going in each direction must pass. A firewall
security policy dictates which traffic is authorized to pass in each direction. A firewall may be designed to
operate as a filter at the level of IP packets, or may operate at a higher protocol layer.

• Password: - It is a secret word or a string of characters used for user authentication to prove identity or
access approval to gain access to a resource.

INTRUSION DETECTION SYSTEM (IDS)

An Intrusion Detection System is used to detect all types of malicious network traffic and computer usage that can't
be detected by a conventional firewall. This includes network attacks against vulnerable services, data driven
attacks on applications, host based attacks such as privilege escalation, unauthorized logins and access to sensitive
files, and malware (viruses, Trojan horses, and worms).

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An IDS is composed of the following three components:

• Sensors: - which sense the network traffic or system activity and generate events.
• Console: - to monitor events and alerts and control the sensors,
• Detection Engine: - that records events logged by the sensors in a database and uses a system of rules to
generate alerts from the received security events.

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HTML

HTML
• HTML stands for Hyper Text Mark-up Language. It is a mark-up language used for designing web pages.
• It was introduced in 1993 by Sir Tim Berners Lee. It isn’t case sensitive.
• By using a simple notepad editor, we can create a simple HTML webpage.
• It is compatible with http & https
• As it is written in plaintext, therefore it is neutral or independent of the hardware and software.
• It is standardized by the World Wide Web Consortium (WWWC) or (W3C).

YOUR FIRST WEBPAGE

INPUT TO THE EDITOR

OUTPUT AS A WEBPAGE

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The above code snippet shows the basic structure of an HTML web page. The input shows the actual text and the
HTML tags, while the output shows what is typed inside the body tag.
BASIC HTML TAGS
• <! DOCTYPE HTML>: - It informs the web browser about the type/version of HTML.
• <HTML>: - The main container for HTML pages. This tag indicates that the web page is written in HTML.
• <HEAD>: - This tag contains the page header information.
• <TITLE>: - As its name suggests, this tag contains the title of the webpage.
• <BODY>: - It contains the main body of the webpage.

HTML HEADINGS
Heading levels are used to define the heading of a page. In HTML, the heading level ranges from h1 to h6.

THE INPUT TO THE TEXT EDITOR

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HTML

THE OUTPUT AS A WEBPAGE

CLASSES IN HTML
Classes are HTML attributes used to select one or more elements for CSS styling or other purposes. The class
attribute is commonly used for assigning styles to one or more elements. Multiple classes can be assigned to a
single element in a space-separated list.

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HTML

THE INPUT TO THE TEXT EDITOR

THE OUTPUT AS THE WEBPAGE

TO SAVE AN HTML DOCUMENT

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HTML

After writing the code in the Notepad editor, press the CTRL + S button to save the file. Else, from the menu, click
on File, and then Save option. The file name can be whatever the user wants, but the extension should always be,
.html
Formatting Tags
• <p>: - This tag indicates the starting of a new paragraph. </p> is used to end the paragraph.
• <br>: - Starts a new line without a blank line in between.
• <b>: - Gives a bold font.
• <strong>: - Same as <b>.
• <i>: - Makes the text italic.
• <u>: - Underlines the text.
• <sup>: - Superscripts any text.
• <sub>: - Subscripts any text.
• <tt>: - Uniformly spaces the tags and aligns the columns.
• <hr>: - Draws a horizontal line.
• <basefont>: - Sets a basic font size for normal browser text.
• <big>: - Increases the font size.
• <center>: -Brings all the selected content in the center of the webpage.
• <comment>: - Inserts a comment into markup.
• <del>: -Identifies deleted comment.
• <plaintext>: - Tells the browser to treat all following all following text as plaintext
• <q>: - defines an inline quotation.
• <small>: - Sets a reduced font size for the selected text.
• <var>: - defines a variable part of a phrase or example.
• <wbr>: - suggests where a word break will occur.
• <xmp>: - selects the text as an example text.
• <s>: -Renders the selected text with a horizontal strike in the middle.
• <noscript>: - Provides alternative content for use.
• <ins>: - Identifies inserted content.
• <pre>: - Preformatted text. It means that the spaces and lines appear exactly as we insert them in the text
editor.

Lists and tables tags

1. <ul></ul>: - This signifies an un-numbered list. Each individual item begins with a <li> tag and ends with
an </li> tag.

<ul>
<li>HTML</li>
<li>CSS</li>
<li>XML</li>
</ul>
If this is the text that goes inside the text editor, the output is as follows;
• HTML
• CSS

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HTML

• XML
2. <ol></ol>: - Begins and ends a numbered list. Similar to the previous un-numbered tag, each element
begins with a <li> tag and ends with an </li> tag.
3. <table></table>: - Begins and ends a table. Tables are built with rows, with each beginning with<tr> and
ending with </tr>. Within the rows, each element starts with a <td> and ends with </td>.
4. <table border></table>: - Begins and ends a table that is surrounded by a border.

Form Tags
• <form action = “path/file” method = “post”></form>: - A form in HTML ends and begins with these
tags. The method attribute* specifies what kind of http request the user wants. The http requests are as
follows: -
GET
The GET method is used to retrieve information from the given server using a given URL. Requests using
GET should only retrieve data and should have no other effect on the data.
HEAD
Same as GET, but it transfers the status line and the header section only.
POST
A POST request is used to send data to the server, for example, customer information, file upload, etc. using
HTML forms.
PUT
Replaces all the current representations of the target resource with the uploaded content.
DELETE
Removes all the current representations of the target resource given by URL.
CONNECT
Establishes a tunnel to the server identified by a given URL
OPTIONS
Describe the communication options for the target resource.
TRACE
Performs a message loop back test along with the path to the target resource.

Now, when the submit button of the form is clicked, the data is fetched accordingly.
• <input type = “submit” >: - This tag creates a submit button.
• <input type = “check box”>: - This tag creates a checkbox.

*THE HTML ATTRIBUTE

HTML attributes provide additional information about HTML elements.
• All HTML elements can have attributes.
• Attributes provide additional information about elements.
• Attributes are always specified in the start tag.
• Attributes usually come in name/value pairs like: name="value".

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CSS

CSS
Cascading Style Sheets is a style sheet language used for describing the look and formatting of a HTML document.
It handles the look and feel of a web page. Using CSS enables the user to take control of the colour of the text, the
style of the fonts, the spacing between the paragraphs, etc.

1. Inline CSS: - The inline CSS is used to style a specific HTML element. It adds a style attribute to each
HTML tag without using the selectors.
2. Internal CSS: - The internal CSS has <style> tag in the <head> section of the HTML. This is an effective
way to style single pages.
3. External CSS: - In this an entire separate CSS file is written and then synced with the HTML file.

CSS SELECTORS
These are used to select the content you want to stylize. Selectors are the part of CSS rule set. They select HTML
elements according to its id, class, type, attribute etc.
There are several CSS selectors:
• CSS Element Selector: - The element selector selects HTML elements based on the element name.
Example, all the elements in <p> will be center aligned,

p{
text-align: center;
color: red;
}
• CSS id selector: - The id selector uses the id attribute of an HTML element to select a specific element. The
id of an element is always unique within the page, so the id selector is used to select the one unique element.
In order to select an element with a specific id, we include a hash (#) followed by the id of the element.
#para3 {

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CSS

text-align: center;
color: red;
}
Here, the id= “para3”
• CSS Class selector: - The class selector selects the HTML elements with a specific class attribute. To select
elements with a specific class, we add a period(.) followed by the class name.

.center{
Text-align: center;
Color: red;
}
• CSS Universal Selector: - The CSS universal selector (*) selects all elements on the page.

*{
text-align: center;
color: blue;
}
• CSS Grouping Selector: - The grouping selector selects all the HTML elements with the same style
definitions. It suggests that all the elements that the user wants to be specifically stylized in the same way.
Example,
h1,h2,p{
text-align: center;
color: red;
}

TO SAVE A CSS DOCUMENT

After writing the code in the Notepad editor, press the CTRL + S button to save the file. Else, from the menu, click
on File, and then Save option. The file name can be whatever the user wants, but the extension should always be
.css.

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XML

XML
XML (Extensible Mark-up Language) is a mark-up language, that was released in the late 1990’s, created to
provide an easy to use and store self-describing data. It isn’t a replacement for HTML. XML tags are not pre-
defined and must be defined according to the usage of the user. Example,
<mydata>
<name>Guidely</name>
<state> Tamil Nadu </state>
</mydata>

Features of XML
• Extensible and Human Readable: - Most XML applications work even if new data is added.
• Simplicity: - XML simplifies the data sharing, transport, changes in platform and data availability.
• Separates data from HTML: - Data can be saved in different XML files using XML.
• Allows validation: - A DTD or XML schema can be used to validate an XML document.
• Supports Unicode: - XML is Unicode-compatible, signifying it can communicate any information in
human language.

ATTRIBUTES IN XML
XML tags also have attributes but it is recommended to use tags instead of attributes.
Example: -
<? Xml version = “1.0”?>
<Institute>
<Name>Guidely</Name>
<Department> Banking </Department>
<Category> Computer Awareness </Category>
</Institute>

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Introduction to IOT

INTRODUCTION TO IOT
Origin of Terminology
In the 2000s, we were headed towards a new era of ubiquity, where the “users” of the Internet would be counted in
billions and where humans might become the minority as generators and receivers of traffic. Instead, most of the
traffic would flow between devices and all kinds of “things”, thereby creating a much wider and more complex
Internet of Things.
The Internet of Things (IoT) is the network of physical objects that contain embedded technology to communicate
and sense or interact with their internal states or the external environment.
Characteristics
• Efficient, scalable and associated architecture
• Unambiguous naming and addressing
• Abundance of sleeping nodes, mobile and non-IP devices
• Intermittent connectivity

IOT MARKET SHARE

Modern day IoT Applications

• Smart Parking
• Structural health
• Noise Urban Maps
• Smartphone Detection
• Traffic Congestion
• Smart Lighting
• Waste Management
• Smart Roads
• River Floods
• Smart Grid
• Tank level
• Photovoltaic Installations
• Water Flow
• Silos Stock Calculation

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Introduction to IOT

• Perimeter Access Control

• Liquid Presence

Connectivity Terminologies
• IoT LAN: -Local, Short range communication, May or may not connect to Internet, Building or
Organization wide.
• IoT WAN: -Connection of various network segments, organizationally and geographically wide, connects
to the internet.
• IoT Node: - Connected to other nodes inside a LAN via the IoT LAN, May be sometimes connected to the
internet through a WAN directly.
• IoT Gateway: - A router connecting the IoT LAN to a WAN to the Internet Can implement several LAN
and WAN, Forwards packets between LAN and WAN on the IP layer.
• IoT Proxy: - Performs active application layer functions between IoT nodes and other entities.

IoT Sensors
A sensor detects (senses) changes in the ambient conditions or in the state of another device or a system, and
forwards or processes this information in a certain manner. They perform some input functions by sensing or
feeling the physical changes in characteristics of a system in response to stimuli. For example heat is converted to
electrical signals in a temperature sensor, or atmospheric pressure is converted to electrical signals in a barometer.
IoT Transducers
Transducers convert or transduce energy of one kind into another. For example, in a sound system, a microphone
(input device) converts sound waves into electrical signals for an amplifier to amplify (a process), and a
loudspeaker (output device) converts these electrical signals back into sound waves.
Architecture of IoT
There are four stages of the IoT architecture:-
1. Sensing Layer: -The sensing layer is the first layer of the IoT architecture and is responsible for collecting
data from different sources.
2. Network Layer: -The network layer of IoT architecture is responsible for providing communication and
connectivity between devices in the IoT system. It includes protocols and technologies that enable devices
to connect and communicate with each other and with the wider internet.
3. Data processing Layer: -The data processing layer of IoT architecture refers to the software and hardware
components that are responsible for collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data from IoT devices.
4. Application Layer: -The application layer of IoT architecture is the topmost layer that interacts directly
with the end-user. It is responsible for providing user-friendly interfaces and functionalities that enable
users to access and control IoT devices.

IOT − TECHNOLOGY AND PROTOCOLS

IoT primarily exploits standard protocols and networking technologies. However, the major
enabling technologies and protocols of IoT are RFID, NFC, low-energy Bluetooth, low-energy wireless, low-
energy radio protocols, LTE-A, and WiFi-Direct. NFC and RFID
RFID (radio-frequency identification) and NFC (near-field communication) provide simple, low energy, and
versatile options for identity and access tokens, connection boot strapping, and payments.

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Low-Energy Bluetooth
This technology supports the low-power, long-use need of IoT function while exploiting a standard technology with
native support across systems.
Low-Energy Wireless
This technology replaces the most power hungry aspect of an IoT system. Though sensors and other elements can
power down over long periods, communication links (i.e., wireless) must remain in listening mode. Low-energy
wireless not only reduces consumption, but also extends the life of the device through less use.
Radio Protocols
ZigBee, Z-Wave, and Thread are radio protocols for creating low-rate private area networks.
These technologies are low-power, but offer high throughput unlike many similar options.
LTE-A
LTE-A, or LTE Advanced, delivers an important upgrade to LTE technology by increasing not only its coverage,
but also reducing its latency and raising its throughput.
WiFi-Direct
WiFi-Direct eliminates the need for an access point. It allows P2P (peer-to-peer) connections
with the speed of WiFi, but with lower latency. WiFi-Direct eliminates an element of a network that often bogs it
down, and it does not compromise on speed or throughput.

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Introduction to Blockchain

INTRODUCTION TO BLOCKCHAIN
Blockchain technology is a digital database where information or data is stored in blocks that are linked together to
form a chain. It could be defined as a data structure that could be a growing list of information blocks.
NOTE: - Blockchain Technology first came to light when a person or Group of individuals name ‘Satoshi
Nakamoto’ published a white paper on “BitCoin: A peer-to-peer electronic cash system” in 2008.

How does Blockchain Technology Work?

One of the famous use of Blockchain is Bitcoin. It is a cryptocurrency that is used to exchange digital assets online.
Bitcoin uses cryptographic proof instead of third-party trust for two parties to execute transactions over the Internet.
Each transaction protects through digital signature.
Working of Blockchain
Distributed Database: -There is no Central Server or System which keeps the data of the Blockchain. The data is
distributed over Millions of Computers around the world which are connected to the Blockchain. This system
allows the Notarization of Data as it is present on every Node and is publicly verifiable.
A network of nodes: -A node is a computer connected to the Blockchain Network. Node gets connected with
Blockchain using the client. Client helps in validating and propagating transactions on to the Blockchain. When a
computer connects to the Blockchain, a copy of the Blockchain data gets downloaded into the system and the node
comes in sync with the latest block of data on Blockchain. The Node connected to the Blockchain which helps in
the execution of a Transaction in return for an incentive is called miners.

Benefits and Characteristics of Blockchain

• Distributed: -The distributed ledger is shared and updated with every incoming transaction among the
nodes connected to the Blockchain. All this is done in real-time as there is no central server controlling the
data.
• Secure: -There is no unauthorized access to Blockchain made possible through Permissions and
Cryptography.
• Transparent: -Because every node or participant in Blockchain has a copy of the Blockchain data, they
have access to all transaction data. They themselves can verify the identities without the need for mediators.
• Consensus-based: -All relevant network participants must agree that a transaction is valid. This is achieved
through the use of consensus algorithms.
• Flexible: -Smart Contracts which are executed based on certain conditions can be written into the platform.
Blockchain Network can evolve in pace with business processes.
• Reliability: -Blockchain certifies and verifies identities of every interested party. This removes double
record, reducing rates and accelerate transactions
• Collaboration: -It permits every party to interact directly with one another while not requiring third party
negotiate
• Cost-saving: -A Blockchain network reduces expenses in several ways. No need for third-party verification.
Participants can share assets directly. Intermediaries are reduced. Transaction efforts are minimized as every
participant has a copy of shared ledger.

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Introduction to Big Data

INTRODUCTION TO BIG DATA

Big data is a term that describes the large volume of data – both structured and unstructured – that inundates a
business on a day-to-day basis. But it’s not the amount of data that’s important. It’s what organizations do with the
data that matters. Big data can be analyzed for insights that lead to better decisions and strategic business moves.
Big data describes a holistic information management strategy that includes and integrates many new types of data
and data management alongside traditional data.
Big data has been defined by the SEVEN Vs:
1. Volume: -The name ‘Big Data’ itself is related to a size which is enormous. Volume is a huge amount of
data.Hence while dealing with Big Data it is necessary to consider a characteristic ‘Volume’.
2. Velocity: -Velocity refers to the high speed of accumulation of data. In Big Data velocity data flows in from
sources like machines, networks, social media, mobile phones etc. In Big Data velocity data flows in from
sources like machines, networks, social media, mobile phones etc.
3. Variety: -Variety is basically the arrival of data from new sources that are both inside and outside of an
enterprise. It can be structured, semi-structured and unstructured.
4. Veracity: -It refers to inconsistencies and uncertainty in data that is data which is available can sometimes
get messy and quality and accuracy are difficult to control.
5. Value: -The bulk of Data having no Value is of no good to the company, unless you turn it into something
useful. Data in itself is of no use or importance but it needs to be converted into something valuable to
extract Information
6. Variability: -Variability is different from variety. If the meaning of the data constantly changes, it can
significantly impact your data homogenization.
7. Visualization: -Visualization is critical in today’s world. Using charts and graphs to visualize large
amounts of complex data is much more effective in conveying meaning than spreadsheets and reports
chock-full of numbers and formulas.

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How Antivirus Works

ANTIVIRUS SOFTWARE

The antivirus is a program that is created to search, detect, prevent and remove software viruses from the system
that can otherwise cause harm to it. Other harmful software such as worms, adware, and other threats can also be
detected and removed via antivirus.

How Antivirus Works

Antivirus software works by comparing your computer applications and files to a database of known malware
because hackers are continually creating and disseminating new viruses, it will also check systems for the presence
of new or undiscovered malware threats. The antivirus checks files, programs, and applications going in and out of
your computer to its database to identify matches. Similar and identical matches to the database are segregated,
scanned, and eliminated.
Most programs will employ three types of detection devices:
• Specific detection which looks for known parts or types of malware or patterns that are linked by a
common codebase
• Generic detection is a type of detection that looks for known parts or types of malware or patterns that are
related to a common codebase.
• Heuristic detection is a type of virus detection that looks for unknown infections by spotting suspicious file
structures.

The antivirus software is available in 2 types:

• Free: Free anti-virus software provides basic virus protection

• Paid: commercial anti-virus software provides more extensive protection.

The following are some commonly used antivirus software:

1. Bitdefender: Bitdefender Total Security is a comprehensive security suite that protects against viruses and
dangerous malware of all varieties. This user-friendly antivirus includes a free VPN with a daily limit of
200MB, parental controls, camera protection, a password manager, etc. This security suite is economical
and will protect up to five devices 24 hours a day, seven days a week.

2. AVAST: This is a free antivirus available. All you have to do to obtain top-notch protection on your
computer, emails, downloads, and instant messages in the free version are register (for free) once a year. It
includes a sophisticated heuristics engine that enables it to detect viruses.

3. Panda: It can detect viruses, Trojans, spyware, adware, worms, and malware at the same level as other
antiviruses do. It is different from others because using this software, when you scan your computer, it
doesn’t consume any of your computer’s resources; instead, it runs on the cloud, allowing your machine to
continue to function normally.

4. Norton: Norton Antivirus is an anti-virus or anti-malware software product founded by Peter Norton,
developed and distributed by Symantec (now Gen Digital) since 1990 as part of its Norton family of

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How Antivirus Works

computer security products. It uses signatures and heuristics to identify viruses. Other features included in it
are e-mail spam filtering and phishing protection.

Its Benefits and Drawbacks

Benefits of Antivirus:

• Virus Protection –The main role of an antivirus program is to face viruses and other sorts of malware. The
viruses won’t only cause damages to the data; but it can also degrade the general system performance
without the knowledge of the user. The antivirus programme introduced on the system distinguishes and
eliminates this malware before they create any damages to the system.
• Spyware Protection – Spyware because the name suggests may be quite a malware that spies on your
computer stealing all the confidential information. These details also include MasterCard details, passwords,
and other financial data. This ultimately results in fraud. The antivirus software has the potential to stop
these sorts of spyware attacks.
• Web Protection – While surfing the web, users can encounter various sort of threats. In untrustworthy sites,
cyber attackers can gather your credit card and account details. By using an antivirus program the user will
protect his valuable piece of information while surfing online.
• Spam Protection – Viruses also can enter your computer through means of spam emails and ads. These
emails and ads can show up repeatedly even if you have no interest in it. Once the virus finds its way to
sneak into the system it causes irreversible damages. An Antivirus works by the way of blocking these spam
emails and ads.
• Firewall Feature – The firewall provides two-way protection. This suggests that regardless of the
information that’s sent or received is going to be double-checked here. Hence, hackers cannot enter the
system data.
• Cost-Effective – Even though there are many premium versions of antivirus programs for a monthly/yearly
subscription fee, there are some antivirus programs that are completely free from charge. These sorts of
antivirus programs offer almost an equivalent level of protection provided by the subscription-based. Albeit
you select to afford a premium version, they’re relatively inexpensive.

Drawbacks of Antivirus:

• System Slowdown – Using an antivirus program means tons of resources from the memory and therefore
the disk drive is getting used. As a result, it can drastically slow down the overall speed of the pc. Moreover,
the method of scanning also can cause lags within the network.
• No Complete Protection – If you’re employing a free antivirus program, there’s no guarantee that it’ll
provide you the entire protection. Moreover, they’re capable of identifying only certain sorts of threats. So
as for acquiring a complete level of protection, you’ve got to use a firewall also.
• Security Holes – When security holes are present inside the OS or the networking software, it’ll provide an
opportunity for the virus to bypass the antivirus software. Unless the user takes action to stay updated, the
antivirus software won’t be effective.

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How Antivirus Works

• Limited Detection Techniques – For identifying a possible threat, there is always quite one method
available. However, within the case of antivirus programs, it mostly executes the tactic of virus scanning.
Sometimes the antivirus programs can offer you false alarms if the scanning matches with the traditional
file.
• Frequent Advertisements – Apart from premium versions of antivirus programs, through some means, the
free antivirus software must generate an income. Advertising is one of the ways to realize them. Sometimes
these advertisements degrade the user experience.
• No Customer Support – Unless you buy the premium version, there won’t be any customer support given
to you. Within the event of any problem, the sole thanks to overcoming are through forums and knowledge
bases.

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How The Antivirus Detects Virus?

How The Antivirus Detects Virus?

Signature detection is a method by which antivirus keenly scans files that are brought into a system to analyse
more likely hazardous files.

These antivirus applications come with a directory of already checked-viruses and match the codes and patterns
in files and web pages to unique bits and patterns that make up the code of a virus. If they match, the file is
quarantined, means that it is moved to a new and safe location so that it does not infect any other files on the
system.

Antivirus programs also checks for any malicious behaviour on a system such as suspicious registry entries or
executing an unknown program automatically upon system start-up thus protecting our computer against encrypted
viruses or viruses that are still unidentified.

Following is a list of the different virus detection methods an antivirus can use to protect our computer.

The programs look for signatures to detect new malware. The antivirus companies analyze and extract an exact
signature of the file and keep them in a database to which threats are compared and devices are then protected in
case the signatures match.

1. Heuristic-based detection: This is the most common form of detection that uses an algorithm to compare
the signature of known viruses against a potential threat. An antivirus packed with this type of detection can
also detect viruses that have not yet been discovered and released as a new virus but it can also generate a
false positive match which means an antivirus scanner may report an uninfected file as an infected one.

2. Behaviour-based detection: If a virus passes the above detection methods, the antivirus then observes the
behaviour of programs running on the computer. The antivirus triggers a warning if a program begins to
perform strange actions listed below:
• Settings of other programs are changed
• Dozens of files are modified or deleted
• Remotely connecting to computers
This is a useful method for finding viruses or any other type of malware that attempt to steal or log
information.

3. Sandbox Detection : This is a type of detection method in which antivirus software run programs in a
virtual environment and records the actions it performs to identify whether the programs are malicious or
not. If the program is found safe, it is then executed in the real environment.This technique is rarely used in
consumer antivirus solutions as it is both heavy and slow but antivirus solutions designed for corporate and
network use offer this.

4. Data Mining: Data Mining is the recent development in malware detection that security companies now
provide with their antivirus products to detect and eliminate forms of malware that has just been released.
First, a series of features of files are extracted from files and then data mining and machine learning
algorithms are used to determine the behaviour of a file to detect whether the file is malicious or not.

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Terminologies
Application: An application is a set of codes designed to allow specific tasks to happen. Microsoft Windows and
Internet Explorer are common examples.
Access time: The performance of a hard drive or other storage device - how long it takes to locate a file.
Active program or window: The application or window at the front (foreground) on the monitor.
Active Cell: It refers to the currently selected cell in a spreadsheet. It can be identified by a bold outline that
surrounds the cells.
Accumulator: A local storage area called a register, in which the result of an arithmetic and logic operation is
formed.
ALGOL: It was the first language with a formal grammar. ALGOL was created by a committee for scientific use
in 1958. Its major contribution is being the root of the tree that has led to such languages as Pascal, C, C+ + and
Java.
Algorithm: In computing, an algorithm is a procedure for accomplishing some tasks which, given an initial state,
will terminate in a defined end-state.
ASCII (pronounced ask key): American Standard Code for Information Interchange. a commonly used data
format for exchanging information between computers or programs.
Amplifier: A device that takes in a weak electric signal and sends out a strong one. It is used to boost electrical
Signals in many electronic devices such as radios, televisions and telephone.
Analog Computer: A computer that operates on data which is in the form of continuous variable physical
quantities.
Android: It is a linux based operating system designed primarily for touch-screen mobile devices such as
smartphones and tablets computer.
Antivirus Software: Antivirus software consists of computer programs that attempt to identify threat and eliminate
computer virus and other malicious software ( Malware)
API: API refers to Application Programming Interface. It’s the platform used by a program to access different
services on the computer system.
Application Software: Application software is a subclass of computer software that employs the capabilities of a
computer directly to a task that the user wishes to perform. e.g., word document, spreadsheet, etc.
Archive: It provides backup storage.
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): The arithmetic logic unit is a part of the execution unit, a core component of all
CPUs. ALUs are capable of calculating the results of a wide variety of basic arithmetical and logical computations
Artificial Intelligence: Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in
development, though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today.
Array: An array is similar data saved on a computer system in a sequential form.
Assembler: A program that translates mnemonic statement into executable instruction.
Attribute: The characteristics of an entity are called its attributes.

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BIOS: BIOS stands for Basic Input/output System. It gives the computer a platform to run the software using a
floppy disk or a hard disk. BIOS is responsible for booting a PC.
Bit: Bit is Binary Digit. It refers to a digit number, either a 0 or a 1. The binary digit is used to represent
computerized data.
Backup: A copy of a file or disk you make for archiving purposes.
Backspace: Backspace key is used on the keyboard to delete the text. Backspace will delete the text to the left of
cursor.
Bandwidth: The maximum amount of data that can travel in a communication path in a given time, measured in
bits per second (bps).
Bar Code: A bar code is a machine-readable representation of information in a visual format on a surface. The first
bar code system was developed by Norman Joseph Woodland and Bernard Silver in 1952.
Bitmap: A method of storing a graphic image as a set of bits in a computer memory. To display the image on the
screen, the computer converts the bits into pixels.
Blog: It is a discussion or informational site published on the world wide web.
Bomb: A type of virus designed to activate at a specific date and time on your computer.
Bluetooth: A protocol that permits a wireless exchange of information between computers. cell phone and other
electronic devices within a radius about 30 feet.
Booting: Booting is a bootstrapping process which starts the operating system when a computer is switched on
Botnet: It is a collection of internet connected programs communicating with other similar programs in order to
perform tasks.
Boot Sequence: A boot sequence is the set of operations the computer performs when it is switched on which loads
an operating system.
Browser: A special software that enables users to read/view web pages and jump from one web page to another.
Buffering: The process of storing data in a memory device, allowing the devices to change the data rates, perform
error checking and error retransmission.
Bug: A software bug is an error, flaw, failure, or fault in a computer program or system that produces an incorrect
or unexpected result.
Boolean: An expression, the value of which is either true or false.
BUS: A bus is a set of wires that enables flow of data from one location of the computer to another.
Byte: Eight bits is equal to 1 byte.
CGI: CGI stands for Common Gateway Interface. It defines how an auxiliary program and a Web server would
communicate.
Class: A group of objects having same operations and attributes is defined as a class.
Client: A client is a program that asks for information from other processes or programs. Outlook Express is a
great example of a client.

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CD-ROM: An acronym for Compact Disc Read-Only Memory.

Client – Server: A common form of distributed system in which software is split between server tasks and client
tasks. A client sends requests to a server, according to some protocol, asking for information or action, and the
server responds.
Clipboard - A portion of memory where the Mac temporarily stores information. Called a Copy Buffer in many
PC applications because it is used to hold information which is to be moved, as in word processing where text is
"cut" and then "pasted".
Clock Rate (MHz) - The instruction processing speed of a computer measured in millions of cycles per second
(i.e., 200 MHz).
Compiler - a program the converts programming code into a form that can be used by a computer.
Compression - a technique that reduces the size of a saved file by elimination or encoding redundancies (i.e.,
JPEG, MPEG, LZW, etc.)
CPU: The Central Processing Unit. The processing chip that is the "brains" of a computer.
Cache Memory: The speed of CPU is extremely high compared to the access time of main memory Therefore, the
performance of CPU decreases due to the slow speed of main memory. To decrease the mismatch in operating
speed, a small memory chip is attached between CPU and main memory whose access time is very close to the
processing speed of CPU It is called the Cache Memory.
Chip: A tiny wafer of silicon containing miniature electric circuits that can store millions of bits of information.
Client-Server: Client-server is a network architecture which separates the client from the server. Each instance of
the client software can send requests to a server or application server.
Cookie: A packet of information that travels between a browser and the web server
Compiler: A compiler is a computer program that -translates a series of instructions written in one computer
language (called the source language) into another computer language (also called the object or target language).
Communication: The transmission of data from one computer to another or from one device to another is called
communication.
Computer Networks: A computer network is a system or communication among two or more computers. The
computer networks can be broadly classified as Homogenous' and 'Heterogeneous'.
Computer Graphics: Computer Graphics are visual presentations on a computer screen. Examples are
photographs, drawings, line arts, graphs, diagrams, typography numbers, symbols, geometric designs, maps,
engineering drawings or other images.
Cold Boot: When a computer restarts after the power cut is called cold boot
Control Panel: Control Panel is the part of Windows menu. accessible from the start menu, which allows users to
view and manipulate basic system settings and controls, such as adding hardware. Adding/removing software,
controlling user accounts, changing accessibility options, etc.
Control Unit: A control unit is the part of a CPU that 'erects its operation. The outputs of this unit control the
activity of the rest of the device.
Cracker: The preferred term used to refer to a computer criminal who penetrates a computer to steal information or
damage the program in some way

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Crash - a system malfunction in which the computer stops working and has to be restarted.
Cursor - The pointer, usually arrow or cross shaped, which is controlled by the mouse.
CMOS: CMOS is an abbreviation for Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor. It is the battery powered chip
that is situated on the Motherboard that retains system information such as date and time.
Data: Data refers to the information that is saved on a computer.
DOS: DOS is an acronym for Disc Operating System. It is a command line operating system launched by Bill
Gates.
Database - an electronic list of information that can be sorted and/or searched.
Defragment - (also - optimize) to concatenate fragments of data into contiguous blocks in memory or on a hard
drive.
Dialog box - an on-screen message box that appears when the computer requires additional information before
completing a command.
Digitise - To convert linear, or analogue, data into digital data that can be used by the computer.
Disk - a spinning platter made of magnetic or optically etched material on which data can be stored.
Disk drive: The machinery that writes the data from a disk and/or writes data to a disk.
Disk window: The window that displays the contents or directory of a disk.
Document - a file you create, as opposed to the application which created it.
DOS - acronym for Disk Operating System - used in IBM PCs.
Download - to transfer data from one computer to another. (If you are on the receiving end, you are downloading.
If you are on the sending end, you are uploading).
Drag - to move the mouse while its button is being depressed.
Driver - a file on a computer that tells it how to communicate with an add-on piece of equipment (like a printer).
DTP: Desk Top Publisher (ing) is a term that describes a program that enables users to create, design, and print
items such as business cards, birthday cards, letterheads, calendars, invitations, and so on.
EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code): It is an 8-bit character encoding used on IBM
mainframe operating systems, like Z/OS, S/390,AS/400 and i5/OS.
E-Commerce: Electronic commerce is a type of industry where buying and selling of products or services are
conducted over electronic systems such as the Intranet and other computer network.
Editing: It is the process of changing information by inserting, deleting, replacing, rearranging and reformation.
E-mail: Electronic mail, abbreviated e-mail is a method of composing, sending, storing and receiving messages
over electronic communication systems.
Encapsulation: It is a mechanism that associates the code and the data it manipulates into a single unit and keeps
them safe from external interference.
Encryption: In cryptography, encryption is the process of encoding messages (or information) in such a way that
hackers cannot read it, but the authorised users can access it.

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End User: Any individual who uses the information generated by a computer based system.
Entity: An entity is something that has certain attributes or properties which may be assigned values.
Entity-relationship diagram: It’s a diagram that represents entities and how they are related to each other.
Ethernet - a protocol for fast communication and file transfer across a network.
Execution Time: The total time required to execute a program on a particular system.
Expansion slot: A connector inside the computer that allows one to plug in a printed circuit board that provides
new or enhanced features.
Environment: Environment refers to the interaction among all factors external to a physical platform. An
environment is made of specific software, hardware, and network protocols that allow communication with the
system.
FAT: FAT is an acronym for File Allocation Table. It resembles a table of contents so that files can be located on a
computer.
Fault: Hardware or software failure.
Fax: It stands for 'Facsimile machine'. It is used to transmit a copy of a document electronically.
Field: The attributes of an entity are written as fields in the table representation.
File - the generic word for an application, document, control panel or other computer data.
Firewall: A security system usually consisting of hardware and software that prevents unauthorised persons from
accessing certain parts of a program database or network.
Floppy - a 3.5-inch square rigid disk which holds data. (so named for the earlier 5.25 and 8 inch disks that were
flexible).
Folder - an electronic sub- directory that contains files.
Flowcharts: These are the means of visually representing the flow of data through an information processing
system, the operations performed within the system and the sequence in which they are performed.
Foreign Key: A field in a database table, which links it to another related table.
Format: To set margins, tabs, font or line spacing in layout of a document.
FORTRAN: Its name stands for formula translation. The language was designed at IBM for scientific computing.
Freeware: A form of software distribution where the author retains copyright of the software but makes the
program available to others at no cost.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) This protocol is used to transfer files from one place to another on Internet
Font - a typeface that contains the characters of an alphabet or some other letter forms.
Fragmentation - The breaking up of a file into many separate locations in memory or on a disk.
Freeze - a system error, which causes the cursor to lock in place
Front End: It is an interface through which a program can be accessed by common users.
Gateway: A device that is used to join two networks having different base protocols.

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Groupware: It is software that allows networked individual to form groups and collaborate on d ocuments,
programs or database.
Hardware: Hardware is a set of physical objects such as monitor, keyboard, mouse, and so on.
Hang: To crash in such a way that the computer does not respond to input from the keyboard or mouse.
Hard Copy: It is a printed copy of information from a computer.
Hard Disk: It is a non-volatile data storage device that stores data on a magnetic surface layered onto disk platters.
Hardware: The mechanical, magnetic, electronic and electrical components that comprises a computer system
such as CPU, monitor, keyboard, mouse, etc.
High-Level Programming Language: It is a programming language that is more user-friendly, to some extent
platform-independent and abstract from low-level computer processor operations such as memory accesses.
Home Page: A starting point or a doorway to the website. It refers to the web page that identifies a website and
contains the hyperlink to other webpages in the Website.
Host Computer: It is a computer that provides information or a service to other computers on the internet.
Hard drive - a large capacity storage device made of multiple disks housed in a rigid case.
Head crash - a hard disk crash caused by the heads coming in contact with the spinning disk(s).
High density disk: a 1.4 MB floppy disk.
Hub: A network device that connects multiple computers on a LAN, so that they can communicate with one
another.
Hyperlink: An image or portion of text on a web page that is linked to another web page.
Highlight: To select by clicking once on an icon or by highlighting text in a document.
Hit rate - The fraction of all memory reads which are satisfied from the cache.
Hz - Abbreviation for hertz, the number of cycles per second, used to measure clock speed
Hybrid Computer These computers are made by taking the best features of the analog computer and digital
computer.
Hyper Text Markup Language It stands for HTML. It is mainly used for designing Websites.
Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP) It is an important protocol used on the World Wide Web for moving
hypertext files across the Internet.
Icon: Icon is a small visual display of an application which can be activated by clicking on it.
IDE: It stands for Integrated Development Environment. IDE is a programming system that combines several tools
of programming to provide an integrated platform for programming. For instance, Visual Basic provides an IDE.
Initialise - to format a disk for use in the computer; creates a new directory and arranges the tracks for the
recording of data.
Insertion point - in word processing, the short flashing marker that indicates where your next typing will begin.
Installer - software used to install a program on your hard drive.

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Interrupt button - a tool used by programmers to enter the debugging mode. The button is usually next to the reset
button
Instance: It is an object described by its class.
Internet: Internet is a network that accommodates several computers to facilitate exchange and transfer of data.
Instruction: A command or order given to a computer to perform a task.
Interface: A device or program that helps a user to communicate with a computer.
Interpreter: A program that converts and executes the source code into machine code line by line.
Integrated Circuits: Multiple electronic components combined on a silicon chip.
Java: A programming language, used to create mobile applications, software, etc.
JavaScript: It is an object oriented programming language used to create interactive effects in a Web browser.
JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group): It is a commonly used method of lossy compression for digital
photography.
Joystick: A joystick is a computer peripheral or general control device consisting of a handheld stick that pivots
about one end and transmits its angle in two or three dimensions to a computer.
Kernel: It is a program called when a computer system is started. Kernel is responsible for setting up system calls
in order to manage hardware and system services, and allocate resources to applications.
Kilobyte -1024 bytes.
LIGHT Pen: A light sensitive style for forming graphics by touching coordinates on a display screen. There by
seeming to draw directly on the screen.
Loop: A sequence of instructions that is executed repeatedly until a terminal condition occurs.
LAN: LAN is an acronym for Local Area Network that spans small area. A LAN can be connected to another LAN
to accommodate more computers.
Landscape: In printing from a computer, to print sideways on the page.
Launch - start an application.
Link: A communication path between two nodes or channels.
LINUX: It is an open source operating system, meaning that the source code of the operating system is freely
available to the public.
List Processing (LISP): A high level programming language suitable for handling logical operations and non-
numeric applications.
Log In: It is the process by which an individual gains access to a computer system by identifying and
authenticating themselves.
Log Off: It is a process of withdrawal from function after performing program.
Low Level Language: It is a machine level language which is used in computer. It was mostly used in first
generation computers.

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Memory: Memory is the internal storage location where data and information is stored on a computer.
Modem: Modem is a term created from the beginning letters of two other words viz. Modulation and
Demodulation. The term implies changing of data from digital to analog and then back to digital.
Morphing: The transformation of one image into another image
Multi-tasking: Multitasking can simultaneously work with several programs or interrelated tasks that share
memories, codes, buffers and files.
Multi-threading: It is a facility available in an operating system that allows multiple functions from the same
application packages.
Multi-user: The term describing the capability of a computer system to be operated at more than one terminal at
the same time.
Multiplexer: It is a device that combines multiple input signals into an aggregate signal for transmission.
Memory - the temporary holding area where data is stored while it is being used or changed; the amount of RAM a
computer has installed.
Menu - a list of program commands listed by topic.
Menu bar: The horizontal bar across the top of the screen that lists the menus.
MHz - Abbreviation for megahertz, or millions of cycles per second.
Multi-tasking: Running more than one application in memory at the same time.
Nibble: A sequence of four adjacent bits, or a half byte. A hexadecimal or BCD coded digit can be represented by a
nibble.
Network: A Network is a group of computers connected to each other in order to send and receive data.
Node: It is the endpoint of a network branch or the junction of two or more branches.

Object: Something that contains both the data and the application that operate on that data.
Offline: It refers to the state in which a computer is temporarily or permanently unable to communicate with
another computer.
Online: It refers to the state of being connected to the networked computer system or the Internet.
Operating System: An Operating System provides the software platform required for various applications to run
on. Its responsibility is to manage memory storage and security of Data.
Optical disk: A high-capacity storage medium that is read by a laser light.
Packet: Sections in which message or data are divided to transfer it over a network.
Pixel: Pixel is formed by combining the two words viz. Picture Element. It represents one point within an image.
Palette: a small floating window that contains tools used in a given application.
Partition: a subdivision of a hard drives surface that is defined and used as a separate drive.
Paste: To insert text, or other material, from the clipboard or copy buffer.

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PC - acronym for personal computer commonly used to refer to an IBM or IBM clone computer that uses DOS.
PCI: Acronym for Peripheral Component Interchange - the newer, faster bus architecture.
Peripheral : an add-on component to your computer.
Pop-up menu: Any menu that does not appear at the top of the screen in the menu bar. (May pop up or down)
Power PC - a processing chip designed by Apple, IBM and Motorola (RISC based).
Power Mac - a family of Macs built around the PowerPC chip.
Print spooler - a program that stores documents to be printed on the hard drive, thereby freeing the memory up and
allowing other functions to be performed while printing goes on in the background.
Port: Port is a connecting component mainly a hardware that enables two computers to allow data sharing
physically. Examples are USB and HDMI.
Process: It’s a series of commands that changes data values.
Protocol: Protocol refers to a set of rules that are followed by two devices while interacting with each other.
Post Office Protocol (POP): A protocol that specify show a personal computer can connect to a mail server on the
Internet and download E-mail.
Primary Key: It is a key that uniquely identifies each tuple or row in a table
Query: Query is a request made by a computer from a database residing in the same system or a remotely located
system.
RAM: RAM is an acronym for Random Access Memory. It is a configuration of storage cells that hold data so that
it can be processed by the central processing unit. RAM is a temporary storage location.
Router: A network device that enables the network to reroute messages it receives that are intended for other
networks. The network with the router receives the message and sends it on its way exactly as received. In normal
operations they do not store any of the messages that they pass through.
Routing: It is the process of choosing the best path throughout the LAN.
Root directory - the main hard drive window.
ROM: ROM is an acronym for Read-Only Memory. It is semiconductor-based storage system that saves
information permanently.
Software: Software is a program (coding) that the computer reads. The system then carries out functions as
directed by the code. Adobe Photoshop is software.
Save - to write a file onto a disk.
Save as: To save a previously saved file in a new location and/or with a new name.
Scanner: An electronic device that uses light-sensing equipment to scan paper images such as text, photos,
illustrations and translate the images into signals that the computer can then store, modify, or distribute.
Search Engine: A software that makes it possible to look for and retrieve information on the Internet, particularly
the Web.
Scroll: To shift the contents of a window to bring hidden items into view.

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Swapping: Storing programs on disk and then transferring these programs into main storage as and when they are
needed.
Synchronisation: This method ensures that the receiving end can recognise characters in order, in which the
transmitting end sends them in a serial data transmission.
Scroll bar - a bar at the bottom or right side of a window that contains the scroll box and allows scrolling.
Scroll box - the box in a scroll bar that is used to navigate through a window.
SCSI: Acronym for Small Computer System Interface.
Serial port: A port that allows data to be transmitted in a series (one after the other),such as the printer and modem
ports on a Mac.
Server - a central computer dedicated to sending and receiving data from other computers (on a network).
Shut down - the command from the Special menu that shuts down the computer safely.
Spreadsheet - a program designed to look like an electronic ledger.
Start-up disk - the disk containing system software and is designated to be used to start the computer.
Surge suppressor - a power strip that has circuits designed to reduce the effects of surge in electrical power. (Not
the same as a UPS)
TCP/IP: TCP/IP is an acronym for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. It’s a set of communication
protocols used to connect host computers on the Internet.
Title bar - the horizontal bar at the top of a window that has the name of the file or folder it represents.
Terabyte (TB) It is about a trillion bytes. Actually, it’s 10095111627776 bytes.
Terminal: This is what you look at when you are on the Internet. It’s your computer screen.
Time Sharing: It refers to the allocation of computer resources in a time dependent fashion to run several programs
simultaneously.
Topology: The structure of the network including physical connection such as wiring schemes and logical
interactions between network devices.
Trackball: Input device that controls the position of the cursor on the screen
URL: URL stands for Universal Resource Locator. It’s a way of accessing the Internet.
Upload - to send a file from one computer to another through a network.
Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS): A constantly charging battery pack that powers the computer. A UPS
should have enough charge to power your computer for several minutes in the event of a total power failure, giving
you time to save your work and safely shut down.
UPS : acronym for Uninterruptible Power Supply.
Virtual Memory: Virtual Memory is the unused memory on the hard disk used when certain applications require
more RAM than is available on the machine.
Virtual reality (VR) is a simulated experience that employs pose tracking and 3D near-eye displays to give the
user an immersive feel of a virtual world.

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Virus: Virus is a program that is loaded onto your computer without you knowing about it and it runs to hinder the
normal functioning of the computer.
WWW: WWW stands for World Wide Web. It’s a term used to define the Internet.
WAN: WAN is an acronym for Wide Area Network. Such a network spans over an area larger than a LAN.
WORM: acronym for Write Once-Read Many; an optical disk that can only be written to once (like a CD-ROM).
Workstation is a special computer designed for technical or scientific applications. Intended primarily to be used
by a single user, they are commonly connected to a local area network and run multi-user operating systems.
Zoom box - a small square in the upper right corner of a window which, when clicked, will expand the window to
fill the whole screen.
ZIP: The Zone Information Protocol (ZIP) provides applications and processes with access to zone names.
ZIP: ZIP is an acronym for Zone improvement plan. ZIP application enables transfer of data using compression of
files.
Zettabyte: One Zettabyte is approximately equal to 1 billion terabytes.

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Abbreviation

A B

Al – Artificial intelligence BINAC - Binary Automatic Computer

ALGOL – Algorithmic Language BCC – Blind Carbon Copy

ARP – Address resolution Protocol Bin – Binary

ASP- Active Server Pages BASIC - Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic

Instruction Code
ASCII – American Standard Code for
Information Interchange B2B- Business to Business

AFA – All-Flash Array B2C – Business to Consumer

AMR - Adaptive Multi-Rate Codec BIOS – Basic Input Output System

AAC - Advanced Audio Coding BCD - Binary Coded Decimal

ATA – Advanced Technology Attachment BHTML - Broadcast Hyper Text Markup

Language
ATM-Automated Teller Machine
BIU - Bus Interface Unit
ABR – Average Bit rate
BMP – Bitmap
AD – Active Dictionary
BPS - Bytes Per Second
AMOLED – Active-Matrix Organic Light-
Emitting Diode BBP – Base band Processor

AMD – Advanced Micro Devices BPM – Business Process Modeling

AVI – Audio Video Interleaved BGP - Border Gateway Protocol

AUI – Attachment Unit Interface BIPS - Billion Instruction Per Second

API – Application Program Interface BCR - Bar Code Reader

ATM – Asynchronous Transfer Mode BRD - Blu Ray Disc

ANSI - American National Standard Institute

ARPANET- Advanced Research Projects

Agency Network

ADSL -Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line

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Abbreviation

API -Application Program Interface

ACID- Atomicity Consistency Isolation

Durability

C D

CAD - Computer Aided Design DAT – Digital Audio Tape

CC – Carbon Copy DNA – Distributed Network Architecture

COBOL – Common Business Oriented DBA – Data Base Administrator

Language
DBMS – Data Base Management System
CD – Compact Disc
DNS – Domain Name System
CADD – Computer-Aided Design in Drafting
DPI – Dots Per Inch
CAD – Computer-Aided Design
DRAM – Dynamic Random Access Memory
CRT – Cathode Ray Tube
DVD – Digital Video Disc/Digital Versatile
CDR – Compact Disc Recordable Disc

CDROM – Compact Disc Read Only Memory DDR – Double Data Rate

CDRW – Compact Disc Rewritable DVDR – DVD Recordable

CDR/W – Compact Disk Read/Write DVDROM – DVD Read Only Memory

CUI - Character User Interface DVDRW – DVD Rewritable

CDMA- Code Division Multiple Access DVR – Digital Video Recorder

CAN - Campus Area Network DOS – Disk Operating System

CNM- Circulatory Network Mode DHCP - Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

COMPUTER – Commonly Operated Machine DSL- Digital Subscriber Line

Particularly Used for Trade or Technology,
DHTML Dynamic Hyper Text Markup
Education and Research
Language

E F

EBCDIC – Extended Binary Coded Decimal

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Abbreviation

Interchange Code FAX - Far Away Xerox/ facsimile

EDGE – Enhanced Data Rate for GSM FDC - Floppy Disk Controller
Evolution
FDD - Floppy Disk Drive
e-Commerce – Electronic Commerce
FORTRAN - Formula Translation
EDP – Electronic Data Processing
FS - File System
EEPROM – Electrically Erasable
FTP - File Transfer Protocol
Programmable Read Only Memory
FIFO - First In First Out
ELM/e-Mail – Electronic Mail
FAT - File Allocation Table
ENIAC - Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Computer FLOPS – Floating Point Operations for Second

EOF - End Of File FPU- Floating Point Unit

EPROM - Erasable Programmable Read Only

Memory

EDI - Electronic Data Interchange

G H

GPRS - General Packet Radio Service HDD - Hard Disk Drive

GPS - Global Positioning System HP - Hewlett Packard

GUI - Graphical User Interface HTML - Hyper Text Markup Language

Gb - Gigabit HTTP - Hyper Text Transfer Protocol

GB - Gigabyte HTTPS - Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure

GIF - Graphics Interchange Format HDMI - High Definition Multimedia Interface

GSM - Global System for Mobile HDTV - High Definition Television

Communication
HVD- Holographic Versatile Disc
GIGO - Garbage in Garbage Out

I J

INTEL - Integrated Electronics JAD - Java Application Descriptor

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IP - Internet Protocol. JPEG - Joint Photographic Expert Group

ISP - Internet Service Provider.

IMAP- Internet Message Access Protocol

IVR- Interactive Voice Response

ICANN - Internet Corporation of Assign

Names &Numbers

ISDN - Integrated Servers Digital Network

ISO- International Standard Organization/

International Org for Standardization

IBM- International Business Machine

IS- Information System

IM- Instant Message

iOS- iPhone Operating System

IP- Internet Protocol

ISDN- Integrated Services Digital Network

ISOC- Internet Society

ISP- Internet Service Provider

ISR- Interrupt Service Routine

IT- Information Technology

K L

Kb - Kilobit LED - Light Emitting Diode

KB - Kilobyte LCD – Liquid Crystal Display

KHz - Kilohertz LIFO- Last In First Out

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Abbreviation

Kbps - Kilobit Per Second

M N

Mb – Megabit NAT - Network Address Translation

MB – Megabyte NIC – Network Interface Card

MPEG – Moving Picture Experts Group NOS – Network Operating System

MMS – Multimedia Message Service NTP - Network Time Protocol

MICR – Magnetic Ink Character recognition

MIPS – Million Instructions Per Second

MIME - Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension

MIDI - Musical Instrument Digital Interface

MANET - Mobile Ad-Hoc Network

MAC- Media Access Control

MODEM- Modulator Demodulator

O P

OMR – Optical Mark Reader P2P - Peer-to-peer

OOP – Object Oriented Programming PDA - Personal digital assistant.

OSS – Open Source Software PDF - Portable Document Format

OCR -Optical Character Reader / Recognition PNG - Portable Network Graphics

POS – Point Of Sale

PPP – Point-to-Point Protocol

PROM – Programmable Read Only Memory

PSTN – Public Switched Telephone Network

PING – Packet Internet Gopher

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PAN- Personal Area Network

PCB -Printed Circuit Board

R S

RAM – Random Access Memory SMTP – Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

ROM -Read Only Memory SQL – Structured Query Language

RDBMS – Relational Data Base Management SRAM – Static Random Access Memory
System
SNMP – Simple Network Management
RIP – Routing Information Protocol Protocol

RTF – Rich Text Format SIM – Subscriber Identification Module

RARP - Reverse Address Resolution Protocol SMPS - Switch Mode Power Supply

SFTP- Secure File Transfer Protocol

SSH - Secure Shell

SIP - Session Initiation Protocol

SAN -Storage Area Network

T U

TCP – Transmission Control Protocol UPS – Uninterrupted Power Supply

TB – Tera Bytes URI – Uniform Resource Identifier

TFTP --Trivial File Transfer Protocol URL – Uniform Resource Locator

Tel Net - Telecommunication Networking USB - Universal Serial Bus

TIPS -Trillion Instruction Per Second ULSI - Ultra Large Scale Integration

UNIVAC - Universal Automatic Computer

UMTS - Universal Mobile Telecommunication

System.

UDP -User Datagram Protocol

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Abbreviation

V W

VIRUS - Vital Information Resource Under WAIS - Wide-Area Information Server.

Seized
Wi-Fi – Wireless Fidelity
VOIP - Voice Over Internet Protocol
WLAN – Wireless Local Area Network
VAR – Variable
WPA – Wi-Fi Protected Access
VGA – Video Graphics Array
WWW – World Wide Web
VSNL – Videsh Sanchar Nigam Limited
WORM – Write Once Read Many
VDU – Visual Display Unit
WBMP - Wireless Bitmap Image
VAN - Value Added Network
WMA - Windows Media Audio

WMV - Windows Media Video

WIMAX- Worldwide Interoperability for

Microwave Access

X Z

XHTML – Extensible Hypertext Markup ZB – Zetta Byte

Language

XML - Extensible Markup language

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