Republic of the Philippines

PARTIDO STATE UNIVERSITY

Camarines Sur

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

Name of Student: _______________________ Week No. /Period: 2-3/ August 15-26, 2022
Course Code: GE7 Name of Faculty: Maria Cristina V. Valencia
Semester/AY: 1st Semester / AY 2022-2023
Course Title: Science, Technology and Society

INTRODUCTION

This module will give light to the development of science and scientific ideas in the heart of the
society. It is the goal of this lesson to articulate ways by which society is transformed by science and
technology.

At the end of the Module, you should be able to:

a. discuss how the ideas postulated by Copernicus, Darwin, and Freud contributed to the spark of
scientific revolution; and
b. analyze how scientific revolution is done in various parts of the world like Latin America, East Asia,
Middle East and Africa.

CONTENT

Let’s Read These

Scientific Revolution

Science is as old as the world itself. There is no individual that can exactly identify when and where
science began. From the genesis of time, science has existed. It is always interwoven with the society. So,
how can science be defined?
1. Science as an idea. It includes ideas, theories, and all available systematic explanations and
observations about the natural and physical world.
2. Science as an intellectual activity. It encompasses a systematic and practical study of the
natural and physical world. This process of study involves systematic observation and
experimentation.

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3. Science as a body of knowledge. It is a subject or a discipline, a field of study, or a body of

knowledge that deals with the process of learning about the natural and physical world. This
is what we refer to as school science.
4. Science as a personal and social activity. This explains that science is both knowledge and
activities done by human beings to develop better understanding of the world around them.
It is a means to improve life and to survive in life. It is interwoven with people's lives.

Human beings have embarked in scientific activities in order to know and understand everything
around them. They have persistently observed and studied the natural and the physical world in order to
find meanings and seek answers to many questions. They have developed noble ideas, later known as
philosophy, to provide alternative or possible explanations to certain phenomena. Humans also used
religion to rationalize the origins of life and all lifeless forms.
The idea of scientific revolution is claimed to have started in the early 16th century up to the 18th
century in Europe. Why in Europe? The probable answer is the invention of the printing machine and the
blooming intellectual activities done in various places of learning, and the growing number of scholars in
various fields of human interests. This does not mean, however, that science is a foreign idea transported
from other areas of the globe. Anyone who can examine the history of science, technology, medicine, and
mathematics is aware that all great civilizations of the ancient world had their own sophisticated traditions
and activities related to these disciplines.
Scientific revolution was the period of enlightenment when the developments in the fields of
mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology, and chemistry transformed the views of society about nature.
It explained the emergence or birth of modern science as a result of these developments from the
disciplines mentioned. The ideas generated during this period enabled the people to reflect, rethink, and
reexamine their beliefs and their way of life. There is no doubt that it ignited vast human interests to
rethink how they do science and view scientific processes.
Scientific revolution was the golden age for people committed to scholarly life in science but it
was also a deeply trying moment to some scientific individuals that led to their painful death or
condemnation from the religious institutions who tried to preserve their faith, religion, and theological
views. Some rulers and religious leaders did not accept many of the early works of scientists. But these
did not stop people especially scientists to satisfy their curiosity of the natural and physical world.

SCIENCE
IDEAS

SCIENTIFIC
REVOLUTIONS

HUMANS SOCIETY

Figure 1. Influences to Scientific Revolution

Scientific revolution is very significant in the development of human beings, transformation of the
society, and in the formulation of scientific ideas. It significantly improved the conduct of scientific
investigations, experiments, and observations. The scientific revolution also led to the creation of new
research fields in science and prompted the establishment of a strong foundation for modern science. In
many ways, scientific revolution transformed the natural world and the world of ideas.

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Some Intellectuals and their Revolutionary Ideas

To further understand what exactly happened during the scientific revolution, it is important to
examine the different individuals whose ideas have shaken and contested the dominant theories and
ideas during this period—the truths of their time. Scientists in all periods of time are driven by their
curiosity, critical thinking, and creativity to explore the physical and natural world. Their love for science
is driven by their deep passion to know and to discover.

Creativity SCIENTISTS
SCIENCE
IDEAS

Curiosity Passion to SCIENCE

Know DISCOVERIES

Passion to TECHNOLOGY
Critical Thinking Discover

Figure 2. Variables that Influence the Development of Science Ideas,

Science Discoveries, and Technology

Scientists are not driven by clamor for honor and publicity. They are ordinary people doing
extraordinary things. Some scientists were never appreciated during their times, some were sentenced to
death, while others were condemned by the Church during their time. In spite of all the predicaments and
challenges they experienced, they never stopped experimenting, theorizing, and discovering new
knowledge and ideas.
In this part of the lesson, three notable scientists are discussed. For sure, there were many
scientists who worked before and after these individuals. However, it is important to note that these men,
particularly through their ideas, had shaken the world.

Nicolaus Copernicus

One of the Renaissance men, particularly in the field of science, is Nicolaus Copernicus. Knowledge
about the nature of the universe had been essentially unchanged since the great days of Ancient Greece,
some 1,500 years before Copernicus came on the scene (Gribbin, 2003). This
continued up to the Renaissance period. In one important way, Copernicus
resembled the Greek ancient philosophers or thinkers—he did not do
anything extensive such as observing heavenly bodies or inviting people to
test his ideas. His ideas were an example of what is presently called as a
thought experiment. By the time he finished his doctorate degree,
Copernicus had been appointed as canon at Frombork Cathedral in Poland.
Despite his duty as a canon, he had plenty of time to sustain his interest in
astronomy. Copernicus was strongly influenced by a book entitled Epitome
published in 1496 by a German author, Johannes Mueller. This book contains
Mueller's observations of the heavens and some commentary on earlier
works especially that of Ptolemy.
Copernicus' idea and model of the universe was essentially
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) complete in 1510. Not long after that, he circulated a summary of his ideas
to his few close friends in a manuscript called Commentariolus (Little

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Commentary). There was no proof that Copernicus was concerned about the risk of persecution by the
Church if he published his ideas formally.
Copernicus was a busy man. His duty as a canon and as a doctor affected his time to formally
publish his work and advance his career in astronomy. The publication of his book De revolutionibus
orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) in 1543 is often cited as the start of the
scientific revolution.
In his book, he wanted a model of the universe in which everything moved around a single center
at unvarying rates (Gribbin, 2003). Copernicus placed the Sun to be the centerpiece of the universe. The
Earth and all the planets are surrounding or orbiting the Sun each year. The Moon, however, would still
be seen orbiting the Earth. Copernicus' model of the Earth orbiting around the Sun automatically
positioned the planets into a logical sequence. In his model, Copernicus outlined two kinds of planetary
motion: (1) the orbits of Venus and Mercury lay inside the orbit of the Earth, thus, closer to the Sun; and
(2) the orbits of Mars, Saturn, and Jupiter lay outside the Earth's orbit, thus, farther from the Sun. From
this model, he would work on the length of time it will take for each planet to orbit once around the Sun.
The result would form a sequence from Mercury, with a shortest year, through Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter,
and Saturn with the longest year. He placed the planets in order of increasing distance from the Sun. One
of the great problems in the Copernicus model, however, was the position of the stars. The stars cannot
be placed in a fixed position like crystals in a distance sphere.
Copernicus is also a courageous man. Although the Copernican model makes sense now, during
those times, it was judged to be heretic and therefore it was an unacceptable idea to be taught to
Catholics. The Catholic Church banned the Copernican model and was ignored by Rome for the rest of the
16th century.

Charles Darwin

Charles Darwin is famous for his theory of evolution. He changed our concept of the world's
creation and its evolution. Johnson (2012) described Darwin as a genius who came from a line of
intellectually gifted and wealthy family. He developed his interest in natural history during his time as a
student at Shrewsbury School. He would also spend time taking long walks to observe his surroundings
while collecting specimens and he pored over books in his father's library (Gribbin, 2003). According to
Johnson, Darwin went to the best schools but was observed to be a mediocre student. He struggled in his
study in medicine and ministry, which his father has imposed to him. Darwin's life soon changed when
one of his professors recommended him to join a five-year voyage through the HMS Beagle on the Islands
of Galapagos.
Darwin published his book The Origin of Species in 1589. This book
is considered to be one of the most important works in scientific literature.
Darwin collected many significant materials in order to present his theory
with overwhelming evidence. His book presented evidence on how species
evolved over time and presented traits and adaptation that differentiate
species. Like many other scholars, Darwin accumulated many pertinent
materials and data that he could ever possibly need to substantiate his
theory.
Darwin's observational skills as a scientist were extraordinary that
moved beyond the realms of plants and animals into the realms of humans.
His book The Descent of Man was so impressive yet very controversial. He
introduced the idea of all organic life, including human beings, under the
realm of evolutionary thinking. This replaced the dominant views of a
religious or biblical design that places human beings in a privileged position
of having been created by God. Darwin's theory of evolution scientifically
Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
questioned this view.

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Darwin's accomplishments were so diverse that it is useful to distinguish two fields to which he
made major contributions: evolutionary biology and philosophy of science. More than these works, what
made Darwin truly remarkable was his courage to challenge religious and unscientific ideas that are
deemed to be prominent during those days. His unorthodox way of pursuing science gave more value to
evidence-based science. Darwin provided a different framework for doing scientific activities. It is a
science marked by observation and experiment.

Sigmund Freud

Freud is a famous figure in the field of psychology. Rosenfels

(1980) also described him as a towering literary figure and a very talented
communicator who did his share to raise the consciousness of the civilized
world in psychological matters.
However, apart from these, Freud also made a significant
contribution in the scientific world through the development of an
important observational method to gather reliable data to study human's
inner life. This method is popularly known as the method of
psychoanalysis. The scientific hypothesis he formulated formed the
essential fundamental version of this method. For Freud, this method of
psychoanalysis is a scientific way to study the human mind and neurotic
illness. It is no doubt that amidst all questions on his works that led to some
sort of academic controversy, his method of psychoanalysis had great
impact on the scientific way of understanding human nature.
Freud is not a traditional thinker. According to Weiner (2016), his
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
method of psychoanalysis was proven to be effective in understanding
some neurological conditions that were not understood by medicine at
that time. His method was unorthodox—focusing on human sexuality and the evil nature of man. This
posed immense challenges to scholars and ordinary citizens of his time. To some, they found his ideas not
easy especially in his explanations of human sexuality.
Freud was born in a much later period from the scientific revolution but his contribution to
knowledge can be seen in many aspects of the human scene, including art, literature, philosophy, politics,
and psychotherapy. Whether he is more of a psychologist or a scientist is for people to decide. The fact
remains that Freudian ideas and theories are still considered nowadays as a great inspiration to examine
human mind and behavior in a more scientifically accepted way.

Cradles of Early Science

Development of Science in Mesoamerica

Mesoamerica includes the entire area of Central America from Southern Mexico up to the border
of South America. There is no doubt that the Mesoamerican region is rich in culture and knowledge prior
to the arrival of its European colonizers.
The Maya civilization is one of the famous civilizations that lasted for approximately 2,000 years.
These people are known for their works in astronomy. They incorporated their advanced understanding
of astronomy into their temples and other religious structures. This allows them to use their temples for
astronomical observation. For example, the pyramid at Chichen Itza, in Mexico is situated at the location
of the Sun during the spring and fall equinoxes.
Mayan knowledge and understanding about celestial bodies was advanced for their time, as
evidenced by their knowledge of predicting eclipse and using astrological cycles in planting and harvesting.
The Mayans are also known for measuring time using two complicated calendar systems. These calendars
were very useful for their life especially in planning their activities and in observing, their religious rituals
and cultural celebrations.

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The Mayans also developed the technology for growing different crops and building elaborate
cities using ordinary machineries, and tools. They built hydraulics system with sophisticated waterways to
supply water to different communities
Furthermore, they used various tools and adapt themselves to innovations especially in the field
of arts. The Mayans built looms for weaving cloth and devised a rainbow of glittery paints made from a
mineral called mica. They are also believed to be one of the first people to produce rubber products 3,000
years before Goodyear received its patent in 1844.
The Mayans are considered one of the most scientifically advanced societies in Mesoamerica.
They are also famous as one of the world's first civilizations to use a writing system known as the Mayan
hieroglyphics. They were also skilled in mathematics and created a number system based on the numeral
20. Moreover, they independently developed the concept of zero and positional value, even before the
Romans did.
The Inca civilization is also famous in Mesoamerica. The Incas made advanced scientific ideas
considering their limitations as an old civilization. The following were scientific ideas and tools that they
developed to help them in everyday life:
1. roads paved with stones;
2. stone buildings that surmounted earthquakes and other disasters;
3. irrigation system and technique for storing water for their crops to grow in all types of land;
4. calendar with 12 months to mark their religious festivals and prepare them for planting season;
5. the first suspension bridge;
6. quipu, a system of knotted ropes to keep records that only experts can interpret; and
7. Inca textiles since cloth was one of the specially prized artistic achievements.

Following the Inca, the Aztec civilization has also made substantial contributions to science and
technology and to the society as a whole. Some of their contributions are the following:

1. Mandatory education. The Aztec puts value on education; that is why their children are mandated
to get education regardless of their social class, gender, or age. It is an early form of universal or
inclusive education.
2. Chocolates. The Aztec in Mexico developed chocolate during their time. In the Mayan culture,
they used it as currency. The Aztec valued the cacao beans highly and made it as part of their
tribute to their gods.
3. Antispasmodic medication. They used a type of antispasmodic medication that could prevent
muscle spasms and relax muscles, which could help during surgery.
4. Chinampa. It is a form of Aztec technology for agricultural farming in which the land was divided
into rectangular areas and surrounded by canals.
5. Aztec calendar. This enabled them to plan their activities, rituals, and planting season.
6. Invention of the canoe. A light narrow boat used for traveling in water systems.

Development of Science in Asia

Asia is the biggest continent in the world and the home of many ancient civilizations. It is a host
to many cultural, economic, scientific, and political activities of all ages. In the field of science, technology,
and mathematics, great civilizations have stood out: India, China, and the Middle East civilizations. These
civilizations were incomparable in terms of their contributions to the development of knowledge during
their time.

India
India is a huge peninsula surrounded by vast bodies of water any fortified by huge mountains in
its northern boarders, The Indians creatively developed various ideas and technologies useful in their
everyday lives. They are known for manufacturing iron and in metallurgical works. Their iron steel is
considered to be the best and held with high regard in the whole of Roman Empire.

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India is also famous in medicine. For example, Ayurveda, a system of traditional medicine that
originated in ancient India before 2500 BC, is still practiced as a form of alternative medicine. They
discovered some medicinal properties of plants that led them to develop medicines to cure various
illnesses. Some ancient texts, like the Susruta Samhita, describes different surgical and other medical
procedures famous in. Ancient India.
Ancient India is also notable in the field of astronomy. They developed theories on the
configuration of the universe, the spherical self-supporting Earth, and the year of 360 days with 12 equal
parts of 30 days each. Sama (2008) noted that their interest in astronomy was also evident in the first 12
chapters of the Siddhanta Shiromani, written in the 12th century. According to Sama (2008), this ancient
text covered topics such as: mean longitudes of the planets; true longitudes of the planets; the three
problems of diurnal rotation; syzygies; lunar eclipses; solar eclipses; latitudes of the planets; risings and
settings; the moon's crescent; conjunctions of the planets with each other; conjunctions of the planets
with the fixed stars; and the paths of the Sun and Moon.
Ancient India is also known for their mathematics. Bisht (1982) noted that the earliest traces of
mathematical knowledge in the Indian subcontinent appeared in the Indus Valley Civilization. The people
of this civilization, according to Bisht (1982), tried to standardize measurement of length to a high degree
of accuracy and designed a ruler, the Mohenjo-daro ruler.
Clifford (2008) and Bose (1998) pointed out that Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata
(476-550), in his Aryabhatiya, introduced a number of trigonometric functions, tables, and techniques, as
well as algorithms of algebra. In 628 AD, another Indian, Brahmagupta, also suggested that gravity was a
force of attraction, and lucidly explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and a decimal digit, along
with the Hindu-Arabic numeral system now used universally throughout the world (Clifford, 2008; Bose,
1998). Another Indian named Madhava o Sangamagrama is also considered as the founder of
mathematical analysis (Joseph, 1991).

China

China is one of the ancient civilizations with substantial contributions in many areas of life like
medicine, astronomy, science, mathematics, arts, philosophy, and music, among others. Chinese
civilizations have greatly influenced many of its neighbor countries like Korea, Japan, Philippines, Vietnam,
Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar, and other countries that belong to the old Silk Road.
The Chinese are known for traditional medicines, a product of centuries of experiences and
discovery of the Chinese people. They discovered various medical properties and uses of different plants
and animals to cure human illness. An example is the practice of acupuncture.
In terms of technology, the Chinese are known to develop many tools. Among the famous
discoveries and inventions of the Chinese civilizations were compass, papermaking, gunpowder, and
printing tools that became known in the West only by the end of the Middle Ages (Davies, 1995). They
also invented other tools like iron plough, wheelbarrow, and propeller, among others. They developed a
design of different models of bridges (Zhongguo ke xue Yuan, 1983), invented the first seismological
detector, and developed a dry dock facility (Needham et al., 1971).
In the field of astronomy, the Chinese also made significant records on supernovas, lunar and solar
eclipses, and comets, which were carefully recorded and preserved to understand better the heavenly
bodies and their effects to our world (Mayall, 1939). They observed the heavenly b6dies to understand
weather changes and seasons that may affect their daily activities. They used lunar calendars, too. The
Chinese are also known in seismology. This made them more prepared in times of natural calamities.
China made substantial contributions in various fields. The list of their discoveries and inventions
is overwhelming. These contributions were made along with mathematics, logic, philosophy, and
medicine. However, cultural factors prevented these Chinese achievements from developing into modern
science. According to Needhath (1986), it may have been the religious and philosophical framework of
Chinese intellectuals that made them unable to accept the ideas of laws of nature.

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Middle East Countries

The Middle East countries are dominantly occupied by Muslims. With the spread of Islam in the
7th and 8th centuries, a period of Muslim scholarship, or what is called the Golden Age of Islam lasted
until the 13th century. The common language of Arabic, access to Greek texts from the Byzantine Empire,
and their proximity to India were contributory to the intellectualization of the Muslims and provided their
scholars knowledge to create innovations and develop new ideas. But contrary to the Greeks, Muslim
scientists placed greater value on science experiments rather than plain-thought experiments. This led to
the development of the scientific method in the Muslim world, and made significant improvements by
using experiments to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical
orientation. A Muslim scientist named Ibnal-Haytham is also regarded as the Father of Optics, especially
for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light.
In mathematics, the mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi gave his name to the
concept of the algorithm while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr, the beginning of the title of one
of his publications. What is now known as the Arabic Numeral System originally came from India, but
Muslim mathematicians did make several refinements to the number system, such as the introduction of
decimal point notation.
Muslim chemists and alchemists also played an important role in the foundation of modern
chemistry (Durant, 1980). In particular, some scholars considered Jabir ibn Hayyan to be the "Father of
Chemistry" (Derewenda, 2007; Warren, 2005).
In the field of medicine, Ibn Sina pioneered the science of experimental medicine and was the first
physician to conduct clinical trials (Jacquart, 2008). His two most notable works in medicine, the Bork of
Healing and The Canon of Medicine, were used as standard medicinal texts in both the Muslim world and
in Europe during the 17th century. Among his many contributions are the discovery of the contagious
nature of infectious diseases and the introduction of clinical pharmacology (Craig & Walter, 2000).
There are numerous Muslim scholars who made significant contributions in the field of science,
mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, and even in the field of social sciences. The decline of this golden
age of Islam started in the 11th to 13th century due to the conquest of the Mongols whereby libraries,
observatories, and other learning institutions were destroyed.

Development of Science in Africa

Africa is blessed with natural and mineral resources. Science also emerged in this part of the
planet long before the Europeans colonized it. The history of science and mathematics show that similar
to other ancient civilizations, the early civilizations in Africa are knowledge producers, too.
The ancient Egyptian civilization has contributed immensely and made significant advances in the
fields of astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. For example, the development of geometry was a
product of necessity to preserve the layout and ownership of farmlands of the Egyptians living along the
Nile River. The rules of geometry were developed and used to build rectilinear structures, the post of lintel
architecture of Egypt. These early science activities in Egypt were developed to improve the quality of life
of the Egyptians especially in building their early homes and cities. The great structures of the Egyptian
pyramids and the early dams built to divert water from the Nile River are some proofs of their advanced
civilization.
Egypt was known to be a center of alchemy, which is known as the medieval forerunner of
chemistry. They tried to study human anatomy and pharmacology, and applied important components
such as examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis for the treatment of diseases. These
components displayed strong parallels to the basic empirical method of studying science.
Astronomy was also famous in the African region. For instance, documents show that Africans
used three types of calendars: lunar, solar, and stellar, or a combination of the three.
Metallurgy was also known in the African regions during the ancient times. North Africa and the
Nile Valley imported iron technology from the Near East region that enabled them to benefit from the

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developments during the Bronze Age until the Iron Age. They invented metal tools used in their homes,
in agriculture, and in building their magnificent architectures.
Mathematics was also known to be prominent in the life of early people in the African continent.
The Lebombo Bone from the mountains between Swaziland and South Africa, which may have been a tool
for multiplication, division, and simple mathematical calculation or a six-month lunar calendar, is
considered to be the oldest known mathematical artifact dated from 35,000 BCE. Ancient Egyptians are
good in the four fundamental mathematical operations and other mathematical skills. They have
knowledge of the basic concepts of algebra and geometry. The Islamic regions in Africa during the
medieval period was also benefiting from mathematical learning, which is considered advanced during
those times, such as algebra, geometry, and trigonometry.

REFERENCES

(n.d.). Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies

Agsalud, P. S. (2012). Science, Technology and Society. Quezon City: Great Books Publishing.

Serafica, J. P. (2018). Science, Technology and Society. Quezon City: REX Printing Company, Inc.

Prepared by: Reviewed by: Approved:

MARIA CRISTINA V. VALENCIA, EdD DR. JOAN M. BEDES MARITA S. MAGAT, PhD

FACULTY PROGRAM DIRECTOR DEAN

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