Distortion - Types and Causes

Dishing of the steel plate between longitudinal stiffeners can be seen clearly on the bow of
this ship (Courtesy MOD)

Job Knowledge

This article covers several key issues on distortion in arc welded fabrications, especially basic
types of and factors affecting the degree of distortion.

What causes distortion?

Because welding involves highly localised heating of joint edges to fuse the material, non-
uniform stresses are set up in the component because of expansion and contraction of the
heated material. Initially, compressive stresses are created in the surrounding cold parent
metal when the weld pool is formed due to the thermal expansion of the hot metal (heat
affected zone) adjacent to the weld pool. However, tensile stresses occur on cooling when the
contraction of the weld metal and the immediate heat affected zone is resisted by the bulk of
the cold parent metal.

The magnitude of thermal stresses induced into the material can be seen by the volume
change in the weld area on solidification and subsequent cooling to room temperature. For
example, when welding CMn steel, the molten weld metal volume will be reduced by
approximately 3% on solidification and the volume of the solidified weld metal/heat affected
zone (HAZ) will be reduced by a further 7% as its temperature falls from the melting point of
steel to room temperature.

If the stresses generated from thermal expansion/contraction exceed the yield strength of the
parent metal, localised plastic deformation of the metal occurs. Plastic deformation causes a
permanent reduction in the component dimensions and distorts the structure.

What are the main types of distortion?

Distortion occurs in six main forms:

• Longitudinal shrinkage
• Transverse shrinkage
 • Angular distortion
• Bowing and dishing
• Buckling
• Twisting

The principal features of the more common forms of distortion for butt and fillet welds are
shown below:

Contraction of the weld area on cooling results in both transverse and longitudinal
shrinkage.

Non-uniform contraction (through thickness) produces angular distortion in addition to

longitudinal and transverse shrinkage.

For example, in a single V butt weld, the first weld run produces longitudinal and transverse
shrinkage and rotation. The second run causes the plates to rotate using the first weld deposit
as a fulcrum. Hence, balanced welding in a double side V butt joint can be used to produce
uniform contraction and prevent angular distortion.

Similarly, in a single side fillet weld, non-uniform contraction produces angular distortion of
the upstanding leg. Double side fillet welds can therefore be used to control distortion in the
upstanding fillet but because the weld is only deposited on one side of the base plate, angular
distortion will now be produced in the plate.

Longitudinal bowing in welded plates happens when the weld centre is not coincident with
the neutral axis of the section so that longitudinal shrinkage in the welds bends the section
into a curved shape. Clad plate tends to bow in two directions due to longitudinal and
transverse shrinkage of the cladding; this produces a dished shape. Dishing is also produced
in stiffened plating. Plates usually dish inwards between the stiffeners, because of angular
distortion at the stiffener attachment welds (see main photograph).

In plating, long range compressive stresses can cause elastic buckling in thin plates, resulting
in dishing, bowing or rippling.
Distortion due to elastic buckling is unstable: if you attempt to flatten a buckled plate, it will
probably 'snap' through and dish out in the opposite direction.

Twisting in a box section is caused by shear deformation at the corner joints. This is caused
by unequal longitudinal thermal expansion of the abutting edges. Increasing the number of
tack welds to prevent shear deformation often reduces the amount of twisting.

How much shall I allow for weld shrinkage?

It is almost impossible to predict accurately the amount of shrinking. Nevertheless, a 'rule of
thumb' has been composed based on the size of the weld deposit. When welding steel, the
following allowances should be made to cover shrinkage at the assembly stage.

Transverse Shrinkage

Fillet Welds 0.8mm per weld where the leg length does not exceed 3/4 plate thickness

Butt weld 1.5 to 3mm per weld for 60° V joint, depending on number of runs

Longitudinal Shrinkage

Fillet Welds 0.8mm per 3m of weld

Butt Welds 3mm per 3m of weld

Increasing the leg length of fillet welds, in particular, increases shrinkage.

What are the factors affecting distortion?

If a metal is uniformly heated and cooled there would be almost no distortion. However,
because the material is locally heated and restrained by the surrounding cold metal, stresses
are generated higher than the material yield stress causing permanent distortion. The principal
factors affecting the type and degree of distortion, are:

• Parent material properties

• Amount of restraint
• Joint design
• Part fit-up
• Welding procedure

Parent material properties

Parent material properties which influence distortion are coefficient of thermal expansion and
specific heat per unit volume. As distortion is determined by expansion and contraction of the
material, the coefficient of thermal expansion of the material plays a significant role in
determining the stresses generated during welding and, hence, the degree of distortion. For
example, as stainless steel has a higher coefficient of expansion than plain carbon steel, it is
more likely to suffer from distortion.
Restraint

If a component is welded without any external restraint, it distorts to relieve the welding
stresses. So, methods of restraint, such as 'strong-backs' in butt welds, can prevent movement
and reduce distortion. As restraint produces higher levels of residual stress in the material,
there is a greater risk of cracking in weld metal and HAZ especially in crack-sensitive
materials.

Joint design

Both butt and fillet joints are prone to distortion. It can be minimised in butt joints by
adopting a joint type which balances the thermal stresses through the plate thickness. For
example, a double-sided in preference to a single-sided weld. Double-sided fillet welds
should eliminate angular distortion of the upstanding member, especially if the two welds are
deposited at the same time.

Part fit-up

Fit-up should be uniform to produce predictable and consistent shrinkage. Excessive joint gap
can also increase the degree of distortion by increasing the amount of weld metal needed to
fill the joint. The joints should be adequately tacked to prevent relative movement between
the parts during welding.

Welding procedure

This influences the degree of distortion mainly through its effect on the heat input. As
welding procedure is usually selected for reasons of quality and productivity, the welder has
limited scope for reducing distortion. As a general rule, weld volume should be kept to a
minimum. Also, the welding sequence and technique should aim to balance the thermally
induced stresses around the neutral axis of the component.
Distortion - Prevention by pre-setting, pre-
bending or use of restraint

Assembly arrangement for main side plate fabrication of the Stalwart carrier. (Courtesy of
Roland Andrews)

Job knowledge

General guidelines are provided as 'best practice' for limiting distortion by adopting suitable
assembly techniques.

In the 'Job knowledge for welders, Distortion - prevention by design', it was shown that
distortion could often be prevented at the design stage, for example, by placing the welds
about the neutral axis, reducing the amount of welding and depositing the weld metal using a
balanced welding technique. In designs where this is not possible, distortion may be reduced
or prevented by one of the following methods:

• pre-setting of parts
• pre-bending of parts
• use of restraint

The technique chosen will be influenced by the size and complexity of the component or
assembly, the cost of any restraining equipment and the need to limit residual stresses.
Fig. 1 Pre-setting of parts to produce correct alignment after welding:

a) Pre-setting of fillet joint to prevent angular distortion;

b) Pre-setting of butt joint to prevent angular distortion;
c) Tapered gap to prevent closure

Pre-setting of parts
The parts are pre-set and left free to move during welding (see Fig 1). In practice, the parts
are pre-set by a pre-determined amount so that distortion occurring during welding is used to
achieve overall alignment and dimensional control.

The main advantages compared with the use of restraint are that there is no expensive
equipment needed and there will be lower residual stress in the structure.

Unfortunately, as it is difficult to predict the amount of pre-setting needed to accommodate

shrinkage, a number of trial welds will be required. For example, when MMA or MIG
welding butt joints, the joint gap will normally close ahead of welding; when submerged arc
welding; the joint may open up during welding. When carrying out trial welds, it is also
essential that the test structure is reasonably representative of the full size structure in order to
generate the level of distortion likely to occur in practice. For these reasons, pre-setting is a
technique more suitable for simple components or assemblies.

Fig. 2 Pre-bending, using strongbacks and wedges, to accommodate angular distortion in thin
plate
Pre-bending of parts
Pre-bending, or pre-springing the parts before welding is a technique used to pre-stress the
assembly to counteract shrinkage during welding. As shown in Fig 2, pre-bending by means
of strongbacks and wedges can be used to pre-set a seam before welding to compensate for
angular distortion. Releasing the wedges after welding will allow the parts to move back into
alignment.

The main photograph shows the diagonal bracings and centre jack used to pre-bend the
fixture, not the component. This counteracts the distortion introduced though out-of-balance
welding.

Use of restraint
Because of the difficulty in applying pre-setting and pre-bending, restraint is the more widely
practised technique. The basic principle is that the parts are placed in position and held under
restraint to minimise any movement during welding. When removing the component from the
restraining equipment, a relatively small amount of movement will occur due to locked-in
stresses. This can be cured by either applying a small amount of pre-set or stress relieving
before removing the restraint.

When welding assemblies, all the component parts should be held in the correct position until
completion of welding and a suitably balanced fabrication sequence used to minimise
distortion.

Welding with restraint will generate additional residual stresses in the weld which may cause
cracking. When welding susceptible materials, a suitable welding sequence and the use of
preheating will reduce this risk.

Restraint is relatively simple to apply using clamps, jigs and fixtures to hold the parts during
welding.

Welding jigs and fixtures

Jigs and fixtures are used to locate the parts and to ensure that dimensional accuracy is
maintained whilst welding. They can be of a relatively simple construction, as shown in Fig
3a, but the welding engineer will need to ensure that the finished fabrication can be removed
easily after welding.

Flexible clamps

A flexible clamp ( Fig 3b) can be effective not only in applying restraint but also in setting up
and maintaining the joint gap (it can also be used to close a gap that is too wide).

A disadvantage is that, as the restraining forces in the clamps are transferred into the joint
when the clamps are removed, the level of residual stress across the joint can be quite high.
Fig. 3 Restraint techniques to prevent distortion a) Welding jig

c) Strongbacks with wedges

b) Flexible clamps

d) Fully welded strongbacks

Strongbacks (and wedges)

Strongbacks are a popular means of applying restraint especially for site work. Wedged
strongbacks, Fig.3c, will prevent angular distortion in plate and help to prevent peaking in
welding cylindrical shells. As these types of strongback will allow transverse shrinkage, the
risk of cracking will be greatly reduced compared with fully welded strongbacks.

Fully welded strongbacks (welded on both sides of the joint) Fig 3d, will minimise both
angular distortion and transverse shrinkage. As significant stresses can be generated across
the weld which will increase any tendency for cracking, care should be taken in the use of
this type of strongback.
Best practice
Adopting the following assembly techniques will help to control distortion:

• Pre-set parts so that welding distortion will achieve overall alignment and
dimensional control with minimum residual stress.
• Pre-bend joint edges to counteract distortion and achieve alignment and dimensional
control with minimum residual stress.
• Apply restraint during welding by using jigs and fixtures, flexible clamps,
strongbacks and tack welding but consider the risk of cracking which can be quite
significant, especially for fully welded strongbacks.
• Use an approved procedure for welding and removal of welds for restraint techniques
which may need preheat to avoid forming imperfections in the component surface.