613589

research-article2015
JMEXXX10.1177/1052562915613589Journal of Management EducationDachner and Polin

Research Article
Journal of Management Education
2016, Vol. 40(2) 121­–151
A Systematic Approach © The Author(s) 2015
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DOI: 10.1177/1052562915613589
Emerging Adult Learner jme.sagepub.com

in Undergraduate
Management Courses

Alison M. Dachner1 and Beth Polin2

Abstract
Management education research has provided educators with new instructional
tools to improve course design and update the methods used in the classroom.
In an effort to provide the typical undergraduate management student with the
best possible learning experience and outcomes, it is important to recognize
how and why these new activities benefit the student. To reach this goal,
one must first understand that the traditional undergraduate management
student, aged 18 to 25 years, is in a phase of life development referred to as
emerging adulthood in which they are distinctly different from mature adults
demographically, cognitively, emotionally, and socially. With this understanding,
our research analyzes how each of the six assumptions of andragogy can be
applied uniquely to the emerging adult undergraduate management student.
We provide the management educator with a method for classifying the
level of development of students along the focus areas of andragogy, general
instructional design ideas for addressing those particular levels of development,
and a number of specific activities identified in a review of Journal of Management
Education articles with notes on the conditions under which activities will be
most effective. Student learning experiences can be improved when course
activities are designed more intentionally and meaningfully.

1John Carroll University, University Heights, OH, USA

2Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, KY, USA

Corresponding Author:
Alison M. Dachner, Department of Management, Marketing, and Logistics, John Carroll
University, 1 John Carroll Boulevard, University Heights, OH 44118, USA.
Email: [email protected]

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122 Journal of Management Education 40(2)

Keywords
teaching philosophies, undergraduate, classroom exercises, future of
management education

An abundance of research and much discussion have centered on identifying

instructional design tools that are useful in management education. In fact,
the Journal of Management Education currently has a section titled
“Instructional Innovations”—and in the past had a section called “Exercises,
Activities, and Simulations”—which provides specific activities recom-
mended for use in the classroom. These types of instructional methods are
thought to be quite valuable to the traditional undergraduate learner; how-
ever, these learning tools should not be designed and applied at random or
without purpose. It is imperative that instructors understand the nature of the
traditional undergraduate student as an emerging adult and appropriately
apply theories of adult learning when making decisions about how and in
what contexts to use different course activities.
The traditional undergraduate management student, defined here as an
emerging adult aged 18 to 25 years, is a unique subset of adult learner.
Although these students are legally considered adults, in most cases they are
not cognitively, emotionally, or socially representative of a mature adult. In
fact, the average college student does not even consider himself or herself to
have reached adulthood (Arnett, 1994); when asked Do you feel that you have
reached adulthood?, only approximately 40% of respondents aged 18 to 25
years replied yes, while nearly 70% of people aged 26 to 35 years responded
in the affirmative (Arnett, 2000). Life-span development theorists suggest
that human development is an evolutionary process in which we transition
through different life stages. The traditional undergraduate management stu-
dent, then, should be recognized—and treated—as existing in a state of tran-
sition into, but not yet fully immersed in, mature adulthood.
For decades, social scientists have been studying the manner in which adults
learn. Merriam (2001), recognizing the complexity of adult learning, admits that
“we have no single answer, no one theory, or model of adult learning that
explains all that we know about adult learners, the various contexts where learn-
ing takes place, and the process of learning itself” (p. 3). But one particular adult
learning theory that has gained popularity is that of andragogy, the theory of
adult learning introduced by Malcolm Knowles (1968). This theory identifies
six core assumptions of adult learners. First, adults have an already established
self-concept and are prepared for self-directed learning. Second, adults have
prior work experiences on which they can draw in the classroom to facilitate
learning. Third, adults have a strong readiness to learn when the course material

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Dachner and Polin 123

is relevant to them. Fourth, adults have a problem-focused orientation to learn-

ing such that they want to be able to use new knowledge and skills immediately.
Fifth, adults need to know how, why, and what they will learn. Sixth and finally,
adults have an intrinsic motivation to learn (Knowles, 1977; Knowles, Holton,
& Swanson, 2005, 2012; Mancuso, Chlup, & Whorter, 2010). These assump-
tions guide the planning, execution, management, and evaluation process for
adult educational experiences (Pratt, 1988). Despite the complexity of research
in adult learning, we have chosen to use andragogy to guide our research because
the assumptions of andragogy are flexible and can be applied differently depend-
ing on the situation. In fact, Knowles et al. (2012) contend that “andragogy
works best in practice when it is adapted to fit the uniqueness of the learners and
the learning situation” (p. 3). Given that emerging adults are a unique subset of
adult learners, andragogy’s flexibility allows for each classroom of emerging
adults to be evaluated for students’ current status along the six core assumptions.
Subsequently, courses can be designed and activities can be chosen in a way that
makes sense and is meaningful for particular emerging adult learners as they
transition into adulthood.
The purpose of our research is to present a systematic approach for more
appropriate application of instructional course design and classroom manage-
ment based on andragogy and an understanding of this unique emerging adult
learner. We begin by establishing the traditional undergraduate management
student as a distinct subset of general adult learners. We then suggest that
through this understanding of the emerging adult learner, educators can use
andragogy to more methodically plan student learning experiences. We
accomplish our goals by (a) offering recommendations to help instructors
evaluate the unique learning needs of their emerging adult students along the
six core assumptions of andragogy, (b) providing general advice for address-
ing those needs through instructional design, (c) identifying important crite-
ria for instructors to consider when selecting specific activities, and (d)
highlighting specific sample management exercises and discussing under
what conditions each can be used most appropriately. Although we do not
provide suggestions as to how to use specific activities in a class, we provide
clear diagnostics for selecting activities that will capitalize on student
strengths and help develop the student in areas where they are less mature.

The Emerging Adult as a Unique Category of

Learner
Although many have alluded to a unique development period at the end of
adolescence and the beginning of adulthood (e.g., Erikson, 1968; Keniston,
1971; Levinson, 1978), it was Jeffrey Arnett (2000, 2006a, 2006b) who first

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124 Journal of Management Education 40(2)

introduced the concept of “emerging adulthood” as a distinct period of human

development between the ages of 18 and 25 years. He pointed out that
“changes over the past half century have altered the nature of development in
the late teens and early twenties for young people in industrialized societies,”
and that “it is no longer normative for the late teens and early twenties to be
a time of entering and settling into long-term adult roles” (Arnett, 2000, p.
469). Similarly, Zarrett and Eccles (2006) stated that this time period in a
young adult’s life is “more transitional” (p. 14) and thus requires more atten-
tion. It is during this time that individuals begin to accept more responsibility,
make independent decisions, and engage in identity exploration. Not only
does Arnett explain that these years are a time of change, but he goes so far
as to say they can be volatile. Changes in brain development influence the
cognitive abilities of emerging adults and result in fewer impulsive decisions
and increased capacity for self-reflection (Arnett, 2006b).
Demographic, cognitive, emotional, and social characteristics set this
unique group of emerging adults apart from both children and mature adults.
Arnett (2000) points to the use of demographics to display distinct differ-
ences among individuals. By examining data from the U.S. Census Bureau
(www.census.gov), it is seen that a number of major life situation changes
take place in individuals between the ages of 15 and 30. During this time,
trends show that individuals move from physically living with their parents
to living on their own, being single to being married, having no children to
having one or multiple children, and being in school to having finished
school. It is critical to consider the impact that life situation has on the learn-
ing experience of students.
But demographics are not the only changes an emerging adult is experi-
encing. Zull (2002) asserted that “learning is about biology” (p. xiii), and so
an application of neuroscience to the field of education is necessary. From a
cognitive perspective, the prefrontal cortex is the region of the brain that
controls higher order functions such as sense of self, responsibility, critical
thinking, leadership, planning, prediction, and decision making, all of which
must be used by students of management (Schmidt-Wilk, 2009; Zull, 2002).
The prefrontal cortex is physically not fully developed until the early to mid-
twenties (Giedd, 2006; Simpson, 2008), meaning that all, or nearly all, of the
traditional undergraduate management student’s education is completed prior
to this region of the brain and its functions being fully mature. As thinking
processes change through early adulthood, students move from believing in
absolutes with a single truth to more complex thinking and consideration of
multiple, broader viewpoints (Perry, 1970). Additionally, experience and
maturity promote the development of effortful control, or the “aspect of tem-
perament that reflects self-regulatory skill” which “involves the ability to

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Dachner and Polin 125

inhibit impulses and prevent disruptive behavior . . ., to focus and maintain

attention despite distractions . . ., and to initiate and complete tasks that have
long-term value . . .” (Véronneau, Racer, Fosco, & Dishion, 2014, p. 731).
Because of these physical developments and cognitive changes, emerging
adult learners would benefit from learning experiences which transform the
way they think about themselves and the world around them through critical
reflexivity, or reflection about one’s self-image, and changes to their self-
concept as it influences learning and development (Brookfield, 1986;
Mezirow, 1991).
It should come as no surprise that as emerging adults are experiencing
cognitive changes, they are also undergoing emotional changes. For example,
Decety and Michalska (2010) found that brain function regarding sympathy,
or “feelings of concern about the welfare of others,” and empathy, or “the
ability to appreciate the emotions and feelings of others with a minimal dis-
tinction between self and other,” develops over time and differ in individuals
based on age (p. 886). Other research evidence suggests that younger (i.e.,
individuals aged 19 to 35 years) adults differ from older (i.e., individuals
aged 66 to 87 years) adults when it comes to impression formation.
Specifically, older adults show advanced activity in multiple regions of the
brain when forming positive over negative impressions, whereas the reverse
is true for younger adults (Cassidy, Leshikar, Shih, Aizenman, & Gutchess,
2013). These distinctions speak to the need for careful mentoring of emerging
adults. Specifically, positive mentoring and coaching approaches should be
used, as these activate visioning and engagement of the parasympathetic
autonomic responses, whereas negative mentoring and coaching approaches
are associated with sympathetic autonomic responses (Jack, Boyatzis,
Khawaja, Passarelli, & Leckie, 2013).
Finally, emerging adults are also unique because of their social identity
and social needs (Arnett, 2000, 2006b). According to Erikson’s (1968) lifes-
pan theory, the establishment of social attachments outside family is a crucial
developmental undertaking for emerging adults. Students’ primary focus at
this stage is relational identity exploration through the establishment of new
social relationships (Erikson, 1968; Grotevant, 1987). During this time, many
individuals physically move from living with and relying on family to living
with and relying on friends to fulfill social needs. One’s college peers become
instrumental to their identity as they become increasingly dependent on
friends for support, assistance, and camaraderie (Carbery & Buhrmester,
1998). The relationships made during this stage of life play an integral role in
the fulfillment of one’s social needs (Ellingson, Tews, & Dachner, 2015). In
fact, Kegan (1994) goes as far as to say that during this phase of life, our
identity is so consumed with our relationships that “we are our relationships”

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126 Journal of Management Education 40(2)

(Baxter Magolda, 2001, p. 19). This statement emphasizes the importance of

learning experiences that allow for relationship building as well as enhance-
ment of already established relationships for emerging adults.
It is clear that emerging adults aged 18 to 25 years are distinct demo-
graphically, cognitively, emotionally, and socially. A level of mature adult
learning is the outcome goal of postsecondary education and instructional
design for emerging adults; clearly the behavioral mechanism, then, for this
antecedent and outcome cannot be the same. Once an instructor adopts a
sensitivity to the transitory state in which the traditional undergraduate man-
agement student—in other words, the emerging adult—exists, they can better
understand and systematically apply the many recommended instructional
tools for their courses appropriately.

Effective Teaching Methods for the Emerging

Adult Learner
Much research has been conducted on the most effective theories and meth-
ods to enhance undergraduate management education. For example, from a
behavioral perspective, there has been an abundance of research around the
importance of learning from others using social learning theory, reinforce-
ment theory, and behavior modeling in education (Bandura, 1982, 1977;
Skinner, 1938). From this perspective, it is suggested that the process of
learning is social in nature, as we typically learn from an expert in a particular
area or a capable peer (Goldstein, 1999). The constructivist perspective offers
another approach for improving undergraduate management education by
focusing on experiential learning. D. A. Kolb (1984), for example, defined
learning as “the process whereby knowledge is created through transforma-
tion or experience” (p. 38). Along the same line, Dewey (1938) suggested
that “all genuine education comes through experience” (p. 13). Although the
behavioral and constructivist approaches, as well as others, offer many edu-
cational tools that are commonly accepted as valuable, the reasons why and
when these methods are effective are less clear.
Knowles et al. (2012) argued that “we as educators now have the responsi-
bility to check out which assumptions are realistic in a given situation” (p. 68)
and design our courses properly given the student strengths and weaknesses
filling our classroom. Agreeing with this, we expand on Knowles’s focus areas
(i.e., self-concept, prior work experience, readiness to learn, orientation to
learn, need to know, and motivation to learn) in andragogy over the next six
subsections. We begin each section by explaining the focus area and how it
applies to the emerging adult management student as well as recommending
specific questions that instructors should consider using in their evaluation of

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Dachner and Polin 127

students’ level of development on the focus area (see Table 1). Once the answers
to these questions are known, instructional design can be adjusted as needed to
maximize students’ learning experience. For example, if an instructor finds
self-concept to be particularly underdeveloped in their students, more activities
focused on self-concept development should be included in the course. Next in
each subsection, we offer specific diagnostics for how to effectively match an
emerging adult’s learning needs with appropriate instructional methods. In
doing so, we make general recommendations for how to best design a class-
room experience for the emerging adult management student. To augment
these general recommendations, we identify activities and exercises found in a
review of Journal of Management Education articles from 2009 to 2015 that
can be used to address each specific need of the emerging adult management
student. Note that although we may discuss an activity in its most relevant
subsection, most classroom exercises have multiple focus area benefits.

Self-Concept of the Emerging Adult Learner

As emerging adults, most undergraduate students do not yet have a sense-of-
self independent from their social relationships. Through her research on the
journey of college students, Baxter Magolda (2001) concluded that “the miss-
ing piece of their college education was the lack of emphasis on developing an
internal sense of self” (p. xxii). Students’ personal identities are becoming more
complex, and the primary student identity begins to fade as a more professional
identity develops and spills over into educational experiences. Thus, emerging
adults are just beginning to experience a shift in their self-concept.
As adult learners’ self-concept changes from being dependent on others to
being dependent on themselves, they seek out and prefer learning experi-
ences that are self-directed (Forrest & Peterson, 2006). While past research
suggests that adult students become active partners in the educational process
(Bilimoria, 2000), this is a large responsibility for recent high school gradu-
ates whose self-concepts are still in a stage of transition. The fact that these
emerging adults are beginning to experience new found freedom and may
want similar independence in the classroom does not mean that they have
matured enough to become completely self-directed in their learning. In fact,
Gallos (1988) commented that “we should not assume that our students are
already the autonomous, independent, and responsible individuals that we
would like them to be . . . in fact, major studies of students during college
years . . . tell us that they are not” (p. 74). Moreover, Baxter Magolda (1998)
suggests that students do not need a certain skill to be prepared for self-
directed learning, but they do need “the ability to collect, interpret, and ana-
lyze information and reflect on one’s own belief in order to form judgment”

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128 Journal of Management Education 40(2)

Table 1. Understanding and Evaluating the Needs of Undergraduate Management

Students as Emerging Adults.

Explanation as applied to Questions to evaluate

Focus area emerging adult students emerging adult students
Self-concept Emerging adult students change How well do students
from being dependent on understand their own
others to being dependent goals, values, strengths, and
on themselves; their personal weaknesses?
identities are becoming more To what extent do students
complex. depend on their friendships
versus their family as a major
component of their identity?
To what extent is the student
ready to be self-directed in
their learning?
Work Emerging adult students may not How much work experience—
experience have sufficient life and work formal or informal—do
experience to benefit from students possess?
only practical application in the What types of jobs and
classroom. leadership roles have
students had that they can
draw on in class?
Readiness to Emerging adult students will How much assistance do
learn become ready to learn when students need in making
they recognize that what course connections to
they are learning is related workplace situations?
to their current roles and What extracurricular activities
responsibilities outside school. are students involved
with where they can apply
management concepts?
Orientation Emerging adult students may Are students academically and
to learning or may not have the well- professionally prepared to
developed, problem-centered take on a large, term-long
mind-sets to seek immediate experiential learning project?
application of what is learned. Will students be receptive to
advanced classroom models
such as the flipped classroom?
Need to Emerging adult students need What is students’ desired level
know to know what they will learn, of information regarding the
why they will learn it, and how course?
it will be learned. Do students understand how
each class day’s material
fits into the larger course
objectives?
(continued)

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Dachner and Polin 129

Table 1. (continued)
Explanation as applied to Questions to evaluate
Focus area emerging adult students emerging adult students
Motivation Emerging adult students are Are students capable of being
to learn not yet intrinsically motivated granted choices in the
to learn but instead more classroom and making good
extrinsically motivated to decisions?
perform well in the class. How interested are students
in the course content?

(p. 143). These capabilities are still developing as emerging adult learners go
through the cognitive changes that occur in this stage of life.
Although not often explicitly identified in the job description of a profes-
sor, it is the responsibility of management educators to guide this transition
of emerging adults from dependent learners to more self-directed learners.
This provides a scaffolding situation where the instructor assists the learner
in doing something challenging only until the learner can act independently;
when this occurs, the instructor gradually reduces their role and shifts respon-
sibility to the learner (Pea, 2004, Tuckman, 2007). In other words, at first
(say, as freshman), emerging adult learners might need more structure and
guidance, but as their self-concept evolves, they will be more prepared for
and desirous of self-directed learning environments. Using a similar philoso-
phy to scaffolding, the staged self-directed learning model proposed by Grow
(1991) argues that “the teacher’s purpose is to match the learner’s stage of
self-direction and prepare the learner to advance to higher stages” (p. 129). In
this model, similar to Hersey and Blanchard’s (1969) life cycle theory of
leadership, the student’s ability and willingness to be self-directed will prog-
ress from being fully dependent on the instructor to almost completely self-
directed. Thus, the instructor’s role changes over time as the students become
more mature and require less structure (task) and less socioemotional (rela-
tionship) support (Hersey & Blanchard, 1969).

Matching Emerging Adults’ Self-Concept With Appropriate Instructional Tools. Prior

to designing specific course activities, instructors need to identify their stu-
dents’ current level of self-concept. If students have a shifting self-concept, as
will be the case for most emerging adults, then instructors need to recognize
that students’ identities are in a state of transition and identify activities that are
appropriate during this stage. On consideration of activity inclusion in a course
design, a number of questions can assist a professor in understanding if the
exercise will help develop students’ self-concept (see Table 2). First, because
social relationships are especially important at this age for finding self-identity,

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 130
Table 2. Matching Course Activites and Instructional Design to Emerging Adult Students.

Diagnostics for matching activities to General instructional design

Focus area emerging adult student needs recommendations Sample activities
Self-concept Does the activity encourage Be sensitive to students’ ability A LinkedIn® exercise for a
    relationship building in the and willingness to be self- peer introduction assignment
classroom among peers? directed and professional networking
Does the activity encourage Encourage relationship building preparation (Gerard, 2012)
relationship building between with peers A practical reflexivity essay
student and instructor? Demonstrate that you care about assignment to explore course
Does the activity present the students concepts and self-understanding
emerging adult learners with Provide opportunities for students (Eriksen, 2012)
opportunities for self-reflection? to reflect on their personal skills,
values, experiences, and goals
Work Does the activity allow students to Suggest participation in A writing exercise considering a
experience actually gain real work experience? internships, volunteer work, self-identified ethical issue in the
    Does the activity replicate a situation student organizations, and student’s own workplace (S. D.
that employees experience in the university leadership roles Baker & Comer, 2012)
workplace? Incorporate workplace-specific Using a documentary about
Can the activity be used as a proxy role-plays, short skits, simulations, Fleetwood Mac’s Rumours to
for real work experience? and virtual reality activities demonstrate group complexity
Does the activity promote vicarious Promote vicarious learning using (Comer & Holbrook, 2012)

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learning or learning from current events, local business
secondhand experience? leaders, and videos
(continued)
 Table 2. (continued)
Diagnostics for matching activities to General instructional design
Focus area emerging adult student needs recommendations Sample activities
Readiness to Does the activity establish the Establish importance, Multiple activities and classroom
learn importance of class material by meaningfulness, and relevance practices for how and when
connecting it to current real-world to students’ current and future to use reflection throughout a
situations in the students’ lives? work assignments management course (Hedberg,
Does the activity allow for reflexivity? Relate what they learn directly 2009)
Does the activity promote broader, to an organization with which Recommendations for preparing
open-minded, critical thinking? they are currently involved (e.g., for and stimulating reflection
job, sports team, fraternity, as well as challenging current
student/community/professional and developing new viewpoints
organization, church, etc.) (Hibbert, 2012)
Include opportunities for critical
thinking and critical application
Orientation Is the activity experiential? Use experiential learning through Developing international
to learning Does the activity include a large-scale, large, course-long projects managerial skills by matching U.S.-
course-long exercise that allows Integrate teaching strategies such based and international students
students to complete a project from as just-in-time teaching and a (Figueiredo & Mauri, 2012)
beginning to end? flipped classroom model Insight into the use of service
learning in a course (Fairfield,

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2010)
(continued)

131
 132
Table 2. (continued)
Diagnostics for matching activities to General instructional design
Focus area emerging adult student needs recommendations Sample activities
Need to Does the syllabus provide clear, Distribute a detailed, clear syllabus An interpretation of the course
know concise, appropriate details about at the start of the term syllabus as contract, power,
the course and the timeline? Preview material to be learned at communication device, and
Does the course include a sufficient the start of each class meeting collaboration (Fornaciari & Lund
amount of reviews of past material Review material that was learned Dean, 2014)
and previews for upcoming material? at the end of each class meeting Practical and concrete tips for
Is it clear to students how each day’s syllabus development (Lund Dean
topic fits into the overall course & Fornaciari, 2014)
objectives?
Motivation Do students have choices and Design an autonomy-supportive A group decision making hidden
to learn some control over the learning classroom environment profile hiring simulation (D. F.
experience? Grant choice in the classroom Baker, 2010)
Is there some degree of fun or Make learning fun Incorporation of Appreciative
excitement associated with the Inquiry in the classroom (Conklin,
activity? 2009)
Does the activity cover general
business concepts that are presented

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in an engaging yet abstract (not
work-situation-specific) manner?
Dachner and Polin 133

when selecting activities for this type of student, instructors should ask, Does
the activity encourage relationship building in the classroom among peers?
and Does the activity encourage relationship building between the student and
instructor? During the college years, relationships at school provide a source of
social contact as students strive to establish their own identities beyond the
family context (Levinson, 1978; Verbrugge, 1977). Allowing students to
develop relationships in class is an important part of guiding the development
of their self-concept. Relationships between students are likely to emerge natu-
rally through group work and shared interests. Of equal importance, but poten-
tially more difficult to establish, is the relationship between the student and the
instructor. Because of the emotional state of the emerging adult learner, instruc-
tors who act as mentors are especially influential (Jack et al., 2013). Past
research has also emphasized the importance of a caring teacher (Goldstein,
1999). In fact, Dachner and Saxton (2015) found that when undergraduate
management students had instructors who cared about them and valued their
contribution, they experienced more positive learning outcomes. This suggests
that one way of building relationships with students is by being committed to
them and showing that you care. Our review of the literature yielded several
articles that provide instructional ideas for building students’ network of per-
sonal and professional relationships that we encourage professors to consider
(e.g., Gerard, 2012; Trefalt, 2014).
Second, because knowing oneself is essential to identity formation for
emerging adults, when identifying activities for management students,
instructors should ask, Does the activity present the emerging adult learners
with opportunities for self-reflection? Students should have the opportunity
to reflect on their personal skills, values, experiences, as well as their goals
for the future. Allowing students to reflect on their strengths and weaknesses,
participate in assessments about themselves, and consider critical thinking
questions helps them to establish their identity while reinforcing the content
covered during class in a semi-self-directed way. Emerging adults also need
to be presented with information about the possibilities in different chosen
career fields, and they need help in identifying where they might be a good fit
and why. Our review of the literature yielded several articles that provide
instructional ideas for student self-reflection (e.g., Eriksen, 2012; Pavlovich,
Collins, & Jones, 2009; Spreitzer & Grant, 2012).

Prior Experience of the Emerging Adult Learner

Adult pupils can be active participants in the learning process because they
can apply the knowledge and skills accumulated during past experiences to
the present learning initiative. The emerging adult learner, however, may not

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134 Journal of Management Education 40(2)

have sufficient life and work experience to benefit from only practical appli-
cation in the classroom (Forrest & Peterson, 2006; Shaw & Fisher, 1999).
Although it is still important that they be active rather than passive learners,
emerging adult students lack the life experiences beyond internships, part-
time jobs, and student organizations that mature adult students possess.
Nonetheless, it is important that students use what experiences they do have
in the classroom because such application aids in processing new information
and facilitates learning. With even minimal experience application, emerging
adults’ understanding of subject matter does not begin at a level of zero;
instead, they are identifying gaps in knowledge and making connections
between new and old information which simplifies information processing
(Sankowsky, 1998). The experience of the emerging adult learner is thus a
rich resource for education and provides a basis for learning activities (Forrest
& Peterson, 2006). It is the responsibility of an instructor to guide informa-
tion processing and active-learning based on life and work experiences that
may still facilitate learning for the emerging adult learner.

Matching Emerging Adults’ Experience With Appropriate Instructional Tools. Prior

to establishing specific course activities, instructors should identify their stu-
dents’ current level of experience. Educators should take into account that
students have a great deal of experience and expertise in many areas, although
perhaps not professional or specific to management. For example, students
come to college with varying degrees of experience on sports teams, in clubs,
as participants in faith organizations, volunteering, in the military, campaign-
ing for politicians, and so on. Because these are management courses, stu-
dents may default to trying to think of examples to discuss in class from their
work experiences and in the context of a job only. Instructors can encourage
students to think outside the box and draw on all their life experiences when
trying to relate theories and ideas to past experience as a basis for class
discussion.
There are a number of considerations an instructor should make when
designing a course for students who may lack real work experience. First,
instructors should ask, Does this activity allow students to actually gain real
work experience? Some recommendations regarding identifying activities
for students who lack prior work experience include making internships or
major-specific volunteer work or service learning a requirement of the cur-
riculum. Students who have internships during college tend to have an advan-
tage over their peers who do not possess internship experience (Smith, 2012).
These are primary ways that students can obtain the required experience to
use in the classroom in a way that allows them to be active participants in
their learning. Keep in mind that expertise is gained partly through trial and

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Dachner and Polin 135

error; error management training suggests that people learn from their mis-
takes (Keith & Frese, 2008). Thus, allowing students to make mistakes in
class, or to draw on their mistakes outside class, can be a rich resource for
learning from additional experiences.
Second, instructors should ask, Does the activity replicate a situation that
employees experience in the workplace? In other words, Can the activity be
used as a proxy for real work experience? An instructor can use role-plays,
short skits, simulations, and virtual reality that specifically relate to work-
place situations. Research suggests that when students lack experience that
they can bring to the classroom, simulations and role-plays are one way to put
students in a real-world yet “safe” situation. As argued by Kern (2000), a
simulation’s “greatest strength is that it generates a complex social system
that students manage and work in . . . [bringing] to life a wide range of orga-
nizational phenomena” (p. 259). One specific example of this is to treat the
classroom as an organization. For example, Brumagim (1999) created a busi-
ness simulation to “engage the more experienced nontraditional student with-
out confusing or alienating the less experienced traditional student” (p. 444).
In the simulation, students apply and are selected for team projects. Another
example is to ask student groups to create and act out their own short skits
related to class concepts. An activity like this aids in information processing
because it provides another way for students to relate the material to an expe-
rience (i.e., their acting out the skit) rather than just what they read or heard
in class. This type of group work also reinforces the need to let students build
relationships, which helps develop their self-concept. Instructors looking to
compensate for emerging adults’ lack of experience in the classroom should
identify activities that can be done in class and are work-context specific. Our
review of the literature yielded several articles that provide instructional
ideas for providing students with work experience to draw on in the class-
room, including short, in-class activities that address ethical dilemmas (S. D.
Baker & Comer, 2012), virtual team meetings (Bull Schaefer & Erskine,
2012), employee conversations (Caza, Caza, & Lind, 2011), cross-cultural
issues (Ozcelik & Paprika, 2010), media (Schultz & Quinn, 2013), and case-
type projects (D. R. Baker, 2013; Sachau & Naas, 2010; Vega, 2010).
Finally, to identify activities that will help compensate for the lack of
experience characteristic of most emerging adults, instructors should ask,
Does the activity promote vicarious learning or learning from secondhand
experience? Social learning theory (Bandura, 1977) suggests that students
can learn by proxy through the experiences of other people they know,
whether it be current friends, relatives, business leaders, television shows,
movies, or other students in the classroom. From this perspective, students
learn best by observing a model that demonstrates a behavior and receives

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136 Journal of Management Education 40(2)

reinforcement for that behavior. This builds student self-efficacy through

vicarious experience, and thus students are also more likely to transfer what
they learn (Bandura, 1982, 1997). Learning through the experiences of others
enables connections necessary to more easily process information and fill in
knowledge gaps. As educators present information to students, they can
encourage students to think about how the material applies to a situation they,
or someone they know, experienced. Instructors can assign projects that
require students to meet with business leaders in their community to identify
how they handled specific situations and issues and then report back to the
class. Instructors can also share current events related to the class content that
emphasize the detailed experiences of working professionals or organiza-
tions. Making this material available to students through social media (e.g.,
Twitter) can be an effective way to share this type of information. Moreover,
instructors can encourage vicarious learning by offering participation or
bonus points to students who are willing to share a movie clip, real life expe-
rience, or article that they found and describe to the class how it relates to a
class concept. Our review of the literature yielded several activities that pro-
vide instructional ideas to capitalize on vicarious learning particularly
through the use of videos in the classroom (e.g., Comer & Holbrook, 2012;
Holbrook, 2009; Huffman & Kilian, 2012; Kenworthy-U’Ren & Erickson,
2009; McHugh, 2009; Taylor & Provitera, 2011; Tyler, Anderson, & Tyler,
2009).

Readiness to Learn of the Emerging Adult Learner

Andragogy also suggests that “adults generally become ready to learn when
their life situation creates a need to know” (Knowles et al., 2012, p. 192).
Thus, emerging adults will approach an educational experience with eager-
ness when they recognize the manner in which what they are learning is
related to their current roles and responsibilities outside school (Forrest &
Peterson, 2006). On the other hand, they will not be engaged in learning if
they do not think that the material is meaningful to their current life status.
Not surprisingly, research has found that establishing the relevance of course
material for adult learners is a motivating factor in learning, while teaching
abstract concepts is a demotivating factor (Kember, Ho, & Hong, 2008).
Thus, an emerging adult pupil’s readiness to learn and willingness to actively
participate in their education will increase when the course content seems
germane to them personally (Bilimoria, 1998; Forrest & Peterson, 2006; J. A.
Kolb, 1999; Ryland, 1998).
It is the responsibility of the instructor to gain an understanding of their
students’ life situations (Pratt, 1988) as needed to improve the educational

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Dachner and Polin 137

experience. As previously stated, the emerging adult learner experiences a

growing desire to be a self-directed learner. As the instructor is helping the
emerging adult student transition from unable and unwilling to be self-
directed to able and willing, the relevance of the material to the student’s
current position and future career will be critical. Given their age and lack of
experience, the course subject matter may not seem directly relevant to them,
leaving them no immediate reason to learn the content. It is up to the instruc-
tor, then, to take care in course design such that they aid in the development
of the students’ readiness to learn.

Matching Emerging Adults’ Readiness to Learn With Appropriate Instructional

Tools. Prior to establishing specific course activities, instructors should iden-
tify their students’ current level of readiness to learn. If the instructor is
unsure of the current available applications of the students or how to design
the learning environment to be conducive to future application, feedback
should be collected from students. At the end of each course, students can be
surveyed to find out what was most relevant and what was least relevant to
them. While feedback is important from adult learners, it is particularly
important from emerging adult learners since their “current” environment
application is constantly changing and may be foreign to the instructor.
To select activities that are appropriate for emerging adults who may not
have a readiness to learn, instructors should first ask, Does the activity estab-
lish the importance of class material by connecting it to current real-world
situations in the students’ lives? To design an effective learning environment
for the emerging adult management student, instructors must identify what is
important to their students outside class and then contextualize the class con-
tent that needs to be learned so that it is relevant to students’ current experi-
ences and organizations (Barclay & York, 1996; Forrest & Peterson, 2006).
One technique is to ask emerging adult students to apply what they are learn-
ing directly to an organization with which they are currently involved (e.g.,
jobs, sports teams, fraternities, university organizations, and community
organizations) instead of, or in addition to, asking them to “imagine” them-
selves as a manager a few years from now. The instructor can also capitalize
on student experiences of being managed by highlighting the importance,
meaningfulness, and relevance of the class material. Consistently providing
examples about how class material is directly relevant to a variety of different
professions is meaningful to emerging adults.
In addition, instructors can identify activities that will boost students’
readiness to learn by asking, Does the activity allow for reflexivity? Does the
activity promote broader, open-minded, critical thinking? Research suggests
that instructors can increase an emerging adult student’s readiness to learn by

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138 Journal of Management Education 40(2)

developing their ability to think critically through reflection and reflexivity

(Knowles et al., 2012). While reflection of personal strengths, weaknesses,
and other characteristics can assist in self-concept development, other types
of reflection activities (e.g., reflection of how an activity relates to one’s cur-
rent or desired career) help develop critical thinking and critical application.
Hibbert (2012) suggests that instructors need to intentionally include reflec-
tion as a part of the class and stimulate critical thinking discussions. This idea
goes hand-in-hand with the idea that emerging adults go through cognitive
changes that allow them to think more broadly, consider alternate viewpoints,
and ultimately increase their readiness to learn. Our review of the literature
yielded several articles that provide instructional ideas to stimulate reflection
of the relationship between the course material and current or future work
situations (e.g., Hedberg, 2009; Hibbert, 2012; Welsh & Dehler, 2012) as
well as articles that provide ideas for critical thinking toward and critical
evaluation of management concepts (i.e., Kohn, 2012; Stepanovich, 2009;
Van Buskirk & London, 2012).

Orientation to Learning of the Emerging Adult Learner

Adult learners are problem-oriented and seek immediate application of learned
knowledge (Forrest & Peterson, 2006). That is, they have a problem-centered,
rather than subject-centered, approach to learning (Cross, 1981; Knowles et al.,
2012). It is put well by Daloisio and Firestone (1983) who comment that “adults
need to apply their learning now” (p. 73)! But emerging adults in a state of
transition may or may not have a well-developed problem-centered mind-set.
Despite this, they learn best when new information is presented in a real life
context (e.g., experiential learning; Knowles et al., 2012). It is likely that as
freshman, students are in college courses as the next step in their educational
path, and immediate application has not been greatly considered. In fact, when
students enter college, many are still considering their major, let alone their
career, and the lackluster decision-making process in their choice of major
demonstrates their underdeveloped thought process (e.g., Galotti, 1999). By
the junior or senior year of college, however, the search for internships and jobs
makes applicability more salient. Thus, as students navigate their undergradu-
ate coursework from freshman to senior year and transition into adulthood,
they will be more and more prepared for experiential learning.

Matching Emerging Adults’ Orientation to Learning With Appropriate Instructional

Tools. Prior to establishing specific course activities, instructors need to iden-
tify their students’ current level of orientation to learn. Undergraduate man-
agement instructors can incorporate large, long-term, experiential projects in

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Dachner and Polin 139

their undergraduate management classes to aid students in actually applying

what they learned to a real life situation. Activities appropriate for enhancing
an emerging adult management student’s orientation to learn can be identi-
fied by asking, Is the exercise experiential? Does the activity include a large-
scale, course-long exercise that allows students to complete a project from
beginning to end? Experiential learning refers to learning by doing. For an
activity to be classified as experiential learning, D. A. Kolb (1984), who is
often referred to as the founder of experiential learning, says that it must
include concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualiza-
tion, and active experimentation. Experiential exercises come in many forms.
Student-run businesses (Minch & Tabor, 2007), student-consulting projects
(Kunkel, 2002), and project-centered courses assess more than just memori-
zation of material; they demonstrate detailed knowledge and application of
course material. Keep in mind that mastery and application of course con-
cepts is a reinforcing cyclical process, so transferring and maintaining foun-
dational material through more traditional teaching methods (e.g., lectures)
alongside experiential exercises is critical. Our review of the literature
yielded several articles that provide instructional ideas for incorporating
large-scale, long-term experiential exercises such as community and service
projects (e.g., Fairfield, 2010; Larson & Drexler, 2010; Lavine & Roussin,
2012), cross-cultural projects (e.g., Figueiredo & Mauri, 2012), and simula-
tions (e.g., Krom, 2012; B. J. Sheehan, McDonald, & Spence, 2009; Stewart,
Houghton, & Rogers, 2012).
There are definite challenges and obstacles (e.g., time, resources) associ-
ated with experiential exercises when it comes to the time required to com-
plete these types of projects. We encourage educators to consider using more
recent teaching philosophies that help alleviate the constraints associated
with some of the recommended activities. For example, just-in-time teach-
ing, flipped classrooms, and blended learning all offer strategies to empha-
size immediate, direct application of what is being learned in the classroom
to the “real world” while still continuing to reinforce the foundational class
content. Just-in-time teaching “weaves the needs and preferences of the busi-
ness community into a professor’s decisions about what business theories and
tools to teach and when to teach them” (Watson & Temkin, 2000, p. 764). By
using just-in-time teaching, professors still choose the material that is cov-
ered, but as they cover the topics, they apply real-time business problems and
have students solve for solutions that could actually be helpful to companies.
A flipped classroom is one where basic concepts are learned outside the
classroom using textbooks, video lectures, and other materials. This approach
frees up class time to complete all assignments, discussions, and activities
(Findlay-Thompson & Mombourquette, 2014) and apply the already-learned

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140 Journal of Management Education 40(2)

concepts to practical business issues. This approach is referred to as a blended

learning course if some of the material is taught online, but discussions,
cases, and group work still take place in a face-to-face classroom. Using
these strategies in conjunction with experiential exercises is ideal for the
emerging adult learner to continue to build the foundation of class topics
while also satisfying students’ desire for immediate application.

Need to Know of the Emerging Adult Learner

Although not an original assumption of andragogy, Knowles later added adult
learners’ need to know as an assumption of adult learning theory. This assump-
tion suggests that adults need to know what they will learn, why they will learn
it, and how it will be learned (Knowles et al., 2012). Emerging adults are likely
to have a similar mind-set. Students are more likely to actually process and
learn material when they have clear expectations of what material they will be
learning. This helps them to plan, organize material, and develop schema
around the subject matter. Undergraduate students have come to expect a plan
on the first day of class outlining what, how, and why they will learn the content
of the course (i.e., the syllabus), but there are also ways to meet students’ need-
to-know expectations throughout the term which are discussed below.

Matching Emerging Adults’ Need to Know With Appropriate Instructional Tools. Prior
to establishing specific course activities, instructors need to identify their stu-
dents’ level of need to know. The biggest opportunity for instructors of man-
agement education courses to address the students’ need to know is through
the syllabus. The course syllabus has many purposes and can act as a tool to
convey expectations, power relations, communication, and collaboration
(Fornaciari & Lund Dean, 2014). Specifically to address students’ need to
know, in appropriately designing a course instructors should ask, Does the
syllabus provide clear, concise, appropriate details about the course and the
timeline? In their article, Lund Dean and Fornaciari (2014) suggest that the
schedule portion of the syllabus is the most important for students. The authors
identify the need to present course schedules, deadlines, and specifics of
assignments clearly, recognizing that despite this section’s importance,
instructors often do not provide enough detail. Lund Dean and Fornaciari rec-
ommend two approaches to effectively using this part of the syllabus: Instruc-
tors can be clear and concise with regards to assignments, dates, and deadlines;
alternatively, because we are educating emerging adult learners who might
want to be a part of the planning process, instructors can directly involve stu-
dents in the planning and scheduling process. Either way, clear, open, detailed
communication is required.

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Dachner and Polin 141

Even with a course syllabus, instructors should also ask, Does the course
include a sufficient amount of reviews of past material and previews for
upcoming material? and Is it clear to students how each day’s topic fits into
the overall course objectives? Students can benefit from more frequent infor-
mation repetition through class previews and reviews. By beginning each
class session with an overview for the day, instructors can fulfill their stu-
dents’ need to know. Similarly, instructors can end each class session with a
“to do” list for the students of what they are expected to complete before the
next class session as well as a preview of what will be covered in the subse-
quent class. This type of conversation can be used to reinforce how the sub-
ject material for a particular day fits into the bigger picture of the course
objectives, another way to fulfill the students’ need to know. An example of
this is in the Colquitt, LePine, and Wesson (2014) textbook titled
“Organizational Behavior: Improving Performance and Commitment in the
Workplace.” These authors include an integrative framework at the begin-
ning of the textbook as well as the beginning of each chapter. As a new topic
is introduced, students can look at the framework and see how the new topic
relates to past topics covered in class as well as what other topics will be
relevant in the future. By doing so, nothing is learned in isolation; instead,
students learn how topics relate to one another, thus accommodating their
need to know.

Motivation to Learn of the Emerging Adult Learner

A second assumption that Knowles later added to the original four assump-
tions of andragogy is that intrinsic motivation becomes more potent in
adulthood (Knowles et al., 2012). On entering college, most students are
extrinsically motivated by a grade, a job, a higher salary, or the promise of
a promotion. This assumption of andragogy, however, suggests that once
we reach a certain point of maturity, internal pressures such as satisfaction,
self-esteem, and pride become more influential motivators for our learning
experiences. Research indicates that the typical undergraduate manage-
ment student is not yet intrinsically motivated to learn but instead more
motivated to perform well in the class. Students’ focus on performance
over learning has negative implications on the overall learning outcomes.
Dewey (1938), and many others since him, have suggested that students
who are genuinely interested in the topic will be more intrinsically moti-
vated than those who are not genuinely interested. As emerging adults
navigate through their college career and into the classes they choose and
that are related to their major, intrinsic motivation becomes more impor-
tant to their learning.

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142 Journal of Management Education 40(2)

Matching Emerging Adults’ Motivation to Learn With Appropriate Instructional

Tools. Prior to establishing specific course activities, instructors should
identify their students’ current level of motivation to learn. To design
activities that will increase students’ motivation to learn, first instructors
should ask, Do students have choices and some control over the learning
experience? Conklin (2012) suggested that management instructors can
use an autonomy-supportive classroom to intrinsically motivate students.
Research indicates that both intrinsic motivation and self-esteem can be
enhanced when instructors have an autonomy orientation in the classroom
and inhibited when an instructor is controlling (Deci, Schwartz, Sheinman,
& Ryan, 1981; Deci, Spiegel, Ryan, Koestner, & Kauffman, 1982). Thus,
management instructors should give their students some control with
regards to their course work as a way to engage them in the class (Bain,
2004). This type of choice in the classroom is a first step in guiding stu-
dents on their way to becoming self-directed learners as they transition
into adulthood and continue to develop their self-concept. Not only are
students more intrinsically motivated when they experience autonomy in
the classroom, but they also tend to perform better (Patrick, Skinner, &
Connell, 1993).
More specifically, educators should give students options to encourage
them to make their own decisions in a “safe” environment with boundaries.
Having the choice between positive options can increase the belief that choice
is present and feelings of internal control (Steiner, Doyen, & Talaber, 1975).
Emerging adult learners crave these feelings of control, and by offering care-
fully designed choices, an instructor can allow student decision-making
power in a contained environment. Choice can be provided to students in a
number of ways: have students choose from a limited number of assignments
to turn in for a grade based on a larger pool of preapproved assignments, offer
students a choice on which test questions to answer, allow students to deter-
mine how many questions to have on an exam, or give students the choice of
partners or teammates for a project. Additionally, students can be empowered
to select presentation and paper topics that interest them within the scope of
the course material. If students have the autonomy to match their interests
with what they learn, they will take more ownership of and be more engaged
in the learning process. Other research suggests that intrinsic motivation can
be increased by giving students a “voice” in the evaluation process (Hiller &
Hietapelto, 2001). This type of flexibility will allow students from a variety
of backgrounds and with a diversity of futures to develop their individual
self-concepts. Our literature review yielded an activity that increases stu-
dents’ choice in the classroom through an appreciative inquiry exercise (i.e.,
Conklin, 2009).

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Dachner and Polin 143

Second, instructors should also ask: Is there some degree of fun or excite-
ment associated with the activity? and Does the activity cover general busi-
ness concepts that are presented in an engaging yet abstract (not
work-situation-specific) manner? There is great power in aiming to make
learning fun and enjoyable. Current management literatures are filled with
instructional tools and specific activities that teach abstract concepts (e.g.,
management theories and models) while promoting critical thinking which
enhances student interest. For example, the Bafá Bafá activity (Shirts, 1993)
can be used in class when discussing cultural differences, diversity, and inter-
national management to demonstrate what it feels like to be an expatriate on
a work assignment or to accept an expatriate into your culture. Although this
type of activity does not mirror the workplace directly, it nevertheless stimu-
lates learning of management issues. Our literature review yielded several
short, in-class activities that augment the understanding of specific business
concepts in an abstract or nonbusiness context. For example, engaging activi-
ties have been designed to directly relate to shared information bias (D. F.
Baker, 2010), emotional contagion (Bull Schaefer & Palanski, 2013), organi-
zational culture (Colakoglu & Littlefield, 2011), work design (Donovan &
Fluegge-Woolf, 2014), physical and mental stress (Kenworthy & Hrivnak,
2012), organizational change (Lewis & Grosser, 2012), general strategic
management (Maranville, 2011), group conflict (Rosh & Leach, 2011), value
chain (N. T. Sheehan & Gamble, 2010), motivation (Smrt & Nelson, 2012),
critical thinking (Farmer, Meisel, Seltzer, & Kane, 2012), and leadership
(Sronce & Arendt, 2009).

Conclusion
Emerging adult management learners are in a state of transition. Their self-
concept is evolving. They have little experience on which to base any newly
gained knowledge, and although they are willing to take on a more self-
directed approach, in most cases they are not yet able or mature enough to
assume complete responsibility. Due to this lack of work experience, the rel-
evance of some course material may be questioned. While growing tired of
the foundation-building aspect of education, the emerging adult learner is
moving toward, but must not solely rely on, only application-based learning.
Emerging adults’ need to know is increasing as they organize content mate-
rial for future use in the workplace. And hopefully as they develop their self-
concept, gain more experience, and see the relevance of course material,
students’ intrinsic motivation to learn will increase such that they have a
desire to continually improve themselves beyond their undergraduate studies.
As educators at the university level, we take center stage in the transition of

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144 Journal of Management Education 40(2)

undergraduate students into adulthood. If we recognize these students as

emerging adults and acknowledge what makes emerging adults unique, we
will be better able to design and execute courses for optimum absorption and
application of materials and concepts.
We have outlined methods for understanding the level of development of
emerging adults’ self-concept, work experience, readiness to learn, orienta-
tion to learning, need to know, and motivation to learn. After evaluating stu-
dents’ level of maturity in these areas, we have recommended both general
instructional design as well as specific activities to include in order to enhance
the emerging adult student’s learning experience. Many valuable instruc-
tional design tools and course activities have been developed for use in man-
agement education classes, but these exercises are most effective when they
are used with purpose. Thus, management educators must be cognizant of
why they are using different teaching methods and how specifically each
method is intended to benefit the student beyond just basic recall of class
content. We admit this is only the start of much needed attention on this sub-
ject, and we implore others to consider the uniqueness of the emerging adult
learner and explore options for maximizing their learning experience in man-
agement classes based on the six focus areas of andragogy. The emerging
adult learner deserves special consideration so that instructors can best help
them to develop into contributing employees in organizations and members
of society.

Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank associate editor Jennifer Leigh for being exception-
ally helpful in our article development.

Authors’ Note
Parts of this work were submitted to and presented at the National Conference on
Undergraduate Research (NCUR; April 2014), the Organizational Behavior Teaching
Conference (OBTC; June 2014), and the Academy of Management Conference
(AOM; 2015).

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publi-
cation of this article.

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Dachner and Polin 145

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