UNIT 2.

SYNTAX: CLAUSE AND SENTENCE LEVEL (II)

2.1 Clause and sentence patterns (Review)

SENTENCE, CLAUSE &PHRASE (REVIEW)

 The sentence is the largest unit to which the grammatical rules of a language apply.
Sentences are composed of one or more clauses.
 A clause is composed of at least two phrases, one of which plays the role of subject,
the other, of predicate.
 Phrases are composed of one or more words functioning as a single grammatical unit.

2.2 Combining clauses and sentences

  Complex sentences are those which contain one or more subordinate clauses.
[They gave us a glass of wine]main cl.[when we arrived]sub.cl.

 A main clause is a group of words that can stand on its own. It usually contains at least
a subject and a verb.
[They]Subject [gave us a glass of wine] VP Predicate

 A subordinate clause is a particular kind of group of words that we attach in some way
to a main clause.
A group of words [that can stand on its own]Sub. c

 Finite clauses contain a verb which is in a recognisable tense form. Main clauses are
normally finite. Some subordinate clauses are also finite.
[I found the keys]main cl.[where I had left them yesterday]sub.cl.

 Non-finite clauses are those in which the verb, if there is one, appears in an –ing or
infinitive form.
[Having finished all their homework]sub.cl. , [they went to bed]main cl.

FINITE ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

 Adverbial clauses are linked to a main clause and tell us something about the
information in that main clause, just like adjunct adverbials.
[I bought the tickets]main cl. [with some reservations]Adjunct adv.
[I bought the tickets]main cl. [even though they cost more than I wanted to
pay]sub.adv.
[Even though they cost more than I wanted to pay]sub.adv.,[I bought the tickets]main
cl.
[I bought the tickets]main cl. [because I really wanted to attend that concert]sub.adv
 Adverbial clauses start with a subordinating conjunction, such as when, although,
where, in order to, after, as, before, if, once, since, because, whereas, while, though,
etc.
 Subordinating conjunctions link two clauses of unequal importance, unlike
coordinating conjunctions such as and, but and or.
  Subordinating conjunctions may consist of two or more words: as if, as soon as, as long
as, in that, in order that, so that, such that, even though, even if, even when, just as,
just as soon as, just when, etc.

FINITE ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

MEANING OF CONJUNCTIONS OF TIME

(1) Marion watched TV when/as/while I did the ironing.

(2) I left as soon as I saw Carla.

She waited until the phone rang.
She has been ecstatic since the phone rang.
They had finished when they arrived.
(3) I left as soon as/when I saw Carla.

(4) Marion watched TV when/as/while I did the ironing. She waited until the phone rang. She
has been ecstatic since the phone rang.

(5) He left as/when I arrived.

(6) She waited until the phone rang.

(7) & (8) She has been ecstatic since the phone rang.

NOUN CLAUSES
 These clauses are known as noun clauses because they can often take the place of
nouns (or NPs) in a sentence.
I don’t know [the time]NP
I don’t know [when he is coming]Noun clause/ D.O.

In some grammars noun clauses are considered as types of direct object, since, like
direct objects, they often contain the most important information in the sentence.

 Noun clauses are subordinate clauses which generally follow the main clause and are
linked to it by one of the following (kinds of )conjunctions:
-Question words: I don’t know when he’s coming.
-if or whether : I don’t know whether I want to go out.
-that : I didn’t know that he was already here.
TYPES OF NOUN CLAUSE
 Noun clauses derived from questions:
-These clauses contain an implicit question and the conjunction we use is either a
question word (where, what, when, etc.) or if or whether.
Question words (wh- words): I have no idea where I put it.
if : Do you remember if you left it anywhere?
whether : They wonder whether you need help

 That clauses
-These clauses can be introduced by that, whether or not the conjunction is actually
used. If that is omitted, this type of clause may be referred to as ‘contact (noun)
clause’:
I don’t think (that) he will pass the exam.
I’m sure (that) I had it earlier.
The point I want to make is that we’re in trouble.

That clauses are used after adjectives, nouns and verbs which express:
-feelings: angry, disappointed (adjectives); feeling, sensation (nouns); feel, sense
(verbs).
 -mental states: convinced, determined (adj); conviction, idea (n); believe, learn, think
(v).
-necessity: crucial, essential (adj); importance, necessity (n).
-possibility, fact, truth: likely, probable, certain, sure, true (adj); possibility, certainty,
fact (n).

 That clauses
Adjectives: I’m pleased (that) you were able to come.
Nouns: I had a hunch (that) you’d call.
Verbs: They believe (that) they are right.

Sentence position: although they usually follow the main clause, a noun clause can
form part of the main clause, acting as the subject or complement of a verb.
Whether I want to go out or not needn’t concern you.
That you love me is irrelevant.
The issue is what time time you’re coming back

 That clauses
Word order: standard word order of statements in noun clauses.
(*)Do you know when is he coming? (correct: do you know when he is coming?)
(*)I can’t remember did he speak to me. (correct: I can’t remember if /whether he
spoke to me).

RELATIVE CLAUSES
 Relative clauses describe or provide information about something or someone that we
have usually already specified.
I like working with students who appreciate what I do.
Her husband died, which was the beginning of her depression.

Relative clauses are similar in function to adjectives.

I like working with students who appreciate what I do./ with appreciative students.

 Relative clauses also enable us to combine clauses without repeating things.

I tried to help a child. The child was crying her eyes out.

I tried to help a child who was crying her eyes out.

I had to translate the whole text. Translating the whole text was difficult for me.

I had to translate the whole text, which was difficult for me.

 Relative clauses are also used in order to identify things (or people) –to distinguish
them from other, similar things (people).
 Macunians aren’t people who live in Manchester; they’re people who were
born there.
 To define or describe qualities after we have used a ‘vague’ noun such as thing or stuff.
The thing I liked best was the singing.

 Sometimes we can recognise relative clauses because they begin with a relative
pronoun such as which or that.

 They usually follow whatever they qualify, so they come immediately after the main
clause if they qualify the whole of the clause or the last part of it.
The bus came at last, which was an enormous relief.
I like people who are open-minded and outgoing.

 They are embedded in the main clause if they qualify the subject. People who know
several foreign languages make better language teachers.

 Relative pronouns: that, which, who, what, whom, whose, where, when, why.
 who, which and that
-If the subject of the relative clause is a person, we can use who but not which.
I’d like to give these blankets to people who really need them.
-If the subject is a thing we use which but not who.
Are you going to throw out the food which has gone off?
-We can use that in place of who and which in these examples.

 Who, which and that as subjects of the relative clause

The verb in a relative clause needs to have a subject.
*[I tried to help a child ]main cl. [_____ was crying]rel.cl.
-a child is the direct object of help and cannot function as the subject of the following
relative clause:
[I tried to help a child ]main cl. [who/that was crying]rel.cl
-Rule: If a relative pronoun is the subject of a relative clause we can’t leave it out

 whose: possessive meaning

It combines with the words that follow it to become the subject of the relative clause.

Relative clauses may create problems for learners. Their first language is not
closely related to English.

Relative clauses may create problems for learners whose first language is not
closely related to English.

 that
It can be used in defining clauses to replace any relative pronoun except whose
(especially in American English).
Was it the day that/when I saw you for the first time?
 whom
It can be used instead of who to link a relative clause to a main clause when the
relative pronoun is not the subject of the relative clause (mainly in formal contexts,
written speech).
Is that the person who/whom you invited?

 where, when and why

We sometimes use question words as relative pronouns.
Is this the room where the murder happened?
I remember a day when we all went for a picnic.
I want to know the reason why you came here.

 what
We use what as a relative pronoun to mean ‘the thing(s) that’.
Give him what he wants.

 Restrictive /defining relative clauses

They identify something or someone from other, similar things or people. In other
words, they define them:
The child who was crying eventually found her mother.
I hate the dog that bit me.
I like the paintings which hang in the main library.

 Non-restrictive/ non-defining relative clauses

They simply provide information which is additional to the information in the main
clause. We usually use a comma to separate the non-restrictive relative clause from
the main clause.
She gave the uneaten food to the children, who cooked with delight.
My mother, who is an excellent cook, is thinking of opening a restaurant.