Biochemistry of the Cell

• The living matter is composed of mainly six

elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur. These
elements together constitute about 90% of
the dry weight of the human body
Cell

Human cell contains

subcellular structures
Cell is the universal
like nucleus,
functional unit of all
mitochondria,
forms of life.
lysosomes and
peroxisomes etc.

Human body contains All higher living

wide variety of cells organisms including
that differ in structure humans are made up
and function. of cells.
Molecular Composition
of the Cell
Water
• Water accounts for about 70-75% of the weight
of the cell. Other cellular constituents are either
dissolved or suspended in water.
 Organic compounds accounts for 25-30% of the cell weight

They are nucleic acids, proteins, polysaccharides

(carbohydrates) and lipids.

Proteins accounts 10-20% of the weight of the cell.

Organic Nucleic acids account 7-10% of the cell weight.

Compounds
Polysaccharides usually account for 2-5% of the cell weight.

About 3% of cell weight is due to lipids. Lipids content may be

higher in adipocytes or fat cells.

Proteins may account more of cell weight in cells like

erythrocytes.
 • Other low molecular weight organic compounds
Organic may account for 4% of cell weight. They are
monosaccharides, amino acids, fatty acids,
Compounds purine and pyrimidine nucleotides, peptides,
hormones, vitamins and coenzymes
 Inorganic compounds account for the rest
of the cell weight.

Inorganic
Compounds
They are cations like sodium, potassium,
calcium, magnesium, copper, iron and
anions like chloride, phosphate,
bicarbonate, sulfate, iodide and fluoride.
 Carbohydrates, which include sugars
and starches, contain carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen

Carbohydrates are classified according

Carbohydrates to size as monosaccharides,
disaccharides or polysaccharides

Carbohydrates provide a ready, easily

used source of food energy for cells
 • Lipids are a large and diverse group of organic
compounds
• Most lipids are insoluble in water but readily
Lipids dissolve in other lipids or organic solvents
• The most abundant lipids in the body are
triglycerides, phospholipids and steroids
 • Triglycerides - represent the body’s most
abundant and concentrated source of usable
energy. When oxidized, they yield large
amounts of energy. They are stored chiefly in fat
deposits beneath the skin and around body
Lipids organs
• Phospholipids – has a hydrophilic and
hydrophobic region. It is present in cell
membranes and allow cells to be selective
about what may enter or leave
 • Steroids – Cholesterol, the single most
important steroid molecule, is the raw material
Lipids used to form vitamin D, some hormones, and
bile salts
Proteins

Proteins account for over 50% of organic matter in the body, and
they have the most varied functions of the organic molecules

The building blocks of proteins are small molecules called amino

acids

Amino acids are joined together in chains to form large, complex

protein molecules
Proteins

Fibrous/Structural proteins – strandlike proteins that appear most often in body

structures. They are very important in binding structures together and for providing
strength in certain body tissues

Globular/Function proteins – they are mobile, generally spherical molecules that

play crucial roles in virtually all biological processes. Some help provide immunity,
others help growth and development, and some are biological catalysts (enzymes)
Enzymes

Enzymes are functional proteins that act as biological catalysts.

A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without

becoming part of the product or being changed itself

However, they do not only increase the speed of chemical reactions, they also
determine just which reactions are possible at a particular time

Without enzymes, biochemical reactions would occur far too slowly to sustain life
 • Enzymes are very specific in their
activities, each controlling only one (or
Enzymes a small group of) chemical reaction(s)
and acting only on specific molecules
Nucleic Acids

The role of nucleic acids is fundamental: they make up the genes, which
provide the basic blueprint of life

Not only do they determine what type of organism you will be, but they
also direct ones growth and development–and they do this largely by
dictating protein structure

There are two major kinds: the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and
ribonucleic acid (RNA)
 DNA – its is the genetic material found within the
cell nucleus. It has two roles. One is to replicate
itself before a cell divides, thus ensuring that the
genetic information in every body cell is identical.
Second is the it provides instructions for building
every protein in the body
Nucleic
Acids RNA – is considered as a “molecular slave” of DNA.
It is because RNA carries out orders for protein
synthesis issued by DNA
 • In eukaryotes, cells aggregate to form tissues or
Eukaryotic Cell organs and these are further organized to form
whole organism.
Structure and • In humans, eukaryotic cells exist in large
Function number of sizes and shapes to perform varieties
of functions.
 Cell
Structures
and their
Functions
 The outermost structure of the
cell

Cell It separates the cells from its

surrounding
Membrane

It is a lipid bi-layer. It also consist

of proteins and small amounts
of carbohydrates
 • It is semi permeable, meaning only selected
compounds are allowed to pass through from
Functions of outside. The selective permeability is
responsible for the maintenance of internal
the Cell environment of the cell
• The modification of the cell membrane results
Membrane in formation of specialized structures like axon
of nerves, microvilli of intestinal epithelium and
tail of spermatids
 Control center of the cell

Nucleus
It contains genetic material (DNA),
that is like a blueprint that contains
all the instructions needed for
building the whole body
 • Nucleus is the information center of eukaryotic
Functions of cell. More than 90% of the cellular DNA is
present in the nucleus. It is mainly concentrated
the Nucleus in the form of chromosomes.
 • The cytoplasm is the cellular material outside
the nucleus and inside the plasma membrane
Cytoplasm • Three major elements: the cytosol, organelles
and inclusions
 It is a semitransparent fluid
that suspends the other
elements

Cytosol
Dissolved in the cytosol, which
is largely water, are nutrients
and a variety of other solutes
 They are the metabolic
machinery of the cell

Organelles
Each type of organelle is
specialized to carry out specific
functions for the cell as a whole
 Inclusions are not functional units,
but instead are chemical substances
that may or may not be present,
depending of the specific cell type

Inclusions
Most inclusions are stored nutrients
or cell products
 It is the site of most cellular
activities
Functions of
the Cytoplasm
Numerous enzymes,
proteins and many other
solutes are found in cytosol.
 Generally mitochondria are
Mitochondria ellipsoidal in shape
Functions of the Mitochondria

Mitochondria is the power house of the cell. It is responsible for the

production of energy in the form of ATP.

In highly metabolically active cells mitochondria are more

numerous and large
 They are small vesicles present
in cytoplasm

Lysosomes
Lysosomes are called as
‘Suicidel bags’ of the cell
 Lysosomes are rich in hydrolytic
enzymes.

Functions of The lysosomal enzymes digest the

the molecules brought into the cell by
Lysosomes phagocytosis.

Macrophages are rich in lysosomes.

Medical Importance of Lysosomes

Disease, shock or cell death causes rupture of lysosomes and release of

enzymes

In some disease like arthritis and muscular dystrophy, lysosomal enzymes are
released to cause uncontrolled destruction of surrounding tissues. Lysosomal
proteases cathepsins are involved in spreading of cancer (metastasis).
 Peroxisomes
Are also small vesicles surrounded by a membrane. They are also called
as microbodies
 They contain enzymes of H2O2
metabolism
Functions of
the
Peroxisomes The enzymes of H2O2 catabolism
present in peroxisomes are
peroxidase and catalase.
 They are tiny, dark bodies made
of protein and ribosomal RNA

Ribosomes
Ribosomes are the actual sites
of protein synthesis in the cell
 It is a system of fluid filled tubules or
canals that coil and twist through the
cytoplasm

Endoplasmic
Reticulum It serve as a minicirculatory system
for the cell because it provides a
network of channels for carrying
substances from one part of the cell
to another
 The rough ER is studded with ribosomes

Rough
Endoplasmic
Reticulum The proteins made in the ribosomes
migrate into the tubules of the rough ER
where they fold into their functional
three-dimensional shapes and then are
dispatched to other areas of the cell
 Smooth • The smooth ER functions in lipid metabolism
Endoplasmic (cholesterol and fat synthesis and breakdown)
and detoxification of drugs and pesticides
Reticulum
 • The golgi bodies are well developed in cells,
which are involved in secretion.
Golgi • Material produced in the cell for export is
processed by golgi body and is packaged as
Apparatus vesicle and is pinched off.
• Golgi apparatus helps in the formation of other
organelles like lysosomes and peroxisomes.
 • These are filament like structures made up of
Cytoskeleton proteins present in cytoplasm
 • They act as the cell’s “bones and muscles” by
Functions of furnishing an internal framework that
determines cell shape, supports other
the organelles, and provides machinery for
Cytoskeleton intracellular transport and various types of cell
movements
 Cells are not immortal and they
have a finite lifespan

Cell Death
Cell division and cell death are
two opposite processes required
to maintain constant tissue
volume (tissue homeostasis).
Types of Cell Death

• Necrosis: It is also termed as cell murder. Cells undergo necrotic death if cell
membrane is damaged or due to decreased oxygen supply and if energy (ATP)
production is blocked
• Apoptosis: It is a genetically programmed cell death. Individual cells or groups of
cells undergo this type of death. Aged cells in the body are removed by apoptosis.
• Atrophy: This type of cell death occurs in the absence of essential survival factors.
Survival factors required by the cell are produced by other cells. Absence of nerve
growth factor leads to atrophy of nerves
Functional Groups