GRAMMAR COLLEGE , KANO

FIRST TERM: LESSON NOTES

CLASS: SS THREE SUBJECT: PHYSICS

FIRST TERM SCHEME OF WORK

WEEK TOPICS
1. Energy and Society
2. Gravitational Field, Law, Gravitational Potential, Escape Velocity, Potential Energy
in Gravitational Field.
3. Electric Field, Coulombs law, electric field intensity, electric potential, Capacitor and
Capacitance.
4. Electric Cells - Primary and Secondary, Defects of Simple Cells. Cells in series and
Parallel.
5. Electrolysis - Electrolytes, Electrodes, Ions, Faraday’s law, electro-chemical
equivalent.
6. Electric Measurement Resistivity, Conductivity, Conversion of galvanometer to
ammeter and Voltmeter, Measuring resistance ammeter - voltmeter methods.
MID-TERM PROJECT

7. Magnetic field - Magnetic and magnetic materials, temporary and permanent

magnets, magnetization, demagnetization, Theory of magnetization, magnetic flux,
Earth magnetic field.
8. Magnetic field around current carrying conductor - Straight conductor, circular
conductor, solenoid, applications- electromagnets, uses, electromagnet-electric bell,
telephone ear piece.
9. Electromagnetic field – Flemings left hand rule. Application - DC. Motor, moving
coil. Galvanometers
10. Electromagnetic induction - induced current, laws of electromagnetic induction,
induction coil, A. c and D.C. Generator transformer and power transmission
11. Revision
12. Examination

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 WEEK ONE: ENERGY AND SOCIETY

In the human society, the term energy is used as a synonym of energy resources and most
often refers to substances like fuel, petroleum products and electricity in general.

Sources of energy

There are many energy resources now available to the society. These are.

1. Petroleum and natural gas (Fossil Fuel)

2. Nuclear energy
3. Solar energy
4. Wind energy
5. Hydroelectric energy
6. Geothermal energy
7. Energy from the coal wood
8. Tidal and Ocean
9. Biomass

Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy

Renewable Energy Resources are those that can be replaced as they are used up. They can
be continually replenished as the exploited and utilized.

Examples are

i. Solar energy
ii. Wind energy
iii. Biomass
iv. Tidal Power

iv. Water or hydroelectric power

v. Biofuel

Non-Renewable Energy Resources are those that cannot be replenished as they are used up.

Examples are

i. Nuclear energy from radioactive material

ii. Petroleum and Natural gas

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 iii. Coal and wood
iv. Such other fuel that are classified as fossil fuel.

Uses of Energy

The use of energy has been a key in the development of the human society by helping it to
control and adapt to the environment. In most countries, the development of energy resources
has become essential in these vital areas of use such as

i. Agricultural- irrigation etc

ii. All forms of transportation
iii. Waste collection and recycling
iv. Information technology
v. Communication
vi. Electricity supply to homes and running industrial machinery

vii. For heating or cooling of homes

ENERGY DIVERSIFICATION AND CONSERVATION

Energy Diversification

Energy diversification means using different energy sources, suppliers and transportation
routes to reduce dependence on a single resource or provider. A country that diversifies its
energy mix insulates itself from energy disruptions and strengthens its energy security.

Diversification can’t protect importing countries from market risks such as fluctuations in
supply or pricing, but it can reduce the risks posed by political unrest or natural disasters.

What are the benefits of energy diversification?

(i) Political independence: When one country relies on another to supply the majority
of its energy needs, it exposes itself to intimidation, coercion and manipulation by
its supplier. Spreading energy needs across a variety of suppliers enables the
importing country to reduce its dependence on a single supplier and bolster its
independence in world politics.

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 (ii) Economic growth: Energy diversification encourages economic growth. Drawing
energy from multiple sources and suppliers insulates the importing nation from
energy disruptions when one source or supplier is unable or unwilling to meet
demand. Energy diversification ensures continued energy security, which provides
a fertile climate for entrepreneurship, innovation, and research and development.

(iii) Environmental protection: Developing renewable resources such

as solar and wind power diminishes the threat of energy scarcity. Renewable
resources emit little or no pollutants and have minimal impact on the
environment. Investments in renewable energy also spur innovation and job
growth.

How can a country diversify its energy mix?

Each country has a unique blend of natural resources, energy demands and geopolitical
constraints, so approaches to energy diversification will differ. However, some basic steps can
be followed by all nations that aim to diversify their energy mix:

• Create a policy framework that attracts investment by rewarding entrepreneurship

and innovation and constraining inefficiency and waste.

• Partner with the private sector to identify and develop alternative energy sources.

• Engage experts to identify the best mix of accessible domestic and nondomestic
energy sources.

• Work with the international community to establish and enforce environmental

standards related to energy exploration and generation.

Energy conservation is the effort to reduce wasteful energy consumption by using

fewer energy services. This can be done by using energy more effectively (using less energy
for continuous service) or changing one's behavior to use less service (for example, by driving
less). Energy conservation can be achieved through efficient energy use, which has some
advantages, including a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and a smaller carbon footprint,
as well as cost, water, and energy savings.

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Green engineering practices improve the life cycle of the components of machines which
convert energy from one form into another.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF ENERGY USE:

1. Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming

The Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming are one of the major problems that the world is
facing today. An in-depth explanation of global warming and the greenhouse effect along with
its causes and effects is given below.

What is the Greenhouse Effect?

The greenhouse effect is the process thanks to which Earth has a higher temperature than it
would have without it. The gases that radiate heat also known as greenhouse gases absorb the
energy radiated out by the Earth and reflect a part of it back to Earth. Of all the energy that the
Earth receives from the Sun, a part of it around 26% is reflected back to space by the
atmosphere and clouds. Some part of it is absorbed by the atmosphere, around 19%.

The rest hits the ground and heats the surface of the Earth. This absorbed energy is radiated out
of the earth in the form of Infrared Waves. These IR waves warm the atmosphere above the
Earth. The atmosphere again radiates this energy it received from the Earth both upwards and
downwards. The energy sent downwards results in a higher equilibrium temperature than if
greenhouse gases were absent. This greenhouse effect is essential to supporting life on Earth.

What are Greenhouse Gases?

The greenhouse gases responsible for the greenhouse effect are:

• Water Vapour

• Carbon Dioxide

• Methane

• Ozone

The excessive burning of fossil fuels such as petrol, coal, etc. have resulted in an increase in
the number of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere resulting in a phenomenon known as Global
Warming. This is an increase in the ambient temperature of Earth which will negatively affect
life on Earth.

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Causes of Greenhouse Effect

The following are the factors that are responsible for the cause of greenhouse effect:

• Deforestation: This is considered to be one of the most responsible factors for the cause
of the greenhouse effect. This is due to the reduction in the release of oxygen and
absorption of carbon dioxide by the plants.

• Fossil fuel burning: Fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gases are used as a means
of energy which releases a huge amount of harmful gases into the environment.

• Population: As the population increases, the need for space increases which again
results in deforestation.

Prevention of Greenhouse Effect

Now that we have made a list of causes, finding alternatives to these causes becomes by
following the below-mentioned preventive measures:

• Afforestation: Afforestation on a large scale area helps in decreasing the release of

carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

• Conservation of energy: Switching to renewable sources of energy such as solar energy,

wind energy, etc will reduce the use of fossil fuels. This eventually reduces the release
of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

• Policy intervention: When the government comes up with strict policies to maintain the
overall air quality of the city.

Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming

Global warming refers to the increasing temperature of the Earth’s climate system and its
related effects. Scientific evidence has conclusively proven that the Earth’s temperature is in
fact rising and has risen by 0.85oC. This has an impact that has affected different regions
differently. The effects include rising sea levels, retreating glaciers, loss of sea ice in the poles,
warming global temperatures, changing precipitation, expansion of deserts, etc.

This raises significant threats for humans such as food security from decreasing crop yields,
and submergence of a low-lying area due to the rising sea. To prevent irreversible damage to
the delicate ecosystems on Earth, scientists have decided that global warming should be limited

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to a maximum of 2.0oC relative to pre-industrial levels. The greenhouse effect plays an
important role in the rising temperature. And hence to restrict global warming we need to limit
the greenhouse effect and the gaseous emissions that cause the greenhouse effect.

Fourteen of the fifteen years in the 21st century have been the hottest years on record with
constant occurrences of extreme weather, cyclones, droughts, floods, etc. All these events are
some way or the other have an association with the greenhouse effect and global warming.

ENERGY CRISIS

An energy crisis or energy shortage is any significant bottleneck in the supply

of energy resources to an economy. In literature, it often refers to one of the energy sources
used at a certain time and place, in particular, those that supply national electricity grids or
those used as fuel in industrial development. Population growth has led to a surge in the
global demand for energy in recent years. In the 2000s, this new demand – together
with Middle East tension, the falling value of the US dollar, dwindling oil reserves, concerns
over peak oil, and oil price speculation – triggered the 2000s energy crisis, which saw the price
of oil reach an all-time high of $147.30 per barrel ($926/m3) in 2008.

Causes of Energy crisis

The gasoline shortages of World War II brought about the resurgence of horse-and-wagon
delivery.

Most energy crises have been caused by localized shortages, wars and market manipulation.
Some have argued that government actions like tax hikes, nationalisation of energy companies,
and regulation of the energy sector, shift supply and demand of energy away from its economic
equilibrium. However, the recent historical energy crisis listed below were not caused by such
factors. Market failure is possible when monopoly manipulation of markets occurs. A crisis
can develop due to industrial actions like union organized strikes and government embargoes.
The cause may be over-consumption, aging infrastructure, choke point disruption or
bottlenecks at oil refineries and port facilities that restrict fuel supply. An emergency may
emerge during very cold winters due to increased consumption of energy.

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 WEEK 2: GRAVITATIONAL FIELD

CONTENTS

• Introduction
• Law of Universal Gravitation
• Gravitational Potential
• Escape Velocity
• Potential energy in Gravitational Field.

INTRODUCTION

Gravitational field is a region or space around a mass in which the gravitational force of the mass can
be felt. Gravitation is the force of attraction exerted by a body on all other bodies in the universe.
Gravitational force act between all masses and hold together planets, stars and galaxies. Each mass
has a gravitational field around it.

LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

Newton’s law of universal of gravitation states that every particle in the universe attracts every other
particle with a force that is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between them

M1 M2

The law can be expressed mathematically as:

F ά M1M2 ………………… 1

Fά1

r2 …………………...2

F ά M1M2 …………………...3

r2

:. F = G M1M2 …………………...4

r2

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M1 and M2 are the masses of the two particles r is the distance between them and G is the universal
gravitational constant. The numerical value of G = 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2 kg -2.

Example 1: Two 5.0kg spherical balls are placed so that their centres are 5.0cm apart. What is the
magnitude of the gravitational force between the two balls ? (G = 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2 kg -2.)

Solution

F = GM1M2

r2
6.67 x 10−11 𝑋 5.0 𝑋 5.0
F=
5.02

F = 6.67 x 10−9N

Because of the universal law of gravitation, there is a gravitational force of attraction between the sun
and the planets, between earth and the moon, and also between other planets.

Example 2: Determine the force of attraction between the sun (ms = 1.99 X 1030 kg) and the earth (me
= 5.98 X 1024 kg). Assume the sun is 1.5 X 108km from the earth.

Solution

𝐺𝑀𝑠𝑀𝑒
F=
𝑟2

6.67 x 10−11 𝑋 1.99 x 1030 𝑋 5.98 x 1024

F= (1.5 𝑋108 )2

F = 3.53 X 1022N

GRAVITATIONAL FIELD INTENSITY

Gravitational field intensity at a point is the force per unit mass of an object placed at that point.

𝐹
g=
𝑚

The unit is N/Kg. It is a vector quantity and it is regarded as acceleration due to gravity.

Relation between g and G

If the force of attraction (F) between two particles of matter separated by a distance r is given by:

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 𝐺𝑀𝑚
F= 𝑅2
………….……………………………….1

𝐹
But g = 𝑚 …………………………………………..2

𝐺𝑀𝑚 1
:. g= x
𝑟2 𝑚

𝐺𝑀
g= 𝑟2
……………………………………………3

This is the gravitational intensity

GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL

The gravitational potential at a point is the work done in taking a unit mass from infinity to that point.
The unit is Jkg-1.

The gravitational potential, V, is given by

𝐺𝑀
V= 𝑟

m is the mass producing the gravitational field and r is the distance of the point to the mass. The
gravitational potential decreases as r increases and becomes zero when r is infinitely large. The
negative sign indicates that the potential at infinity (zero) is higher than the potential close to the
mass.

Example Find the gravitational potential at appoint on the earth’s surface. Take mass of the earth as
5.98 X 1024 kg, it’s radius as 6.38 X 106m and G = 6.67x10 -11Nm2kg-2.

Solution

𝐺𝑀
V= 𝑟

6.67x10 −11 X 5.98 X 1024

V= 6.38 X 106

V = 6.25 X 107 jouleskg-1

ESCAPE VELOCITY

This is the minimum velocity required for an object (e.g. satellite, rocket) to just escape or leave the
gravitational influence or filed of an astronomical body (e.g. the earth) permanently.

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 me

r m

𝐺𝑀𝑒 𝑚
Me = mass of the earth, m = mass of the satellite Then F =
𝑟2

The work done in carrying a mass m from a point at a distance r from the centre of the earth, to a
distance so great is

W = GMm x r

r2

This work must equal the Kinetic energy of the body of mass m at this point, having a velocity,Ve

Thus KE = ½ mV2

:. 1/2mVe2 = GMem x r

r2

If the mass was launched from the earth surface where r = R.

2𝐺𝑀𝑒
Then Ve2 =
𝑅

2𝐺𝑚
Ve2 = xR
𝑅2

𝐺𝑀𝑚
But g =
𝑅2

Ve2 = 2gR

Ve = √2gR

Example: Calculate the escape velocity of a satellite from the earth’s gravitational field.

G = g = 9.8ms-2 , radius of the earth = 6.4 X 106m

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Solution

Ve = √2gR

Ve = √2 X 9.8 X 6.4 X 106

Ve = 11 X 103 ms-1

Ve = 11kms-1

Thus, to escape the gravitational influence of the earth, the satellite must be projected with a velocity
greater than 11kms-1.

Energy in Gravitational Field

A satellite moving in an orbit round the earth has both kinetic and potential energy

𝑚𝑣2 𝐺𝑀𝑚
The centripetal force = =
𝑟2 𝑟2

𝐺𝑀𝑚
KE = ½ mv2 =
𝑟

𝐺𝑀𝑚
PE of mass in orbit = -
𝑟

The total energy in orbit = PE + KE

𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚
=− 𝑟
+ 2𝑟

𝐺𝑀𝑚
=
2𝑟

The following conclusions can be drawn from the equation.

i. The magnitude of the total energy is equal to that of the k.e of the satellite.

ii. The kinetic energy of a satellite in an orbit increases as the radius of the orbit decreases.

iii. The kinetic energy of a satellite in an orbit increases as the speed of the satellite increases.

v. The potential energy of the satellite in orbit is twice its kinetic energy and of
opposite sign.

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 Example 1: Find the gravitational field strength 10 km above the surface of the
Earth.
The radius of the Earth is 6.37 X 106m. The mass of the Earth is 5.97 X 1024 kg.
Solution
Firstly, calculate the distance from the centre of the Earth to 10 km above the Earth,
remembering to convert km to m. This can be done by finding the sum of 10 km
and the radius of the Earth:
r = 10 × 103 + 6.37 × 106 = 6.38 106m
Next, calculate the gravitational field strength using the above formula.
𝐺𝑀
g= 𝑟2
6.67 𝑋 10−11 𝑋 5.97 𝑋 1024
g= (6.38 𝑋 106 )2

g = 9.8Nkg-1

Example 2: Find the gravitational field strength 1000 km above the surface of the
Earth. The radius of the Earth is 6.37 X 106m. The mass of the Earth is 5.97 X 1024
kg.
Firstly, calculate the distance from the centre of the Earth to 1000 km above the
Earth,
remembering to convert km to m.
r = 1000 X 103 + 6.37 X 106
r = 7.37 X 106m
Next, calculate the gravitational field strength using the above formula.
𝐺𝑀
g= 𝑟2
6.67 𝑋 10−11 𝑋 5.97 𝑋 1024
g= (7.37 𝑋 106 )2

g = 7.3Nkg-1 ( to 2 s.f)

CLASSWORK

1. State Newton’s law of universal gravitation and give the mathematical relation
2. Calculate the gravitational potential at a point on the Earth surface. Mass of earth is
6.0x 10 24 /kg, radius of earth = 6400km and G = 6.67x10 -11Nm2kg-2

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 3. Calculate the escape velocity of a satellite from the earth’s gravitational field (g =
9.8m/s2, R = 6.4 x 10 6m)
4. What is escape velocity?

ASSIGNMENT

SECTION A

1. A satellite is in a parking orbit if its period is (a) equal to the period of the earth (b) less
than the period of the earth (c) the square of the period of the earth (d) more than the
period of the earth
2. The magnitude of the gravitational attraction between the earth and a particle is 40N. if
the mass of the particle is 4kg, calculate the magnitude of the gravitational field
intensity of the earth on the particle (a) 10.0Nkg-1 (b) 12.6Nkg-1 (c) 25.0Nkg-1 (d)
160.0Nkg-1
3. What is the escape velocity of a satellite launched from the earth’s surface? {g=10ms -
2
; radius of the earth = 6.4x106}
4. Calculate the escape velocity for a rocket fired from the earth’s surface at a point where
the acceleration due to gravity is 10m/s2 and the radius of the earth is 6.0 x 106m (a)
7.8 x 103m/s (b) 1.1 x 104m/s (c ) 3.5 x 107m/s (d) 6.0 x 107m/s
5. If g = 9.8m/s2. G = 6.7 x 10-11Nm2kg-2, calculate the mass of the earth if the radius is
64000km (a) 6.14 x 1023kg (b) 5.99 x 1024kg (c ) 3.98 x 1026kg (d ) 4.02 x 1025kg
SECTION B

1. (a) State Newton’s law of universal gravitation (b) write down the expression for the
gravitational force between two masses. Explain the meaning of each term in your
expression (c) the mass of proton is 1.67x10-27kg and the mass of an electron is 9.11x10-
31
kg, calculate the force of gravitation between: (i) a proton and an electron (ii) two
electrons (iii) two protons [G= 6.67x10-11Nm2kg-2; distance between the protons =
4.0m; distance between the electrons = 2x10-2m; distance between the proton and the
electron = 5.4x10-11m]
2. Two small objects of masses 100kg and 90kg respectively are separated by a distance
of 1.2m. Determine the force of attraction between the two objects. (G = 6.67 x 10 -11
NM2Kg-2 )

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3. If the mass of the earth is 5.78 x 10 Kg and gravitational constant is 6.67 x 10-11
Nm2kg-2. Calculate the gravitational field intensity due to earth. Radius of earth is
6400km
4. Derive an expression for the total energy in a gravitational field. What conclusions can
you draw from the equation?
5. If the mass of a proton is 1.67x10-27kg and the mass of an electron is 9.11x10-31kg,
calculate the force of gravitation between: (i) a proton and an electron (ii) two
electrons (iii) two protons {Take G= 6.67x10-11Nm2kg-2, distance between the protons
= 4.0m., distance between the electrons = 2x10-2m, distance between the proton and
the electron = 5.4x10-11m}

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