PROGRAME: ENVIVRONMENTAL HEALTH SCIENCES

SUBJECT: SANITATION

SANITATION

1. Introduction

Worldwide, about 2.6 billion people lack access to improved sanitation

(WHO/UNICEF, 2010).The situation is most severe in sub-Saharan Africa and South
Asia with almost 30 per cent and 50 percent respectively affected. Yearly about 1.8
million children under five years die, corresponding to about 4900 young lives lost
daily from diarrhoeal diseases. Soil-transmitted helminths and water related
schistosomes are among the most common parasitic infections worldwide. Most
cases occur in tropical and sub-tropical low-income countries. The intestinal worms
are an indicator of poor sanitation – about 1 billion people are infected with
roundworm and 700 million with hookworm. These causes diminished productivity
among adults and missed educational opportunities for children – girls in particular
(WHO, 2007). A general sanitation challenge is that only a fraction of sewage and
drainage water is treated before being discharged into waterways (Clarke and King,
2004). For instance in India, 80 per cent of the pollution load contaminating the
country’s rivers is reported to be human waste (Nadkarni, 2002).

Unsanitary conditions and contaminated drinking water exert a crippling toll on both
the health of the human population and the environment. Approximately 40 percent of
the world’s population does not have access to improved sanitation. In addition to the
indignity suffered by those lacking sanitation facilities, millions of people in the
developing world die each year from diseases contracted through direct and indirect
contact with pathogenic bacteria found in human excreta. Infectious diseases such as
cholera, hepatitis, typhoid, and diarrhea are waterborne, and can be contracted from
untreated wastewater discharged into water bodies. More than half of the world’s
rivers, lakes, and coastal waters are seriously polluted from wastewater discharge
(UN Environment Programme, 2002). The cost of inadequate sanitation translates
into significant economic, social, and environmental burdens. Sanitation coverage
has lagged behind water provision since the first International Decade of Water and
Sanitation (1980–1990).

Even in this age when people are living longer than ever and medicines exist to treat
vast numbers of diseases, a simple illness like diarrhoea continues to be a major
killer in the developing world because the rather basic, but extremely important,
problem of how to deal with excreta remains unresolved. There is a prevailing view
that certain non-medical interventions pertaining to technology and behavioural
changes can tackle health problems associated with sanitation. Yet the value of such
interventions is not clear. For example, what is the correlation between number of
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toilets (a typical intervention) and sanitation-related diseases? If a programme
brochure states that “last year the programme provided nearly a million latrines”
(WSSCC, 2004) in a particular state, can we expect that there were a million less
episodes of illness and a reduction in deaths by water-borne diseases in that state?

Since at least Dr Snow’s famous pump studies in Victorian London people have
known about water-borne diseases. In other parts of the world, knowledge may not
have been codified but people have kept their excreta away from living areas. Yet
there probably is no single perfect sanitation for all social (including financial) and
geographical situations. Furthermore, not all seemingly connected technological
advances will help and develop sanitation. As Susan Chaplin (Chaplin 1999) points
out, unlike the case of development of sanitation services in 19th century Europe,
modern medical practices have actually contributed to the lack of proper sanitation.
This is because when there are any disease outbreaks, it is possible to contain them
and those who can afford it, can be treated. So, for example, no thought need be
given to what practices caused the disease outbreak in the first place. Or to what
measures need be taken to prevent further outbreaks for all social groups.
2. The meaning of sanitation

The word “sanitation” by itself or in phrases like “water and sanitation sector”, “basic
sanitation facilities” is used regularly in various United Nations, Asian Development
bank, World Bank and other aid programmes. Yet what exactly is sanitation?

Dictionaries such as the Collins give the meaning as “the study and use of practical
measures for the preservation of public health.” referring to measures taken to
prevent the transmission of diseases and ensure public and private health. In the
developed world, the term is commonly used in food processing; and hotel and
hospital maintenance. In the developing world, or more pertinently, the world of
development, sanitation has come to mean something slightly different but connected
to: excreta disposal facilities. Specifically, “sanitation” refers to the methods of
hygiene relating to the safe collection, removal and disposal of human excreta and
wastewater. Therefore, while the phrase, “control sanitation-related diseases”, by the
ordinary dictionary meaning should refer to all diseases, what it actually means is

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 water-borne and faecal diseases. And “sanitation technology” encompasses
everything from small portable disaster area toilets to large sewage treatment plants
designed to treat domestic wastewater of thousands.

Sanitation is derived from a Latin word: Sanitas” which means Health. Sanitation
has been in practice for a long period of time since man started living in groups.
Even in the biblical context people practiced sanitation. (Deuteronomy 23:13)

3. Environmental sanitation

This is a process of collection, storage, treatment and disposal of human excreta and
domestic wastes in a safe and hygienic manner which is affordable and sustainable.
It is also defined as the process of changing the environment so that it does not
constitute a health hazard to man. The areas which fall under Environmental
sanitation are:

 Provision of safe and adequate water supply

 safe- guarding of food
 Provision of good housing
 Safe disposal of both body wastes and consumer wastes
 Control of insect vectors
 Control of communicable diseases
 Control of animal reservoirs of infection
 Provision of good sanitary facilities
 Air hygiene and prevention of atmospheric pollution
 Elimination of other hazards such as noise

4. Definition of terms used in sanitation

i. BOD: A measure of the amount of oxygen utilized by a mixture of micro

organisms to aerobically oxidize organic matter in waste water at 20º C.
ii. COD: It stands for Chemical Oxygen Demand and is a measure of the amount of
oxygen utilized in chemically oxidizing organic matter.

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 iii. Detention time: Is the total time of a fraction of a liquid remains in a tank before it
flows out in continuous flow system. This is dependent on the volume of the
reservoir and quantity flow- Volume/flow.
iv. Drain: A smaller pipe owned by an individual or a group of houses used for
drainage of one building or a number of buildings within the same plot to a sewer
v. Earth closet: Means a pail closet
vi. Effluent: Liquid outflow from a septic tank, Aqua privy or sewage treatment
works.
vii. Excreta: This is human wastes excreted from the body consisting of urine and
faeces.
viii. Latrine: Any excreta disposal facility
ix. Bucket latrine: Means a pail closet furnished with means for sprinkling earth,
ashes or any other material for the purpose of absorbing or covering the
excremental matter.
x. Night soil: Contents of the bucket latrine, cesspool usually collected when it is
dark.
xi. Scum: Lighter materials including fats and greasy which float on top of sewage.
xii. Sewage: A mixture of soil water, waste water and trade effluent.
xiii. Sewer: A large duct conveying sewage to the final disposal point and is usually
owned by the Council or local authority
xiv. Sewerage: This is a system of pipes or sewers installed usually underground to
carry sewage away from residential and industrial areas to sewage treatment
works.
xv. Sludge: A term describing thick porridge like material that settles at the bottom of
the tank after decomposition.
xvi. Soil pipe: A pipe conveying water containing excremental mater
xvii. Soil water fitments and fittings: Facilities for the conveyance or which receive
soil water such as urinals and water closets.
xviii. Soil water: - Water discharged from water closets and urinals containing
excremental matter.
xix. Waste pipe: A pipe for conveying waste water.

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 xx. Waste water: Discharges of non excremental character from sinks bathrooms
and wash - hand basins. Also known as sullage or grey water.
xxi. Waste water fitments & fittings: These are facilities such as sinks, wash-hand
basins and bath-tubs designed for the conveyance of non - excremental matter.
xxii. Zooglea film: Complex populations of organisms that form a ‘slime growth’ on the
trickling filter media and break down the organic matter in waste water. These
slimes consist of living organisms feeding on the wastes in waste water, dead
organisms, silt and other debris.

5. Objectives of sanitation

The main objective of a sanitation system is to protect and promote human health.
This is done by providing and maintaining a clean environment without faecal
contamination and by adopting measures that break the cycle of disease
transmission. The other objectives are resource management and environmental
considerations. To achieve the direct effects of containment and reduction of
pathogenic organism the system should be technically appropriate, economically
viable, socially acceptable, and institutionally manageable which are factors that all
affect the health outcomes. The objectives are explained here below starting with
human health.

5.1. Human health

5.1.1. Common diseases of insanitation
The infected body wastes from the bladder and intestines are responsible for the
spread of diseases such as:

- Cholera
- Typhoid and paratyphoid fevers
- Poliomyelitis
- Schistosomiasis
- Hookworms( anklostomiasis)
- Tapeworms ( Taenia saginata and Taenia solium)
- Salmonella food poisoning

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- Amoebic dysentery
- Bacillary dysentery
- Infective Hepatitis
- Roundworms ( ascaris lumbricoides)

5.1.2. Channels of disease transmission from excreta to the new host.

 Water
Excreta can find its way in water sources and contaminate it and when this water is
drunk without being treated, can infect a new host. Also infected water can pollute
raw vegetables, milk and other foods.

 Direct skin contact with the soil surface

The excreta of a person harboring hook worms in his/her bowels will contain
hookworm eggs. Under moist, warm conditions such as exists in the bushes or long
grass during rainy season, the eggs hatch in the soil when a person walks through an
infected area without shoes, the larvae penetrate in the skin and hence migrate into
the boneless where they become adult hookworms. They may cause serious ill -
health accompanied by serious anemia.

 Hands

During personal toilet, most people soil their hands to some extent with their own
excrement, certain intestinal worms and other diseases can thus be conveyed from
the soiled hands to the food or utensils which they handle. Some people may also
get infected through leaking contaminated fingers.

 Arthropods or flies

These carry infection from the human excreta they feed on and contaminate milk or
other foods on which they land, thus when such food is consumed, the micro
organisms in it infect man. This is probably the commonest method of conveying

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excremental diseases in Zambia and may account for most sporadic outbreaks of
Typhoid, fever, dysentery and possibly poliomyelitis.

 Soil or dust

After drying human excrement can be blown as dust onto food or drink about to be
consumed or can be inhaled by man, thus conveying diseases such as intestinal
worms, dysentery or gastro-enteritis to man. Also some people may get infection
through eating raw soil.

 Pigs and cattle

Tapeworms are contracted by man through the consumption of under- cooked beef
or pork containing bladder worm cysts. These cysts after being swallowed by man
grow into tapeworms in the bowels. Segments break off the bowels in the excrement,
thus polluting the soil/land frequented by these animals. The animals become
infected by the small larvae which burrow through the walls of the animals stomach
and bowel and settle in the muscle fibres as bladder worm cysts.

The transmission of faecal borne diseases can be stopped by means of a sanitation

barrier.

NB: For easy remembering on how disease is transmitted, use 5 Fs, i.e food, flies,
fluids, fields and fingers. See diagram below.

THE FEACAL ORAL ROUTE TRANSMISSION DIAGRAM

Protection of food (safe waster re-use) Hand washing after defeacation

FINGERS Cleaning children’s bottoms before

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 VIP –latrines handling food or eating or feeding

Protection of food (storage)

Flies
Faeces
Food

New
Fields
Host

Safe eating (e.g washing

Fruits and vegetables before

Fluids
Eating them raw)

Protection of food (e.g. handling preparation

Pit-latrines Protection of water sources Protection of water in transit and

home

PRIMARY BARRIERS SECONDARY BARRIERS

Figure 1. Feacal-oral routes of disease transmission diagram

Source: Almedon et al. 1997

5.1.3. Factors necessary for disease transmission to take place

Man is the reservoir of most of the diseases of excremental nature which incapacitate
him/her. These diseases are however controllable through good sanitation. However,
the following factors are necessary for the disease to be transmitted.

 A causative or etiological agent

There should be a disease causing organism e.g. Vibrio choleras
 Reservoir or source of infection
There should be a patient or a carrier as a source of infection.
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 Mode of escape from the reservoir

How the disease causing organisms will leave the reservoir of infection

 Mode of transmission
How the disease will be transmitted from the reserviour to the potential new host.
How it will come about e.g. contaminated food, water.

 Mode of entry into the new host

How the disease causing organisms will enter the susceptible host e.g through
ingestion, skin penetration

 A susceptible host

A person who has the potential of developing the clinical symptoms of the disease.

N.B. The absence of a single one of these six conditions makes the spread of the
disease impossible.

5.2. Resource management

Excreta generated from Ecological Sanitation (ECOSAN) can be used for manure
and soil conditioning. Electricity can be generated from excreta. Effluent from sewage
treatment plants can be used for fertigation. Recharge of streams can be done using
effluent.

According to the World Toilet Organisation (WTO), the average person goes to the
toilet six times a day – 2,500 times a year – and women spend three times longer in
toilets than men because of biological differences. It is important that women are
consulted in the design of toilets to ensure that facilities meet their needs and are
safe, clean and pleasant to use. Improved sanitation is about much more than
building toilets; infrastructure needs to be accompanied by education to help change
attitudes and behaviour.

5.3. Environmental consideration

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Without the health risks associated with poor disposal of excreta, sanitation would not
be meaningful to talk about. The following are therefore some of the reasons for
proper disposal of excreta.

5.3.1. Contamination of ground surfaces

This is commonly done by people throwing consumer wastes indiscriminately and
disposing human excreta anyhow, leading to helminth infections.

5.3.2. Contamination of both surface and underground water sources

During the rainy season, all the wastes uphill are swept by the rainy water into
streams and rivers, thus contaminating them. Surface water sources are also
contaminated by people who urinate or defaecate in the water or near water when
swimming or bathing. Underground water sources like unprotected wells get
contaminated through seepage when latrines are not properly sited.

5.3.3. Attraction and breeding of flies

As a result of indiscriminate disposal of human excreta and other domestic wastes,

house flies and other insect vectors are attracted.

5.3.4. Unsightly conditions and offensive smells.

Human excreta and other consumer wastes during decomposition produce offensive
smells and also intolerable nuisances which offend the eye.

5.3.5. Infection of domestic animals and rodents

Pigs may feed on contaminated human faeces, while cattle may feed on
contaminated grass and grounds, thus carrying tape worms such as Taenia saginata
and Taenia Solium.

6. Institutional collaboration in sanitation

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The problems of Sanitation cannot be achieved by one organization / institution
alone. The following are some of the institutions involved in sanitation:-

6.1. Ministry of health

The ministry is involved in providing funds to train health personnel and employing
them so that they can deliver health and hygiene education in the communities. The
ministry also advises on policy and legal framework on issues related to sanitation.

6.2. Ministry of Local Government and Housing

This ministry through the councils is responsible for formulating policies, by- laws,
legislation and strategies for water and sanitation; monitor and evaluate water and
sanitation programmers, source funds for water and sanitation and provide water and
sanitation services through local authorities.

6.3. Zambia Environmental Management Agency

It is mainly responsible for environmental protection. It also ensures that effluents

discharged meet the set minimum standards and are properly disposed of and
conform to standard in Zambia. In short the council is also responsible for
establishing quality water and pollution control standards.

6.4. Ministry of finance and economic planning

This is responsible for allocating funding for huge capital investment in the sector of
water and sanitation. It is also responsible for monitoring expenditure on large capital
investment involving sanitation projects.

6.5. Water and sewerage companies

Their major roles are: ensuring that water sources are adequate and safe; charge for
sewerage facilities in form of house water bills since the sewage produced by the
house will be proportional to the water consumed and provide water and sanitation
(sewerage) services.

6.6. National Water Supply & Sanitation Council

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It is responsible for regulating the provision of water supply and sanitation services
throughout the country. It gives guidelines to sanitation providers to the peri- urban
and urban service providers. It also examines suggestions for improvement and
advises on disposal of wastes without polluting water sources.

6.7. Non - Governmental Organisations (e.g CARE INTERNATIONAL, JICA)

These implement the already set sanitation and water regulations and put in place
the necessary and adequate facilities for health promotion schemes. They conduct
or initiate projects especially in the rural and peri-urban areas.

7. Private sector e.g Andrew curt, Process carriers provide sanitation services
to the public at a fee.

8. Higher institutions of learning

These include Universities, Colleges and secondary schools which provide education
by training human resources for water and sanitation sector. Also conduct research
on water and sanitation.

7. Laws related to sanitation

7.1. Public Health Act 295

Provides guideline on provision of sanitation services such as safety and
management
7.2. Water & Sanitation Act No. 28 of 1997:
It gives guidelines on how local authorities should provide water and sanitation
services. It is the water & sanitation regulation.

7.3. The Local Government Act No. 22 of 1991.

This Act gives order to the local authorities to provide water & sanitation services to
the public. It is controlled by the Ministry of Local Govt and Housing.

8. Excreta disposal systems.

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8.1. Dry systems

These require little or no water to function. They may be final disposal points / on-site
or conservancy type. Latrines falling under this category are explained below.

8.1.1. Cat method (on – site)

This is a shallow pit or hole dug into the ground for the purpose of disposing excreta.
This method is named after the way the cat behaves when defecating.

i. Measurements:

30 cm x 30 cm x 40 cm deep

ii. Operation

After excavating the pit, the soil is left on the side for covering excreta.
Decomposition takes about 6-8 weeks. Aerobic bacteria digest the excreta.

iii. Location / situations

This system is ideal for people when they are out in the bush for hunting, in the fields,
gardens or temporal building sites.

iv Advantages

- easy to operate
- it is affordable
- prevents smell nuisance if properly used and maintained
- matches well with our way of defecating in a squatting position.
- Any type of anal cleaning material can be used.
- It prevents contamination of both surface and underground water if properly
sited.
v. Disadvantages

- pollution of the soil

- Breeding of flies if not properly used
- Scattering of excreta by rodents and other animals
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- Smell nuisance and unsightly condition if not properly covered after use
- Possible contamination of both underground and surface water if wrongly
sited,
operated and maintained.
- No privacy for the user
- Very temporal
- Cannot be used in density populated areas.

8.1.2. Trench method

Introduction

This is a multiple latrine where a trench is dug and a number of partitions placed over
it. A super structure is made out of local materials.

i. Measurements;

60cm – 90cm deep, 1-3m long and about 60cm wide

ii. Operations

Excreta is deposited in the trench by the user who may be expected to scoop a few
drops of soil in the trench to cover up the faucal matter.

iii. Situations / locations

- Military camps
- Scout camps
- Church gatherings e.g. camping
- Temporal building sites
- Mining sites
iv. Advantages

- Provides some privacy to the users.

- Other advantages refer to the cat method.

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 v. Disadvantages:

Same as for cat method

8.1.3. Ordinary pit – latrine

Introduction

This is the cheapest and most basic form of improved sanitation available at
house hold level. It comprises basically of three parts namely the:

 Pit;
 Slab; and
 Superstructure.
1. Superstructure

The superstructure is the structure above the ground level sometimes called the
house. The functions of the super structure are to:

 provide privacy to the user; and

 protect the user and the installation below it from adverse weather conditions.
i. Measurements of the superstructure

The superstructure should be 1.8-2m high. This is to allow for privacy even in a
standing position.

ii. Materials for construction of the superstructure

The superstructure of a pit-latrine can be constructed using various materials.

Materials that can be used to construct pit-latrines include:

 Burnt bricks

 Concrete blocks

 Pole and dagga;

 Iron sheets

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  Old drums

 Stones

 Sacks

 Plastics

 Reeds

 Ordinary and

 Sun-dried bricks (Kimberly bricks)

2. Slab

The slab is the structure that covers the pit. The functions of the slab are to:

 cover the pit

 support the user
 support the super structure at sometimes

i. Materials used for construction of slabs

Slabs are constructed using various materials depending on the capacity of the
household or institution to finance the project. Slabs can be made of:

 Concrete
 Logs
 Planks
 Iron Sheets
ii. Measurements

Slabs have various measurements due to the materials used for construction. The
measurements for various types are as outlined below:

 8-10cm thick for ordinary slabs;

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  6cm thick for the sanplats; and
 16-30cm thick for wooden type.
The slab may extend from the slab by 8cm

3. The pit

The pit is a hole dug in the ground. The functions of the pit are to:

 receive excreta
 store excreta
 serve as a digestion chamber for excreta.
The shape of the pit can be square, rectangular or circular.

i. Measurements

The depth of the pit may range from 2.5m – 5m deep or 3m-6m. The diameter of
the pit may range from 82cm – 1m.

4. Pit-lining

This protects the pit from collapsing. In unstable soils the whole pit must be lined
with a honey- comb wall towards the bottom.

i. Measurements

The pit-lining is usually 60cm minimum. The first 60cm should be water tight. In
loose soils are very loose, lining of the whole pit with a honey comb wall is
required.

ii. Materials used

The materials used for the construction of the lining are:

 Concrete bricks;

 Bamboos;

 Stones;

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  Bottles (glass)

 Woven basket;s and

 Old drums.

5. Other features on a pit-latrine

i. Windows

Windows are required for ventilation and lighting. Openings of 200mm x 100mm
should be created or preferably towards the roof you leave it open (400mm x
200mm).

ii. Orifice

The function of the orifice is to direct excreta into the pit. The size of the orifice
should 38cm long and 18cm wide.

Iii.The base

This serves as a base on which the slab rests. It should be above the ground
level. It should be 10 – 15cm thick and 20 – 30 cm high. Materials used to
construct the mound are Stones, bricks, rough cut logs and plain concrete.

iv.The mound

The function of the mound is to protect the pit and the base from collapsing due to
run off rain water, which might otherwise enter and destroy the pit. The mound
should extend 20 – 60 cm from the superstructure. The materials that can be used
to construct the mound is excavated soil from the pit. This may also be
consolidated with a stone facing.

6. Site selection

Pit – latrines must be sited

 on well drained soil

 on slightly raised ground
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 30m away from water sources
 5-7m from dwelling houses
 Downhill of any water source.
N.B. It should be near enough to be used at all times but far enough not to create
a nuisance.

7. Situations / locations

The ordinary pit-latrine can be used both in rural and urban areas as long as
abundant land for digging pits is available on permanent premises.

8. Approximation of latrine pit size based on the volume of sludge

accumulation rate per person per year.

In deciding on the volume of the pit, it is necessary to first consider whether the pit
will be dry or wet (that is, will penetrate the water table or not).Decomposition
starts as soon as excreta is deposited in the pit, as a result the sludge
accumulation becomes smaller than the total amount of excreta deposited.

According to studies carried out in other parts of the world, it is recommended that
for designing purposes a figure of 30 litres per person per year may be used when
soft anal cleansing materials are used in wet pits. Where hard materials are
used, the figure must be increased by 50% to make 60 litres in the same type of
pits.

In dry pits, digestion of solids is less rapid and less complete. For designing
purposes 0.03-0.08m3 per person per year is recommended when soft anal
cleansing materials are used. The figure must be increased by 50% when various
hard anal cleansing materials are used.

From the above approximations of sludge accumulation for individuals pits of

required volumes can be dug and answer the problems of digging new pits within
short periods of time. However, people must take interest to take a challenging
study of such nature to come up with real local prevailing condition.

The volume of a pit is calculated using the following equation:

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P x S x N x 1.33, where;

P- is the number of people using the latrine

S- is the sludge accumulation rate per person per year

N – is the number of years before disludging.

1.33- is a constant

ORDINARY PIT-LATRINE

ROOF

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 WINDOW

SUPERSTRUCTURE

GROUND LEVEL

MOUND

SLAB ORIFICE

PIT

LINNING BASE

3M TO WATER TABLE

WATER TABLE

8.1.4. The bucket latrine

This is a system of excreta disposal is also known as box-and-can privy, pail closet or
earth closet. It is a dry excreta disposal system which has a bucket that receives
excreta.

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i.Size of the bucket

 38cm diameter at the top

 30cm deep

The bucket is provided with handles for lifting. Tight fitting lids are provided.

ii.Locations

 Rocky areas
 Towns where there are no sewers and space is limited
 Temporal building sites

iii.Night soil collection

The double bucket system is used; a new bucket is replaced when the other one with
contents is taken away. The task method is used in some countries. When buckets
are collected the contents are emptied into a tanker which takes them for disposal.
Buckets are then taken for cleaning. Some countries use human carriers where a
person uses a rod on the shoulder to carry two buckets, one in front and the other
one behind. At the depot buckets are washed and disinfected.

iv.The collection chamber and superstructure

The bucket is placed in the collection chamber situated below the squatting plate.
The chamber is built of brick or concrete and is so shaped as to help centre the pail.
Some chambers open to the rear of the latrine into the service lane used for
collection. The chamber must be fly proof. Sometimes ventilation is required for the
chamber. The vertical distance between the bottom of the slab and the rim of the
bucket should not be greater than 2.5cm.

The superstructure is identical to the ordinary pit-latrine except that the floor is raised
above the collecting chamber and the ground level. Floors sometimes are designed
in such a manner so as to separate solid feaces from urine and ablution water, which
tend to fill up buckets quickly and to keep their contents in a semi-liquid state. Urine
and other liquid wastes are directed to soak ways and or to an impervious catch pit,
which is emptied periodically.

v. Disposal of night soil

Various methods are employed such as:

 Burial in earth or trenches;

 Incineration of night soil with dry refuse;
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  Burging to sea- throwing contents in the river;
 Disposal into sewers – contents emptied in sewers;
 Detention in the tanks for digestion – contents emptied in air tight tanks
 Raw – night soil used for agricultural purposes, though this is not
recommended.

vi. Disadvantages

 Smell nuisances;
 Unsightly conditions;
 Spillage of contents during collection;

vii.Advantages

 Helps maintain hygiene;

 Does not require water to operate.

Comment

The bucket latrine in theory sounds as though it fulfils all sanitary requirements and
yet in practice it does not.

BUCKET LATRINE

ROOF

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 WINDOW

SUPERSTRUCTURE

ORIFICE

REAR DOOR

VAULT

BUCKET

HANDLE

GROUND LEVEL

8.1.5. Ventilated improved pit latrines

Ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrines are also known as Blair Latrines. The major
nuisances that discourage the use of simple pit latrines - smell and flies - are reduced

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or eliminated through the incorporation of a vertical vent pipe with a fly screen at the
top (Morgan, 1977). Wind passing over the top of the vent pipe causes a flow of air
from the pit through the vent pipe to the atmosphere and a down draught from the
superstructure through the squat hole or seat into the pit. This continuous flow of air
removes smells resulting from the decomposing excreta in the pit and vents the
gases to the atmosphere at the top of the vent pipe rather than through the
superstructure. The flow of air is increased if the doorway of the superstructure
faces the prevailing wind (Mare, 1984). If a door is fitted it should be kept shut at all
times (except when entering or leaving) to keep the inside of the latrine reasonably
dark, but there should be a gap, normally above the door, for air to enter. The area of
this gap should be at least three times the cross sectional area of the vent pipe.

The superstructure can be constructed in the form of a spiral. This excludes most of
the light whether a door is fitted or not. The defecation hole must be left open to allow
the free passage of air. The vent pipe should extend at least 50 cm above the latrine
superstructure except where the latter has a conical roof, in which case the pipe
should extend as high as the apex. Air turbulence caused by surrounding buildings or
other obstructions may cause reverse air flow, leading to foul odours and flies in the
superstructure. If mean wind speeds are about 2 m/s, as is fairly common in rural
areas, air speeds in the vent pipe are about 1 m/s (Ryan & Mara, 1983). Air flow may
also occur at lower wind speeds because of solar radiation heating the air in the vent
pipe, the air to rise. The vent pipe should then be placed on the equator side of the
superstructure. It may be painted black to increase solar absorption, if the material of
the pipe is not itself black.

In latrines relying on solar radiation for ventilation, foul odours are sometimes
experienced in the superstructure at certain times of the day (usually early morning).
This occurs where the outside air temperature is colder than the air in the pit, which
may prevent the air circulating. Very little can be done to prevent this, other than
sealing the defecation hole at night. In addition to removing odours from the pit, the
screened vent pipe significantly controls flies. In Zimbabwe, Morgan (1977) compared

25
the number of flies leaving the squat hole of a VIP latrine with the number leaving a
simple pit latrine. The results are shown in the table below

Table of comparison of the numbers of files leaving the squat holes of a

simple pit latrine and a VIP latrine

Period of trapping No trapped in unvented privy No in vented privy

8 Oct – 5 Nov 1723 5

5 Nov – 3 Dec 5742 20

3-24 Dec 6488 121

Source: Morgan, 1977.

Flies are attracted to the pit by the odour coming from the vent pipe but are unable to
enter because of the screen. A few flies enter the pit through the squat hole or seat,
and lay eggs in the pit. New young flies attempt to leave the pit by flying towards the
light. If the latrine superstructure is kept sufficiently dark, the major source of light is
at the top of the vent pipe, but the screen prevents the flies from escaping there and
they eventually fall back into the pit to die.

Well-constructed and maintained VIP latrines combat all the problems associated
with simple pit latrines, except mosquitoes. However, they are considerably more
expensive than simple pits, since a ventilation pipe and full superstructure are
required. Because the defecating hole is directly over the pit they accept any form of
anal cleaning material without blocking. Routine operation is limited to keeping the
superstructure clean, ensuring that the door (where fitted) is kept closed, occasionally
checking that the fly proof netting on top of the vent pipe is not blocked or broken,
and pouring water down the vent pipe once a year to remove spiders' webs.

Ventilated double-pit latrines

26
Although it is usually best to provide large deep pits, this may not be possible where
rock or ground water lie within one or two metres of the ground surface. A variation of
the VIP latrine suitable for such situations has two shallow pits side by side under a
single super structure. The pits are usually lined with bricks or blocks. Each pit may
have its own squat hole or seat. Alternatively, slabs may be movable, one with a hole
for the pit in use and a plain slab for the other pit. Whichever design is used, only one
hole must be available for defecation at any time. The latrine may be provided with
two ventilation pipes (one for each pit) but more usually only one is fitted, to the pit in
use.
The hole for the ventilation pipe for the pit not in use is sealed. As with single VIP
latrines, the superstructure must be kept partially dark at all times to discourage flies.

Double-pit VIP latrine

Operation
One pit is used until it is filled to within about half a metre of the top. The defecation
hole over the full pit is then sealed and the one over the empty pit opened. Where
necessary, the ventilation pipe is moved from the full to the empty pit, and the vent
hole in the slab of the full pit sealed. The second pit is then used until filled to within
half a metre of the top. The contents of the first pit can now be removed and the pit
reused. The pits must be large enough to allow each pit to be used for at least two
years. This ensures that when the pit contents are dug out most of the pathogenic
organisms have died. Double-pit latrines can be considered as permanent
installations. The small effective capacity (0.72 m³ for a family of six, using a sludge
build-up rate of 60 litres per person per year, enables pits to be relatively shallow,
and therefore easier to empty than deep pits. The pits should extend beyond the
superstructure, either to the sides or at the back, with removable slabs for emptying.
These slabs should be easy to lift, but should be sealed to prevent flies getting in or
out. The central wall between the two pits should be made with full mortar joints and
may be rendered with cement mortar on both sides. As with the single-pit VIP latrine,
the double-pit VIP latrine has the advantages of reduced smell and fly nuisance. Also
the contents of the latrine dug out every two years or so are a valuable soil
conditioner. Double-pit VIP latrines are usually (but not always) more expensive than

27
single-pit VIP latrines, and require a greater operational input from the user,
particularly in changing over pits. Some societies have shown resistance to handling
the decomposed contents of the pit but this can often be overcome with education
and time. Allowing people to see (and handle) the contents of a pit as it is emptied is
the strongest persuader for those concerned.

All projects involving the construction of double-pit latrines must allow for a prolonged
support programme. Householders need to be reminded to change pits at the right
time and should be assisted in doing so. This assistance will probably have to be
available for at least the first two pit changes to ensure that the complete cycle is
covered.

VENTILATED IMPROVED PIT-LATRINE

SCREEN

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 ROOF

WINDOW

VENT PIPE

SUPERSTRUCTURE

GROUND LEVEL

MOUND

SLAB ORIFICE

PIT

LINNING BASE

3M TO WATER TABLE

WATER TABLE

8.1.6. Ecological sanitation latrine (ECOSAN).

Introduction
29
Ecological sanitation (ECOSAN) is a latrine that converts faeces and urine from
harmful products to a productive asset over time through proper storage and the
effective destruction of harmful pathogens. The latrine recognises faeces and urine
as a resource which when properly used can increase crop yields, strengthens soil’s
water holding capacity and facilitates the growth of trees. It also an effective means of
eliminating harmful excreta from the environment. This is an ancient idea, which is
gaining a new audience.

Principles of ECOSAN

 It offers families a safe sanitation solution that prevents diseases by hygienically

removing pathogens rich excreta from the immediate environment
 It makes use of a valuable resource that can be productively recycled back in the
environment.

i.ECOSAN TYPES

 THE ARBORLOO

This is the simplest type of latrine. It has a slab cover on unlined pit about 0.75m
deep, and a movable superstructure. Households are required to add a mixture of soil
and ash after using the latrine to reduce odour and to dry the pit contents so that flies
are not attracted. It also raises the Ph level, which in turn accelerates the destruction
of microorganisms. When the pit is ⅔ full, the slab is removed; the pit is topped up
with garden compost or grass and leaves. A tree or banana can be planted and
watered. The Arborloo is suitable in areas where people practice shifting cultivation.

 FORSA ALTERNA

The Forsa Alterna has two partially lined shallow pits with one movable latrine slab.
Each is used alternatively, that one pit is filling whilst the contents of another are
maturing into compost. After filling the slab is removed to the second pit and the first
is covered with soil and left to compost. When the second pit is full the process is
repeated after the contents from the first are removed for use in the garden.
Potentially this latrine offers a good solution in per-urban setting where space is
limited.

 SKYLOO

A 0.5m high vault, which is built above the ground level. and has a superstructure.
The faeces drop through a small hole into the bucket or vault. The latrine offers good
solution in rocky areas and where the water table is high.

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 8.1.7. Chemical closet

Introduction

A chemical closet is a conservancy latrine that is suitable for planes, long distance
buses and railway wagons. The chemical closet can also be used in camping
expeditions as well as during functions when any other forms of sanitation cannot be
used.

i. Operation

A chemical closet is filled with chemicals to musk the smell. The common chemical
used is caustic soda. Excreta are deposited in the water tight tank. Just like the water
closet, the chemical closet has all the features that are identical to the water closet.

ii. Maintenance

The chemical closet requires emptying in short intervals. Cleaning and refilling of
chemicals must be done on a daily basis.

iii. Advantages

It can be used even where there is no water.

It is potable

iv. Disadvantages

 Frequent dislodging is very risky for the workers engaged in this task;
 Likelihood of ground and surface water contamination;
 Burning of the bottom of a person when chemical splash;
 Smell nuisances if chemicals are absent;
 It is an expensive type of technology as all the parts are purchased including
chemicals; and
 It cannot withstand abuse.

However, it should be noted that the chemical closet can either be fixed or portable.

References

31
1. Garg,S.K. (2001). Sewage disposal and air pollution engineering:
Environmental engineering II. Khama Publishers

2. Insitute of Water and Sanitation Development (2002). Wastewater and excreta

disposal systems: Course materials. Harare: Author.

3. Schaefer, W. (1992). Public health engineering: A lecture note –book. Lusaka:

University of Zambia, Department of Civil Engineering.

4. World Health Organisation. (1998). Fact sheet on environmental sanitation:

Cholera and other epidermic diarrhoel disease control. Geneva: WHO
Publications.

5. Environmental Council of Zambia (2001). State of the Environment in Zambia.

Lusaka: ECZ, Publications.

6. Winblad, U. and Kilama, W. (1993). Sanitation without water. Hongkong>

Swidish International Development Agency.

7. Government of the Republic of Zambia. (1995). Public Health Act. Cap 295.
Lusaka: Ministry of Justice.

8. Rukunga, G.K. (2001). Environmental Health for East Africa. Nairobi. Kenya.

9. Almedon, M.A., Blumenthal, U. and Manderson. L. (1997). Hygiene evaluation

procedures: Approaches and methods for assessing water and sanitation
related hygiene practices. London: INFDC.

10. NGO- WASH Forum. (2008). The state of sanitation in Zambia. Lusaka
Zambia: UNICEF.

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