Doc. dr. Željko Miletić, Odjel za arheologiju Sveučilišta u Zadru, tel.

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Željko Miletić: Typology of Mithraic Cult Reliefs from Southeastern Europe

The majority of scholars occupied by Mithraic studies rejected Cumontian theory

of Persian cult origins, namely his transmission from East to Rome. 1 However, place,

time and mode of genesis of Roman Mithraism are still unexplained. Merkelbach’s

hypothesis, that Mithraism was engendered by group of intellectuals from imperial

palatium, where it was created during 1 st century AD seems very plausible. 2 They created

mysteries and inserted some elements from Iranian religion, Platonic philosophy and very

popular contemporary astrological learning. According to this theory, it is most likely that

artistic archetype of the Tauroctony, the most important mythical episode, was formed in

same circumstances. Icons, showing Mithras killing the bull and some other characters,

were placed in every sanctuary – speleum.

This article deals with three types of bull-slaying scenes: type I, V and VI. While

defining the iconographical and compositional features of the Mithraic icons I have used

Campbell's typology.3 He defined eight types of cult icons (in regard to composition as a

whole) and five main subtypes (in regard to realization of Tauroctony scene). Starting

from the revised views on the Mithraic genesis, itinerary and theology, it was established

1
For the evolution of the critique of traditional Cumontian view of the mysteries of Mithras: R. Beck,
Mithraism since Franz Cumont, ANRW II 17,4 (Berlin – New York 1984) 2002 ff. - R. L. Gordon, Franz
Cumont and the doctrines of Mithraism. In: J.-R. Hinnells (Hrsg.), Mithraic studies. Proceedings of the
First International Congress of Mithraic Studies, (Manchester 1975) 215 ff. - R. Gordon, Who worshipped
Mithras?. JRA 7, 1994, 459 ff.
2
R. Merkelbach, Mithras (Hain 1984) 153 ff.
3
L.-A. Campbell, Typology of Mithraic Tauroctones. Berytus 11, 1954, 1 ff. - L.-A. Campbell, Mithraic
iconography and ideology (Leiden 1968). 1-3.

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that Campbell did not define places of origin of individual types of bull-slaying scenes

and, especially, of their subtypes quite correctly. His opinion is that various bull-slaying

compositions emerged during the process of Mithraic expansion from the East through

Greek world to the Roman West. Accordingly, the subtype A (Graeco-Phrygian)

originates from Phrygia, subtype D (Hellenistic) from Cappadocia, subtype C (eastern

Greek) which is characterized by a mixture of A and D elements from Cilicia, subtype E

(Iranian) from Pontus, and subtype B from Rome. The fact that earliest monuments of the

cult dated with certainty are known from Nida in Germania Superior, Novae in Moesia

Inferior and Carnuntum in Pannonia has very strong implications for the expansion of

the Mysteries4 However, it is not acceptable to discuss archetypes or their long-lasting

existence in Asia Minor and some surrounding areas as long as specimens of some

subtypes have not been attested there, whereas rare examples of others from the same

region are later than the western ones. For example, reliefs of the subtype C were

probably created in Rome and its surroundings, where they occurred from the end of the

1st century AD.5 Reliefs of the subtype C, as well as those of mixed ABC features spread

from central Italy northwards in Raetia and Noricum, as well as eastwards in Dalmatia

and Pannonia.

Campbell's conclusion that type I occurs most frequently in the Mediterranean

basin "where Greek influence is very strong" and less frequently in more distant

provinces, is implausible and too generic.6 For instance, in the regions of Thrace and

Macedonia that where under strong Greek influence type II is the dominant one and not

the type I. It is hard to believe that type I emerged in the area of the Greek peninsula,
4
Merkelbach (Anm. 2) 146-153. - M. Clauss, Culthores Mithrae (Stuttgart 1992) 115 ff; 156 f; 224.
5
Campbell, Typology (Anm. 3) 21.
6
Campbell, Typology (Anm. 3) 13.

2
Asia Minor or Magna Graecia: crucial elements determining type I probably were created

in workshops of the city of Rome. Monuments of the type I were numerous (more than

half of all Mithraic Tauroctony icons), very widespread, long-lasting and of different

quality, thus, it is certain that, after first impulses from Italian peninsula, they were

produced in a number of workshops in Italy and provinces. (Fig. 1.)

Cult icons of the type I and the subtype C dominate in province Dalmatia. A

combination of the type I and the subtype C occurs at the earliest cult icons in Dalmatia

from the beginning of 2nd century,7 though its use continued up to the 3rd and 4th centuries.

Main feature of type V is a circular composition of the Tauroctony surrounded by

the ring of the leaves, or with the Zodiac ring. Campbell named it Upper Moesian, in

spite of his own observations that it started spreading from Dalmatian capital Salona. 8 In

addition, specimens of type V are less frequent in Upper Moesia than in, for instance,

Dalmatia or in Pannoniae. (Fig. 2.)

Only two monuments, both from Salona, have entirely rounded plate. 9 Other

Tauroctonies of Campbell's type V were placed on relief’s plate of heterogeneous form. I

emphasise that examples with ring of leaves were cut on plates with half circular upper

part (which is common characteristic especially for types II and IV, which frequently

occur in provinces Tracia, Dacia and Moesia). On the contrary, Tauroctonies surrounded

with Zodiac were placed on rectangular plates.(Fig. 3.) Such combinations give us reason

to suppose that each of two rings, which surrounded tauroctony, has its own origin and
7
B. Gabričević, Iconographie de Mithra tauroctone dans la province romaine de Dalmatie. Archaeologia
Jugoslavica 1, 1954, 42-43 concluded that earliest Mthraic cult icons in Dalmatia were under the Italian
influence. J. Medini, Mithriaca Jadertina. Radovi Filozofskog fakulteta u Zadru 24(11), 1975, 63-65. has
the same opinion.
8
Campbell, Typology (Anm. 3) 13 ff.
9
CIMRM 1870, CIMRM 1861.

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different significance. The Zodiac is not placed there because of its subject or decorative

value; rather, it has theological and doctrinal value. 10 Structurally and symbolically it is

connected with the cosmological idea of vertical journey of the soul through seven

planetary spheres up to the sphere of the fixed stars. 11 Mithraic monuments with Zodiac

are known from London to Sidon. Relief CIMRM 695/6 from Modena of high artistic

value contains exceptionally reach symbolism, which points that origins of type V with

tauroctony surrounded by Zodiac ring should be looked for in the Italian peninsula. It

cannot be identified as the Upper Moesian simply because it has not been attested in that

province. Monuments in which ring of leaves surrounds the Tauroctony are more similar

to the type IV, or II, than to V. which is why they should be differentiated from the latter

and considered as a variant of the former.

Wreath of leaves (mostly olive, oaken, myrtle and laurel) standing as usual

ornamentation on reliefs and free standing sculpture, doubtlessly signified some kind of

victory, or excellence of individuals. Jupiter and deities are wreathed, Victoria honours

triumphant general with corona, officers and athletes receive crown of leaves because of

achievements on battlefield and sport race. Victorious Christogram inside of corona was

depicted in early Christian art. 12 In Roman funeral practice green wreath of leaves was

symbol of victory over death and afterlife. Same motif was carved on sepulchral

monument in the honour of ancestors. That is why some examples of Mithraic tauroctony

10
J. Medini, Mitrički reljef iz Banjevaca. Diadora 8, 1975, 66-67.
11
Cosmic journey of the soul reconstructed: Ž. Miletić, Mitričko putovanje duše. Diadora 18-19, 1997, 195
ff.
12
See examples of Christogram: G. Koch, Frühchristliche Sarkophage (München 2000) Abb. 5; 7; 57; 58;
66; 79; 89; 99; 100; 103; 106; 111; 114; 120; 171-175; 188; 196; 201; 206; 227; on sarcophagus from
Ravenna (Abb. 102) triumphating Christ was offered by corona and Christogram.

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- scene explaining Mithras cosmological role (starting genesis by the stroke of knife and

making possible human life after bodily death) were represented within corona.

In the provinces Pannonia, Dalmatia, Moesia, Thracia and Macedonia numerous

sepulchral monuments contain ring of leaves, therefore it is quite possible that they

served as inspiration for circular frame on tauroctony of diverse types. Some elements of

sepulchral art evidently were incorporated into mithraic iconography. 13 Round sepulchral

portrait medallions encircled with leaves are common in Noricum and Pannonia, whether

as a part of funeral monuments or, sometimes, even self-standing. 14 Stelae with wreath

without portrait, except in very few examples, were produced in Moesia. 15 On small

anepigraphic stela from Salona there is a portrait of a young man in medallion of leaves. 16

Poor quality busts of Diocletian and his wife Prisca in oval ring of leaves are preserved in

their mausoleum in Palast in Split.17

Type VI - so called "Asia Minor" type - occurs with the greatest frequency in

provinces Pannonia, Dalmatia and Noricum, just sporadically in Moesia Superior, Dacia,

13
Ž. Miletić, The Nymphus grade and the Reverse of the Mithraic Cult Icon from Konjic. In: Akten des
internationalen Simposium “Ptuj im roemischen Reich/Mithraskult und seine Zeit” [Ptuj 1999] =
Archaeologia Poetovionensis 2 (Ptuj 2001) 283-288. In the same edition: A. Tengely, Mithraic Connections
of the Mythological Tombs in Pannonia, 303 ff.
14
A. Schober, Die römischen Grabsteine von Noricum und Pannonien (Wien 1923) 144 – 154; No. 164 -
166; 168 – 172. – W. Boppert, Ein freistehendes Rundmedallion aus Worms. Akten des IV. Internationalen
Kolloquiums über Probleme des provinzialrömischen Kunstschaffens. Celje 1995 = Situla 36 (Ljubljana
1997), 53 ff.
15
M. Mirković, Inscriptions de la Mésie Supérieure I (Beograd 1976) No 40; 56; 131. – M. Mirković,
Inscriptions de la Mésie Supérieure II (Beograd 1986) No 131; 174 .
16
N. Cambi, Imago animi. Antički portret u Hrvatskoj (Split 2000) 54; 327 Abb. 73.
17
Cambi, (Anm. 16) 80; 402 Abb. 128-129. N. Cambi, Dioklecijanova palača i Dioklecijan (lik i ličnost).
In: Dioklecijanova palača (Split 1994) 26.

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Germania Superior and in Italy, and, until now, never in Asia Minor. 18 Therefore, its

origin should not be looked for where monuments are not attested, but rather in Pannonia

and Dalmatia where it occurs very frequently. Due to such frequency and a fact that in

these two provinces monuments of this type were made mostly of local stone (meaning in

local workshops), it should be considered as the Pannonian-Dalmatian type. Some

descriptive term would be even more appropriate, one that is connected with its main

distinction: abundant use of architectonic elements (columns, beams, arcade),

characteristic for late Roman sculptural arts.That is why Campbell’s statement that such

elements were taken from Asia Minor sarcophagi 19 should be rejected. After all, in

Danube-Adriatic area there is only scarce evidence of import from Asia (mostly half

fabricated sarcophagi from Prokonesos). It is more probable that local stonecutters were

inspired with monumental buildings as Diocletian's Palace in Split and Galerius Palace in

Gamzigrad (Romuliana). (Fig. 4.)

18
Campbell, Typology (Anm. 3) 14 f; 41. Relief CIMRM 1893/4 from Vratnice near Lisičići, donated by
Lucius Antonius Menander Aphrodisieus does not correspond to type VI, as Campbell stated on page 41,
but to type I.
19
Campbell, Typology (Anm. 3) 14.