L12

INTRODUCTION
In this chapter we will present some of the approximate methods
used to analyze statically indeterminate trusses and frames.
These methods were developed on the basis of structural
behavior, and their accuracy in most cases compares favorably
with more exact methods of analysis.

THEORY OF STRUCTURES
Use of Approximate Method
The analysis when using a model must satisfy both the conditions of:
• Equilibrium
• Compatibility of displacements at joints

For an initial design, member sizes are not known & statically
indeterminate analysis cannot be done. A simpler model must be
developed, that is a statically determinate analysis. The analysis of this
model is known as an approximate analysis. The preliminary design of the
members can be made after which, the more exact indeterminate analysis
can be performed & the design refined
THEORY OF STRUCTURES
Building frames often consist of girders that
are rigidly connected to columns so that the
entire structure is better able to resist the
effects of lateral forces due to wind and
earthquake.

In practice, a structural engineer can use

several techniques for performing an
approximate analysis of a building bent. Each
is based upon knowing how the structure will
deform under load. THEORY OF STRUCTURES
One technique would be to consider only the members within a localized
region of the structure. This is possible if the deflections of the members
within the region caused little disturbance to the members outside the
structure.

The approximate location of the points of inflection can be specified.

These points are zero moments.

THEORY OF STRUCTURES
Assumptions for Approximate Analysis

• The column supports at A & B will

each exert 3 reactions on the girder

• The girder will be statically

indeterminate to the third degree

• 3 assumptions would be needed

to perform an approximate analysis

THEORY OF STRUCTURES
Assumptions for Approximate Analysis
• If the columns are stiff, no rotation at A & B will occur
• However, if the column connections at A & B are very flexible, then
zero moments will occur at the supports
• In reality, the columns will provide some flexibility at the supports

THEORY OF STRUCTURES
Assumptions for Approximate Analysis

• Therefore, point of zero

moment occurs at the average
point between the two
extremes (0.21L+0) / 2 ~ 0.1L
from each support

THEORY OF STRUCTURES
Assumptions for Approximate Analysis
In summary, each girder of length L may be modeled
by a simply supported span of length 0.8L resting on
two cantilevered ends, each having a length of 0.1L.

The following three assumptions are incorporated in

this model:
1. There is zero moment in the girder, 0.1L from
the left support.
2. There is zero moment in the girder, 0.1L from
the right support.
3. The girder does not support an axial force.

THEORY OF STRUCTURES
Example:
Determine (approximately) the
moment at the joints E and C
caused by members EF and CD of
the building bent.

THEORY OF STRUCTURES
PORTAL FRAMES AND TRUSSES
Portal frames are frequently used over the entrance of a bridge and as a
main stiffening element in building design in order to transfer horizontal
forces applied at the top of the frame to the foundation. On bridges, these
frames resist the forces caused by wind, earthquake, and unbalanced
traffic loading on the bridge deck.

Portals can be pin supported, fixed supported, or supported by partial

fixity. The approximate analysis of each case will now be discussed for a
simple three-member portal.

THEORY OF STRUCTURES
CASE I: PIN SUPPORTED
• For pin-supported column,
assume horizontal shear are
equal

THEORY OF STRUCTURES
CASE II: FIXED SUPPORTED
• For fixed-supported column,
assume horizontal reactions
are equal and an point of
inflection occurs on each
column, midway between
base of column & the lowest
point of truss member
connection to column

THEORY OF STRUCTURES
CASE III: PARTIAL FIXITY

The points of inflection on the columns lie somewhere between the

case of having a pin-supported portal where the inflection points
are at the supports (base of columns), and a fixed-supported portal
where the inflection points are at the center of the columns
THEORY OF STRUCTURES
CASE IV: PORTAL TRUSSES

In all cases, the suspended truss is assumed to be pin connected at its points of
attachment to the columns. Furthermore, the truss keeps the columns straight
within the region of attachment when the portal is subjected to the side sway.
Consequently, we can analyze trussed portals using the same assumptions as
those used for simple portal frames.
THEORY OF STRUCTURES
Example:
Determine by approximate
methods the forces acting in the
members of the Warren portal.

THEORY OF STRUCTURES
 Lateral Loads on building frames:

A building bent deflects in the same way as a portal frame and therefore it would be
appropriate to assume inflection points occur at the center of the columns and girders.
If we consider each bent of the frame to be composed of a series of portals then as a
further assumption, the interior columns would represent the effect of two portal
columns and would therefore carry twice the shear V as the two exterior columns.

THEORY OF STRUCTURES
Assumptions for Portal Method:
The portal method for analyzing fixed-supported building frames requires the
following assumptions:

1. A hinge is placed at the center of each girder, since this is assumed to be a point of
zero moment.
2. A hinge is placed at the center of each column, since this is assumed to be a point
of zero moment.
3. At a given floor level the shear at the interior column hinges is twice that at the
exterior column hinges, since the frame is considered to be a superposition of
portals.

These assumptions provide an adequate reduction of the frame to one that is

statically determinate yet stable under loading.
THEORY OF STRUCTURES
Example 1:
Determine (approximately) the reactions at the base of the
columns of the frame. Use the portal method of analysis.

THEORY OF STRUCTURES
Example 2:
Determine (approximately)
the reactions at the base of
the columns of the frame.
Use the portal method of
analysis.

THEORY OF STRUCTURES
 Lateral Loads on building frames:

This method is based on the same action as a

long cantilevered beam subjected to a transverse
load. This causes a bending stress that varies
linearly from the beam’s neutral axis.

In a similar manner, the lateral loads on a frame

tends to tip the frame over or cause a rotation
about a neutral axis lying in the horizontal plane
that passes through the columns at each floor
level. To counter this, the axial forces in the
columns will be tensile on one side of the neutral
axis & compressive on the other side.
THEORY OF STRUCTURES
 Lateral Loads on building frames:

It is reasonable to assume this axial stress has a linear variation from the
centroid of the neutral axis. This method is appropriate if the frame is tall &
slender or has columns with different x-sectional areas

THEORY OF STRUCTURES
Assumptions for Cantilever Method:
Using the cantilever method, the following assumptions apply to a fixed-supported frame.

1. A hinge is placed at the center of each girder, since this is assumed to be a point of zero
moment.
2. A hinge is placed at the center of each column, since this is assumed to be a point of zero
moment.
3. The axial stress in a column is proportional to its distance from the centroid of the cross-
sectional areas of the columns at a given floor level. Since stress equals force per area,
then in the special case of the columns having equal cross-sectional areas, the force in a
column is also proportional to its distance from the centroid of the column areas.

These three assumptions reduce the frame to one that is both stable and statically
determinate.
THEORY OF STRUCTURES
Example 1:
Determine (approximately) the
reactions at the base of the
columns of the frame. The
columns are assumed to have
equal cross-sectional areas.
Use the cantilever method of
analysis.

THEORY OF STRUCTURES
Example 2:
Show how to determine (approximately) the reactions at the
base of the columns of the frame. The columns have the cross-
sectional areas shown. Use the cantilever method of analysis

THEORY OF STRUCTURES