UNI

T-3:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.

3.1Introduct
iontocomput er
Theterm computerisder i
vedfrom thewor dcomputeorcal culat
e.Comput erisan
el
ectronicdev i
cewhichiscapabl eofdoingcomput at
ionsorcalcul
ationswi thhi
ghspeed&
accuracy .Charl
esBabbagewast hef at
herofcomput er
.Theappl icati
onsofcomput ers
dependst ot
all
yon t he human creati
v i
ty& imaginati
on using t
he ar t
if
iciali
ntel
l
igence.
Applicati
onsofcomput ersi ncl
udeeducat i
on,government,indust
ri
es,soci alsci
ence,law,
entertai
nment ,
dif
fer
entscientif
ic&researchfi
elds.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofComput ers
Themaj orchar act eristicsofcomput erare:-
1.Speed
2.Accur acy
3.Rel i
abi lit
y
4.St orageCapabi lity
5.Ver sat il
ity
6.Di l
igence
Speed : -Thepr ocessi ng speed i sext r
emel yf asti .e.itcan execut emi l
li
on
i
nst ruct i
onsperseconds.Thespeedofcomput eri scal culatedi nmegaher tz.i.
e
Onemi llioni nst r
uct ionspersecond.Pr esent l
ypower fulcomput er scanper form
bil
lionsofi nstruct i
onsoper ati
oni n1second.
Accur acy: -.Accur acyofacomput eri sconsi st entlyhighandt hedegr eeof
accur acyofapar ticularcomput erdependsont hei nstructi
onsandt het y
peof
processor .Comput eri scapabl eofdoi ngonl ywhati sinstruct edt odo,f ault
y
i
nst ruct i
onsf orpr ocessi ngt hedat aautomat i
cal lyleadt ofaultyr esults.
Reliabi l
ity: -Rel i
abi l
ityisanat tri
buteofanycomput ert hatconsi st entl
yper forms
accor dingt oi tsspeci f
ications.Itisthemeasur ementoft heper f or
manceoft he
comput er .
Stor ageCapabi l
i
t y: -Comput er
scanst orelar geamountofdat agigabytes–
GB( roughl yequi valentt o1bi l
li
onby tes) &t eraby t
es–TB( pr eciselydef i
nedas
1024gi gaby tes)
Ver sat i
li
ty :
-I tper for msmul t
ipl
et askssi mul taneousl y.Thegr oupofj obsar e
called t asks. Mor e t han one pr ocess wor k si multaneousl y are cal l
ed
mul tiprocessi ng.
Dil
igence: -
A comput erdoesnotsuf ferf r
om l imi tationsassoci atedwi thlivi
ng
beingsl iket i
rednessandl ackofconcent r
ati
onandhencecanwor kforhoursata
stretchwi t
houter rorar ising.Thischar acteri
sticisespeci al
lyusef ulforthosejobs
wher esamet asksar edoneagai nandagai n.I tcanper forml ongandcompl ex
calcul ationswi thsamespeedandaccur acyfrom t hest artti
lltheend.
 Evol
utionofComput er
s
 Pebbles‘areusedtorepr
esentnumber
s,t
heyar
eknownt
obet
heear
li
est
devi
cef orcomputati
on.
 After war dssandt ableswer emodi f
iedext ensiv el
y&t hesemodi fi
cat i
ons
dev ice ar e cal led as Abacaus.Thi s dev ice allows user st o do
comput at ionsusi ng a sy stem ofsl idi ng beadsar ranged on a r ack.
Mani pulatingbeadsont hewi r
escar ryoutar it
hmet i
coper at i
ons.
 In1614JohnNapi ermadeamor esophi sticatedcomput ingmachi ne
calledNapi erbones.I ti sasmal li
nst rumentmadeoft enr ods,onwhi ch
mul tipli
cat iont abl ewasengr av ed.Napi eral sopl ayedakeyr oleint he
dev elopmentofl ogar ithms.
 In1620t hei nvent i
onsofl ogarithms&dev elopmentofanot heri nvent i
on
sli
der ule.Thet woscal esenabl edt hesl ider ulet oper form mul ti
pli
cat i
on
&di v i
sionbyamet hodofaddi tion&subt raction.
 In1642Bl ai sePascal inv entedt hefirstf unct ional automat iccal culator.It
hadacompl exar rangementofwheel s,gear s&wi ndowsf ort hedi spl ay
ofnumber s.Thisdev i
cewasl imi tedtot headdi tion&subt raction.
 In 1694 Von Lei briz ext ended t he Pascal ‘
s desi gn t o per form
mul tipli
cat ion,division& t of i
ndsquar er oot .Thi smachi newascal l
ed
steppedr eckoner .
 In1801Jacquar di nv ent edapower loom wi thanaut omat iccar dr eader
arecal ledPunchCar dmachi ne.
 In 1822 Char les Babbage dev ised a cal culat i
ng machi ne ar e cal l
ed
diff
er enceengi ne.Thedi fferenceengi necanbev i
ewedasacompl ex
Abacus.I twasi ntendedt osol vedi ffer ent i
alequat ions.Hi spr oposalf or
thisdev i
cer eviewedt hebasi cel ement sofmoder ncomput ers.
 In1896Hol leri
thf oundedt het abulatingmachi necompanywhi chwasnamedI BM.
 In 1904 Si rJohn Ambr ose Fl eming wor ked t o dev eloped t he f i
rst
thermi oni cv al
ve ar ecal ledv acuum t ubes.Twoel ementv acuum t ubes
arecal leddi odes.Thi si st hef irstgener at i
onofcomput ers.
 In1906LeedeFor esti nt roducedv acuum t ube.
 In1931Vannev arBushi nt r
oducedt hedi fferent i
alanal ysert osol vet he
diff
er ent i
al equat ions.
 In1938Cl audeShannondesi gnedt heconnect i
onbet weenel ect r
oni c
cir
cui ts&Bool eanal gebr a.

EarlyComputers.
 MARK- IComputerf rom t
hey ear1937to1944.I
twasessent i
all
yaser i
al
collect
ionofel ect r
omechanicalcal
cul
ators&hadmanysi mi
lari
ti
esto
BabbageAnal yt i
calMachi ne.Itwascapableofper for
mi ngadditi
ons,
subt r
acti
on,di
v ision,mult
ipl
icat
ion&tablerefer
ence.Itwasext remely
slow,noisy&bul ky.The l
engthwas50f eetl
ong,8feethigh&wei ght
ed
5t ons.
 ABC Comput er In 1939 John Vi ncentAt ansof t& Cl iffored Ber r
y
formul atedt he i deaofusi ngt hebi nar ynumbersy stem t osi mpl ifyt he
const ruction ofan el ect r
oni ccal culat or .Theybui lta f irstel ect ronic
comput ernamedasABC( At ansof tBer ryCl i
f fored) .Itisconsi der edt he
fi
rstcomput ingmachi newhi chi nt roducedt hei deaofbi nar yar ithmet ic,
regener ativememor y&l ogicci rcui ts.
 COLOSSUS I n 1944 Br i
ti
sh mat hemat ician Al an mat hison cr eat ed a
comput ercal ledCOLOSSUSwhi chcompr ised1800v acuum t ubes.Thi s
wast heoneoft hewor l
d‘sear liestwor kingpr ogr ammabl eel ect ronic
digital comput er.
 ENI AC I n 1946 John Ecker t& John Mauchl y dev eloped El ect ronic
Numer ical Int egrator & Cal cul at or ( ENI AC) .I t embodi ed al lt he
component s&concept sofhi ghspeed, el ectroni cdi gitalcomput er s.Thi s
machi nedi scriminat et hesi gnofnumber s,compar equant ities&add,
sub,mul ti
ply,di vi
de& ext ractsquar er oot .ENI AC consi stof108000
vacuum t ubes,r equiredar ound160KW ofel ect ri
ci ty& wei ght ed30
tons. Ithadal imi t
edamountofspacet ost ore&mani pulat einf ormat ion.
 EDVAC John Ecker t& John Mauchl ypr oposed t he dev elopmentof
Electr onicDi scr etev ari
ableAut omat icComput er( EDVAC) .Itcamei nto
existencei n1949. Itwast hef i
rstel ect roni ccomput ert ouset hest or ed
progr am concepti ntroducedbyJohnVonNeuman.I tcoul dst opanyt ime
&r esumeagai n.Itcont ained4000v acuum t ubes&1000cr yst al diodes.
 EDSAC El ectronic Del aySt orage Aut omat ic Cal cul at or( EDSAC)was
BASED ON John Von Neuman‘ s st or ed pr ogr am concept .The f ir
st
successf ulpr ogram wasr uni n1949. Itusedmer cur ydel ayl inesf or
memor y&v acuum t ubesf orl ogi c.I thad3000v acuum v alvesar r anged
on12r acks&usedt ubesf i
ll
edwi thmer cur yf ormemor y.Itexecut ed650
i
nst ruct ionspersecond&occupi edar oom measur ed5met resby4
met res.
 UNI VAC Uni v ersalAut omat ic Comput erwas t he f ir
stcommer cially
avai l
abl eel ectroniccomput er.Itwast hef irstgener alpur posecomput er
whi chwasdesi gnedt ohandl enumer ical&t extuali nf ormat i
on.UNI VAC
comput edatt hespeedofar ound120- 3600mi croseconds.Magnet i
c
tapeswer eused asi nput& out putmedi ums.Ataspeed of13000
cahar acter s perseconds.The machi ne was 25 f eetby 50 f eeti n
l
engt h,cont ai
ned5600t ubes, 18000cr yst als&300r elay s.

Generat
ionsofComput ers
Thewor dgener ati
onisdescr i
bedasast ageoft echnologi
cal
devel
opmentori nnovati
on.Amaj ortechnologi
caldevelopmentresult
ed
i
nsmal l
er,cheaper,power f
ul,
eff
ici
ent&r el
i
abledevices.Accordi
ngt ot
he
ty
peofpr ocessorinstall
edinamachi netherearef iv
egener at
ionsof
computers.
 Fi r
stGener at
ion
(1940-
56)Vacuum Tubes
  Second
Generati
on( 1956-
63)-Transistor s
 Thir
dGener at i
on(1964-Ear ly
1970)–I ntegr atedCi r
cuits
 FourthGener ati
on(Ear ly1970s
–Till
Dat e)–Mi croprocessor
 Fi
fthGener at i
on( Present&
Beyond)–Ar ti
fi
cialInt
elli
gence

1.
Fir
stGener
ati
on(1940-56)–Vacuum Tubes(
actsasswitchinearl
ycomput
ers)
 Thesecomputer
swer ebasedonvacuum t
ubetechnology.
 I
tisaf astestcomput
ingdev
ice&t
hecomput
ati
ont
imewasi
n
mil
l
iseconds.
 Thesecomput
ersi
nlar
ge&r
equi
redal
otofspacef
ori
nst
all
ati
on.
 Thesecomput er sr eli
edonbi narycodedl anguagestoper
form
operati
ons&sol vedonl yoneproblem atatime.
 Thesewer enon-por tabl
e&v er
yslowi nexecuti
on.
 Theylackedinv ersatil
it
y&speed.Itisveryexpensiv
e&usedlar
ge
amountofelectricit
y .
 Iti
sunreli
abl
e&pr onet ofr
equenthardwar efai
lur
es.
 Constantmaintenancewasr equi
red.
 Itusedmachinel anguages&di ff
icul
tforprogramming.
Ex:
-ENIAC,ADVAC, UNIVAC

2.
SecondGenerat
ion(
1956-63)–Transist
ors(
semiconductordev
iceusedt
oampl
i
fy
orswi
tchel
ectr
onicsi
gnal
sandelectri
calpower)
 Thesecomputerswerebasedont r
ansi
stortechnol
ogy.
 Theywer
esmal
l
erascompar
edt
ofi
rstgener
ati
oncomput
ers.
 Thecomput
ati
onal
timewasr
educedt
omi
croseconds.
 I
tismor er
eliabl
e&l esspronetohardwarefail
ures&requir
edless
fr
equentmaintenance.Thesecomput ersarebett
erport
abil
it
y&
gener
atedlessamountofheat .Itsupport
sassemblylanguage
wasusedtopr ogram computers.
 Transi
storismadeupofsemiconduct
ormater
ial
s&itper
for
med
elect
ri
calfunct
ionssuchasv
olt
age,cur
rentwi
thpower
requi
rement.
 Thiscomponentr
educedthesizeofthecomput er
s&fast
er,
cheaper&morerel
iabl
e.Thesecomputerssupportspr
imar
y
memor y&numberofsecondarystor
agedevices.
 I
tispossi
blet
oexecutehi
ghlevel
progr
ammi
ngl
anguagesl
i
ke
FORTRAN,COBOL,C
Ex:
-PDP-8,
IBM-1401,
IBM-7090
3.
Thir
dGener at
ion(1964-Earl
y1970)–Int
egrat
edCircui
ts
 Thesecomput erswerebasedoni
ntegr
atedci
rcui
tstechnol
ogy( I
C).
 I Cconsi st
sofsi nglechi
pwi t
hmanycomponent soft r
ansist
ors,
resi
storsf abr
icatedonit.Thismadesmal l
erinsize,rel
iabl
e&
effi
cient.
 These comput er
s reduced the comput
ati
onal t
ime f
rom
microsecondst
onanoseconds.
 Thesecomput
ersar
eeasi
l
ypor
tabl
e&mor
erel
i
abl
ethansecond
gener
ati
oncomput
ers.
 I
tusesl
esspower&gener
atesl
essheat
.
 Thesi
zeofcomput
erswassmal
l
er&mai
ntenancecostwasv
ery
l
ow.
 I
tispossi
bletoexecut
ehi
ghl
evelpr
ogr
ammi
ngl
anguagesl
i
ke
FORTRAN,COBOL,C.

4.
Four
thGenerat
ion(
Earl
y1970s–Ti
llDat
e)–Mi cr
opr
ocessor
 Thesecomputer
saremicr
opr
ocessorbasedsy
stems.
 I
tisv
erysmal
li
nsi
ze,
cheapestamongal
lthegener
ati
ons.
 I
tispor
tabl
e,mor
erel
i
abl
e&r
equi
remi
nimum mai
ntenance.
 Ami
cropr
ocessori
sbui
l
tont
oasi
ngl
epi
eceofsi
l
iconcal
l
edchi
p.
 LargeScaleInt
egr
ation(LSI)t echnol
ogyall
ow thousandsof
tr
ansistor
sto be const
ruct
ed on one smal
lsli
ce of si l
i
con
mat er
ial
.
 Verylar
ge Scal
eI ntegrat
ion (
VLSI
) squeezed t
housands of
component
sont oasi ngl
echip.Ul
tr
aLar geScaleInt
egrat
ion
(ULSI)i
ncr
easedthatnumberint
othemil
li
ons.
 Thesecomput
erscoul
dbel
i
nkedt
onet
wor
ks.
 Thisgenerati
on supportsdevelopmentofinternet& Graphical
UserInterf
ace (GUI).Itis possibl
eto execute al
lhigh level
progr
ammi nglanguagesli
keFORTRAN, COBOL, C,
C++,Java.
Ex:
-Appl
e-I
I,Al
tai
re-8800,CRAY-
I,PARAM

5.
Fif
thGener
ati
on(Pr
esent&Beyond)–Art
if
ici
alI
ntel
li
gence
 Thesecomput
ersarei
nthedevel
opmentstage.
 I
tisusedi
nSuperl
argeScal
eInt
egr
ated(
SLSI
)chi
ps.
 I
tconsi
stofmi
l
li
onsofel
ect
roni
ccomponent
sonasi
ngl
echi
p.
 Thesecomput ersusedint
ell
i
gentprogr
ammi ngl
i
keart
if
ici
al
i
ntell
igence(LI
SP,Prol
og)&knowl edgebasedpr
obl
em sol
ving
techniques.
 Thi
sgenerat
ionisbasedonparal
lel
processi
nghar
dwar
eandAI
(Ar
ti
fi
cial
Int
ell
i
gence)soft
ware.
 AIi
sanemergi
ngbranchi
ncomput
ersci
ence,whi
chint
erpr
ets
meansandmethodofmaki
ngcomput
ersthi
nkli
kehumanbeings.
 Al
lthehi
gh-
lev
ell
anguagesl
i
keCandC++,
Jav
a,.
Netet
c.,
are
 usedint hisgener
ati
on.
AIi
ncl
udes:
 Robotics
 Neural Networks
 GamePl aying
 Developmentofexpertsystemst
omakedecisionsi
nreal
li
fesi
tuat
ions.
 Naturallanguageunder
standi
ngandgener
ati
on.

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ion
Comput
erscanbecl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
hreecat
egor
ies

1.Anal
ogComput er
Ananal ogcomput erisaf orm ofcomput erthatusescont inuous
physicalphenomenasuchasel ectri
cal,mechanical
,orhy draulic
quantit
iest o modelt heproblem bei ngsolved.Usedi npet rol
bunks
2.Di
git
alComput er
A comput ert hatper for
mscal cul
ationsandl ogicaloper ati
ons
withquant i
ti
esr epresentedasdi gi
ts,usual
l
yint hebinarynumber
system.
3.Hybr
idComput er(Analog+Di gi
tal
)
Acombi nati
onofcomput er
sthosear ecapableofi nputt
ingand
out
put
ti
nginbothdigi
talandanalogsi
gnal
s.Ahybr
idcomputersy
stem
set
upoff
ersacosteff
ecti
vemethodofperf
ormi
ngcomplexsi
mulat
ions.

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofDi
git
alComput
er

a.Micr
oComput erorPer sonal Comput er
 DesktopComput er: aper sonalormi cro-minicomputersuf fi
cienttofi
tonadesk.
 LaptopComput er:apor t
abl ecomput ercompl etewithani ntegrated
screenandkey boar d.I ti s generally smal l
er in size t han a
desktopcomput erandl argert han anot ebookcomput er.
 Palmt opComput er/ Digit
al Diar
y/ Notebook/ PDAs:ahand- sized
comput er.Palmtopshav enokey boardbutt hescreenser vesbot h
asani nputandout putdev ice.
 Wor kstat
ionsAt er mi nalordeskt opcomput erinanet wor k.Inthis
context,workstationi sjustagener i
ct ermf orauser 'smachi ne
(cl
i
entmachi ne)i
ncont rasttoa" server"or"mainfr
ame. "
b.Mi
niComput
er
 A midsi
zed comput
er.
 I
n si ze and power , mini
comput
ers l
i
e bet
ween
wor
kst
ati
onsandmai
nfr
ames.
 Inthepastdecade,thedi
sti
nct
ionbetweenlargemini
computers
andsmallmainfr
ameshasblurr
ed,however,
ashasthedist
inct
ion
bet
weensmal lmini
computer
sandwor kst
ati
ons.
 Butin gener
al,a mi
nicomput
eris a multi
processi
ng syst
em
capabl
eofsuppor
ti
ngf
rom 4toabout200userssimult
aneousl
y.
c. Mai
nfr
ameComput er
 Av er
yl ar
ge and expensi
ve comput
ercapable ofsuppor
ti
ng
hundr
eds,orev
enthousandsofuser
ssimul
taneousl
y.
 Inthe hier
archyt hatstar
ts wi
th a si
mple mi
cropr
ocessor(in
watches, for exampl e) at the bot t
om and mov es to
supercomputers at the t op, mai
nframes are just bel
ow
supercomputers.
 In some way s, mainfr
ames ar e more powerf
ul t han
super
comput
ers because they suppor
t mor
e si
multaneous
progr
ams.
 Butsuper
comput
erscanexecut
easi
ngl
epr
ogr
am f
ast
ert
hana
mainf
rame.
d.Supercomput er
 Thef ast
estandmostpower f
ultypeofcomput erSupercomput ers
arev er
yexpensiveandareempl oy edforspeciali
zedappl icat
ions
thatrequi
rei
mmenseamount sofmat hematicalcal
culations.
Forexampl e:Weat herforecasting requi
res a super comput er.
Ot herusesofsuper computersincludeanimat edgraphi cs,flui
d
dy namiccalcul
ati
ons,nuclearener gyresearch, andpet rol
eum
explorati
on.
Appl
i
cati
onsofcomput er s
1.Busi ness
Acomput erhashi ghspeedofcal culat i
on, di l
igence, accur acy ,reli
abili
ty,
orv ersat il
itywhi chmadei tani nt egrat edpar tinal lbusi ness
organi zat i
ons.
Comput eri susedi nbusi nessor gani zat i
onsf or:
 Pa yr ollcal cul ations
 Budge ti
ng
 Sa l
esanal ysi s
 Fi nanci al for ecast ing
 Ma nagi ngempl oy eesdat abase
 Ma i
nt enanceofst ockset c.
2.
Banki ng
Todaybanki ngi sal mostt ot all
y
dependentoncomput er.Banks
prov i
def ollowi ngf acili
t i
es:
 Ba nkspr ov ideonl ineaccount i
ngf aci l
ity,whi chincl udescur rent
bal ances, deposi ts, over draf t
s, i
nter estchar ges,shar es, and
trust eer ecor ds.
 ATM ma chi nesar emaki ngi tev eneasi erf orcust omer stodeal withbanks.
3.
Educat ion
Thecomput erhaspr ovidedal otoff aci l
i
tiesi ntheeducat i
onsy stem.
 Thec omput erpr ov idesat ool int heeducat ionsy st em knownas
CBE( Comput erBasedEducat ion).
 CBEi nvol vescont r ol,del i
v ery, andev aluationofl ear ni ng.
 Thec omput ereducat ioni sr api dlyincr easingt hegr aphofnumber
ofcomput erst udent s.
 The r ear enumberofmet hodsi nwhi cheducat i
onal inst i
tutions
canusecomput ert oeducat et hest udent s.
4.
Mar ket ing
Inmar ket i
ng, usesofcomput erar efol lowi ng:
 Adv er t
ising-Wi thcomput ers, adv ertisingpr of essional scr eateart
andgr aphi cs,wr iteandr ev i
secopy ,andpr intanddi ssemi nate
adswi tht hegoal ofsel lingmor epr oduct s.
 AtHomeShoppi ng-Homeshoppi nghasbeenmadepossi ble
thr oughuseofcomput er isedcat al oguest hatpr ov ideaccesst o
pr oducti nf ormat ionandper mi tdirectent r yofor der st obef il
led
byt hecust omer s.
5.
Heal thCar e
Comput ers hav e become i mpor t
ant par ti n hospi t
al s,l abs,and
dispensar ies.Thecomput er sar ebei ngusedi nhospi talst okeept he
record ofpat ient s and medi cines.I tis al so used i n scanni ng and
diagnosi ngdi ffer entdi seases.ECG, EEG, UltrasoundsandCTScanset c.
,
arealsodonebycomput er izedmachi nes.
Somemaj orf ieldsofheal thcar ei nwhi chcomput ersar eusedar e:
  Di
agnost
icSy
stem -Comput
ersar
eusedt
ocol
l
ectdat
aand
i
dent
if
ycauseofi
l
lness.
 Lab-
diagnost
icSy
stem -Al
ltest
scanbedoneandr
epor
tsar
e
pr
epar
edbycomput
er.
 Pat
ientMoni
tor
ingSy
stem -Thesear
eusedt
ocheckpat
ient
's
signsf orabnor mali
tysuchasi nCardiacAr r
est,ECGet c.
 Pha rmaI nf or
mat i
onSy stem -Comput erchecksDr ug-Label
s,
Expi r
ydat es,harmfuldrug‘
ssideef f
ectsetc.
 Sur gery: Nowaday s,comput er
sar eal
sousedi nperformingsur
ger
y
6.
Engineeri
ngDesi gn
Comput ersarewi delyusedinEngi neer
ingpur pose.
Oneofmaj orareasi sCAD( Comput eraideddesign).Thatprov i
des
creat
ionandmodi fi
cati
onofimages.Somef ieldsare:

 St
ruct
uralEngi
neer
ing-Requi
resst
ressandst
rai
nanal
ysi
sfor
desi
gnofShi
ps,
Bui
l
dings,
Budget
s,Ai
rpl
aneset
c.
 I
ndust
ri
al Engi
neer
ing - Comput
ers deal wi
th desi
gn,
impl ement ation and i mpr ovementofi ntegr
ated sy stems of
peopl e, mat er i
alsandequi pment s.
 Ar chi tectur alEngi neering-Comput ershel pinpl anningt owns,
desi gni ngbui l
dings,det erminingar angeofbui ldi
ngsonasi t
e
usi ngbot h2Dand3Ddr awings.
7.
Mi l
i
tary
Comput ers ar el ar gely used i n def ense.Moder nt anks,mi ssil
es,
weapons et c.Mi li
tary al so empl oy s comput erized controlsy stems.
Somemi l
itar yar easwher eacomput erhasbeenusedar e:
 Mi ssi leCont rol
 Mi litar yCommuni cation
 Mi litar yOper at ionandPl anning
 Sma rtWeapons
8.
Communi cat i
on
Communi cat ion meanst o conv eya message,an i dea,a pi ctureor
speecht hati sr ecei vedandunder stoodcl earlyandcor rectl
ybyt he
personforwhom i tismeantf or.Somemai nareasi nthiscategor yar e:
 E- mai l
 Cha tting
 Us enet
 FTP
 Te lnet
 Vi deo- confer encing
9.
Gov er
nment
Comput erspl ayani mpor tantroleingov ernment .Somemaj orfieldsi nthiscat
egor
y
are:
 Budge ts
 Sa lest axdepar tment
 Incomet axdepar t
ment
 Ma le/ Femal er ati
o
  Comput
erizati
onofvot
ersl
i
sts
 Comput
erizati
onofdri
vi
ngl
icensi
ngsy
stem
 Comput
erizati
onofPANcard
 Weat
herforecast
ing
3.2Component sofcomput ers
Hardwar econsist
soft hemechani calpart
st hatmakeupt hecomput erasamachi ne.The
hardwareconsistsofphy si
caldev i
cesoft hecomput er
.Thedev i
cesarerequir
edf ori
nput
,
output,
st or
ageandpr ocessingoft hedata.Keyboard,monit
or,harddiskdri
ve,fl
oppydisk
dri
ve,pr
inter
,processorandmot herboar
dar esomeoft hehardwaredev i
ces.

Inputunit
Ther ol
eofani nputinacomput ersystem i
st oprovidedataforfurt
her
processi
ng.Ani nputconsist
sofdataorcommandst hatar eenter
edinto
thecomput ersy stem usual
lyviaani nputdevicesuchasakey boar
d,
mouse, OMR, barcodereader
,scanneretc.
Examples: Keyboard,Mouse,Touchscreen,scanner
,joyst
icketc

Out putunit
Out puti sthestagewher et hei nfor
mat i
onobtainedviaprocessi
ngi s
present edt otheuserinasui tabl
ef ormat.Out
put si
nvolv
econv ert
ing
digitaldataint
osomephy si
calef f
ectthattheper
sonsenseswi t
hey esor
ears.Thi smeanst hatwemi ghtbeabl etoseetheoutput,apri
ntoutor
display edonthecomput erscr eenorwecanheart heoutputviamusi c,
voicei nstr
ucti
onsoracomput ergeneratedal
arm.
Exampl es:Monit
or,Pri
nter,
Speaker .

Cent
ral
processinguni t(cpu)
 Processingi sthest agewher etheinputdat aismani pulatedin
ordertopr oducemeani ngfulinf
ormation.Processingcani ncl
ude
a numberofst ages such as sorting,searching,cal culati
ons,
graphing.Ther esultsobtainedfrom processi
ngt hedatacant hen
beusedi nt henextst age,call
ed"out
put "
.
 Centralprocessinguni ti
st heheart&br ainoft hesy stem. CPU
mainlyconsi st
sofAr i
thmeticLogicUnit(ALU),ControlUni t(CU)&
 Memor yUnit(MU) .
 Ari
thmet icLogicUnitperformsarit
hmetic&logi
cal
operati
ons.Al
l
cal
culationsarecar r
iedoutinthisuni
t.
 ControlUnitcontrolsallt
heactivi
ti
esofthecomputer
.It
coordinatesallt
hedi ff
erentuni
ts.

Memor
yuni
t
Memoryisastorageuni
t.I
tisauni
twher
eallthei
nfor
mati
on&dat
a
ar
e
st
ored.Thememor ythatdi
rect
lycommunicat
estoCPUiscall
edpri
mary
memor y.Ther
earetwotypesofmemor y.
Pri
maryMemor y
Ex:-Random AccessMemor y(RAM),ReadOnlyMemory(ROM)

SecondaryMemor y
Backingst
oragememoryar
ecall
edsecondar
ymemor y.
Ex:Magnet i
chardDisk,
Magnet
icTape,
CompactDisk/Di
git
alver
sat
il
eDi
sk,
Pen
Dri
veetc

Comput
erSof
twar
e–
Soft
war e:-Itisacol l
ecti
onofpr ogramst hatenabletheuser
tointeractwithacomput erandi tshardwaretoper for
m
tasks.
Soft
war ecat egori
es:-
Softwar eisdividedintotwomai ncat egor
ies:
(1)Sy stem software:control
st hebasi cfuncti
onsofa
comput erandcomespr einstal
l
edwi ththemachi ne.
Ex: Operati
ngSy stem, Compi ler
,Loader,Linker,
Transl
ator

(
2)Appl
icat
ionsoft
ware:I
thandlesspecial
i
zedtasksauser
want
st oper
for
ml i
keaccounti
ng,communicat
ing,
dataprocessi
ng,wor
d
pr
ocessi
ng.
Ex:Ms-Off
ice,
CAD,CAM,ORACLEet c

E-
accessi
bil
i
tySof
twar
e

El
ect
roni
caccessi
bil
i
ty,
orE-
Accessi
bil
i
ty,
ref
erst
otheeaseofuseofi
nfor
mat
ionand
communi
cat
iont
echnol
ogi
es(
ICTs)
,suchast
heI
nter
net
,bypeopl
ewi
thdi
sabi
l
ity
.Web
si
tesneedt
obedev
elopedsot
hatdi
sabl
eduser
scanaccesst
hei
nfor
mat
ion.Forexampl
e:

 f
orpeopl
ewhoar
ebl
i
nd,
websi
tesneedt
obeabl
etobei
nter
pret
edbypr
ogr
ammes
whichr eadtextaloudanddescribeanyv i
sualimages;
 forpeoplewhohav elowvisi
on,webpagesneedadj ustabl
esizedf
ontsandsharply
contrasti
ngcolours;and
 forpeoplewhoar edeaforhardofhearing,audi
ocont entshoul
dbeaccompaniedby
textversionsofthedial
ogue.Signlanguagev i
deocanal sohelpmakeaudi
ocont ent
mor eaccessible.
Softwaret erminol
ogies: -
Opensour cesof t
ware:Thet erm opensour cerefer
st osomethi
ngpeopl ecanmodi
fyand
sharebecausei t
sdesi gnis publiclyaccessible.
EX: Androi dbyGoogle, Openoffice.
Freeware: -Iti
scommonl yusedf orcopyr i
ghtedsoftwaregiv
enawayf orfreeby
i
tsaut hor.Thef r
eewar esoft
war eper mitsredistr
ibut
ionbutnotmodif
icati
on.
Ex:Linux
Propriet
arySof tware:-Iti
snotaf r eesoftware&usedf oraspecif
icpurpose.
Ex:Oracle

Per
ipher
als
KeyBoar
danditsworkingpr
inci
ple

Themostcommoninputdev
icei
sakeyboar
dusedf ormanual
dat
aentr
yprocess.Thekey
s
arear
rangedonast
andar
dkeyboar
dcanbeident
if
iedinter
msof5keygroups.

1. AlphaNumer i
ckey
2. Modi f
ierkey
3. Functionalkey
4. cursormov ementkey
5. Specialpurposekey

Keyboardconsist
sofelect
roni
ccircuitt
odecidewhichkeyhasbeen
pressed.Thekeyboar
dcontrol
electroni
cci
rcuit
sitperf
ormsmajor3
functi
ons
 Sensi
1. ngakeypr
essed

Encodedt
2. hesensedkey

Sendt
3. heencodeddat
atocomput
er.

Wor
kingofaKey board:
 I nsi
det hekey board,t her
ear emet alli
cpl at
e,circuitboardand
processor ,whichar eresponsi blefort ransferr
ingi
nf ormationfrom
thekey boar dtot hecomput er.
 Dependi ngupont hewor ki
ngpr inciple,therearetwomai ntypesof
keys,namel y,
capaci tiveandhar d-cont act.
 Whenakeyi spr essed, thecor respondi ngkeyswitchisact iv
ated.
 The key board elect r
onic circuitmake use ofmat rixscanni ng
techni
quei nor dertodet erminewhi chkeyhasbeenpr essed.
 Then a st andar d 8 bi tbi nary code cal led as scan code i s
generatedt ocor respondt ot hedepr essedkeyv alueact i
vatekey
switch.
 Now t his8bi tscancodei ssenti ntot hecomput erasani nput
data.
 Thekey boardcontr
olel
ectr
oni
csci
rcui
tr
ynotonl
yjustsensesthe
pressedkeybuti tal
sokeeptr
ackt
hatwhentheoperatororuser
rel
easest hatkey
.
 Eachsepar
atekeyacti
onisrecor
dedbyt hekey
boardcontrol
el
ect
roni
ccir
cui
tandsentt
othecomput
erasadi
sti
nctscancode.
 Thescancodesar ecommuni
cat
edt
othepr
ocessi
nguni
tvi
a
i
nter
ruptmechani
sm.

WORKI
NGOFALASERPRI
NTER

 Alaserpr i
nterpr ovidest hehi ghestqual it
yt extandimagesf orpersonalcomputers
today .
 I
tisav eryfastpr inter,whi choper atesont hesamepr inci
pl east hatofaphotocopy
machi ne.
 Mostl aserpr interscanpr inttextandgr aphi cswit
hav eryhighqual it
yresol
uti
on.
 Thecor ecomponentofal aserpr inti
ngsy stem isthephot oreceptordrum.
 Ar otati
ngmi rrorinsidet hepr intercausest hebeam ofal asertosweepacr ossthe
phot oconduct ivedrum.
 I
nitiall
y,thebeam ofl aserchar gest hephot oconducti
vedr um positi
vely.
 Whent hechar gedphot o-conduct orisexposedt oanopt i
cal imaget hr
oughabeam
oflighttodi schar ge,al atentori nv i
sibl
eimagei sfor
med.
 Att hepoi ntwher et hel aserst ri
kest hesur faceofthedrum, i
tcreatesadotof
posi t
ivechar ge.
 Thesepoi ntsar erepr esent edbyabl ackdot ,whi
chwillbepr int
edont hepaper.
  Afterthis,t
hepr intercoatst hedr um withacont ainer
,whichcontainsablackpowder
caledt
l oner.Thist onerisnegat ivel
ychar ged,andsoi tcli
ngst ot
heposi t
iveareasof
thedrum sur face.
 Whent hepowderpat t
ernget sfixed,thedrum isrotatedandt hepaperisfedintothe
drum sur f
acev iaapr essur eroll
er.
 Thispr essurerollertransfersthebl acktonerontot hepaper.
 Sincethepaperi smov i
ngatt hesamespeedast hedr um,thepaperpicksupt he
i
magepat t
ernpr ecisely.
 Finall
y,theprinterpassest hepapert hroughthef user,apairofheatedrol
lers.
 Ast hepaperpassest hrought heser oll
ers,
thelooset onerpowdergetsmel tedand
fuseswi ththef i
br esinthepaper .
 Thepaperi sthenbr oughtoutoft hepr i
nter.

3.
3Comput
erNet
wor
k

 Acomput ernetwor kisacoll

ectionoft woormorecomput er
s,whichareconnected
toget
hertoshar einformat
ionandr esources.
 Thecomput ersinanet workarei nterconnect
edbytelephonel
ines,coaxi
alcabl
es,
satel
l
itel
i
nks, radioand/orsomeot hercommuni cat
ionmedia.
 Anetworkcanbeasf ewassev er alpersonal
computersonasmal lnetworkoras
l
argeastheI nt
er net
, aworl
dwidenet workofcomputers.

Threeprimarycat
egor
ies—l
ocalareanetwork(LAN)
,metropol
it
anareanetwork(
MAN)
andwi deareanet
work(WAN).Thesecategori
esaredefi
neddependinguponvar
iousf
act
ors
l
ikethesizeofthenet
work,
thedistanceitcov
ersandthetypeofl
inkusedin
i
nterconnecti
on.

1.Local
AreaNet
wor
k

 ALANi sacomput ernetworkthatspansonl yasmal l geogr

aphicalarea
(usual
lywithinasquar emi l
eorless)suchasanof fice,homeorbui lding.
 Inalocalareanet work,connectedcomput ershaveanet workoperating
system i
nstall
edont othem.Onecomput erisdesi
gnat edast hefi
leser ver
,
whichstorest hesoftwarethatcontrol
st henetworkal ongwi t
hthesof t
ware
thatcanbeshar edbyt hecomput ersattachedt othenet work.
 Othercomput ersconnect edtothefil
eser verarecalledworkstati
ons.On
mostLANs, cablesareusedt oconnectthecomput er s
 2.Met
ropol
i
tanAr
eaNet
wor
k

 AMANi sanet workofcomput er

sspr eadov era‘met r
opolit
an’areasuchasa
cit
yandi tssubur bs.
 Asthenamesuggest s,t
hissortofnet wor
ki susuall
yr eservedfor
metropol i
tanar easwher
et hecit
ybridgesitslocalareanet workswitha
seri
esofbackbones, makingonel ar
genet wor kfortheentir
ecity.
 Itmaybeasi nglenet
worksuchasacabl etelevi
sionnet workoritmaybea
meansofconnect i
nganumberofLANs.
 Notet hatMANmaybeoper at
edbyoneor ganizati
on(acor poratewith
severalofficesinonecit
y),orbeshar edandusedbysev er
al or
ganizati
onsi
n
thesameci ty

3.Wi
deAr
eaNet
wor
k

 AWANi sasy st
em ofi nterconnecti
ngmanycomput ersov eral ar
gegeogr aphical
areasuchasci t
ies,stat es,countr
iesorev enthewhol ewor ld.
 Theseki ndsofnet wor ksuset el
ephonelines,satell
itel i
nksandot herlong-range
communi cat
iont echnol ogiestoconnect.
 Suchnet worksar edesi gnedt oserveanar eaofhundr edsort housandsofmi l
es
suchaspubl icandpr i
v atepacketswi t
chednet wor ksandnat ional t
elephone
networks.Forexampl e, acompanywi t
hof fi
cesinNewDel hi,
Chennai andMumbai
mayconnectt heLANsf oreachoft hoselocationst oeachot herthroughaWAN.
 AlthoughaWANmaybeownedorr entedbypr iv
at ebusi ness, i
tisusual l
yapubl ic
networkdesignedt oconnectsmal landintermedi ate-sizednet workst ogether.
 Thel ar
gestWANi nexist enceistheInter
net
Pr
otocol

 (Imaginey ourselfst andingnearat raffi

ccr ossi ng.Youcannot i
cet hatforsmooth
mov ementoft het raf f
ic,af unctioningt r
afficlightisessent i
al.Ther edsignal
i
ndi catestost op, ay el
lowsi gnal t
owai t,andagr eensi gnaltocr oss.
 Thissetofr ules, whi chinst ructadr iverwhent omov eandwhent ost oparethe
traffi
cprotocol s.Simi l
arly,comput ersadher etocer tainpr otocolsthatdefinethe
manneri nwhi chcommuni cat i
ontakespl ace. )
 Acommuni cationi sasetofr ulesthatcoor dinatest hepr otocolexchangeof
i
nf ormation.Ifonecomput eri ssendi nginformat i
ont oanot herandt heybothfol
low
thesamepr otocol ,themessageget sthrough; regar dlessofwhatt ypesofmachi nes
theyar eandonwhatoper atingsy stemst heyar er unning.
 Asl ongast hemachi neshav esoftwar ethatcanmanaget hepr otocol,
communi cati
oni spossi ble.

TheOSIModel

 OpenSy stemsI nter connect i

on( OSI )isast andardr eferencemodel for
communi cat i
onbet weent woenduser sinanet wor k.In1983, t
heI nter
nat i
onal
Organi sationf orStandar disation( ISO)publ ishedadocumentcal led‘TheBasi c
ReferenceModel forOpenSy stemsI nterconnect ion’,whichv i
sualizesnet work
protocol sasasev en- l
ayeredmodel .
 Themodel laysaf ramewor kf orthedesi gnofnet wor ksyst emst hatallowf or
communi cat i
onacr ossal ltypesofcomput ersy stems.I tconsi stsofsev enseparate
butrelat edl ay s—phy
er si
cal,datal i
nk, networ k,t
ranspor t,session,
present ationandappl i
cati
onl ay ers.
 Indev elopi ngthemodel ,t
hedesi gner srefinedt hepr ocessoft ransmi t
tingdatatoi t
s
mostf undament al element s.Theyi denti
f i
edwhi chnet wor kingfunct i
onshadr elated
usesandcol l
ectedt hosef unct i
onsi nt
odi scr etegroupst hatbecamet hesev en
l
ay ers.

Appl
i
cat
ionLay
er

 Theapplicati
onl ayeristheentr
ancepoi ntt
hattheprogramsuset oaccesstheOSI
model andut i
l
izenet workresour
ces.
 Thi
sOSIl ay
errepresent st
heservicesthatdi
rectl
ysupportappli
cati
ons.
 I
tisclosesttot heenduser .
 Appl
icationlayerincludesnetworksoftwarethatdi
rect
lyservestheendusersofthe
net
wor kbypr ovidi
ngt hem useri
nterf
aceandappl i
cati
onfeaturesli
keelect
roni
cmail
andUSENET.
Adv
ant
agesofcomput
ernet
wor
king

Mai
nbenef
it
sofnet
wor
ksi
ncl
ude:

 Fi
l
eshar
ing-y
oucaneasi
l
yshar
edat
abet
weendi
ff
erentuser
s,oraccessi
tremot
ely
i
fyoukeepi
tonot
herconnect
eddev
ices.

 Resour
ceshar
ing-usi
ngnet
wor
k-connect
edper
ipher
aldev
icesl
i
kepr
int
ers,
scanner
sandcopi
ers,
orshar
ingsof
twar
ebet
weenmul
ti
pleuser
s,sav
esmoney
.

 Shar
ingasi
ngl
eint
ernetconnect
ion-i
tiscost
-ef
fi
cientandcanhel
ppr
otecty
our
sy
stemsi
fyoupr
oper
lysecur
ethenet
wor
k.

 I
ncr
easi
ngst
oragecapaci
ty-y
oucanaccessf
il
esandmul
ti
medi
a,suchasi
mages
andmusic,
whi
chy
oust
orer
emot
elyonot
hermachi
nesornet
wor
k-at
tachedst
orage
devi
ces.

3.
4Met
hodsofdat
apr
ocessi
ng

Coll
ect
ion,manipulati
on,andprocessingcoll
ecteddatafort
her
equir
edusei sknownas
datapr
ocessing.I
ti satechni
quenor mall
yperformedbyacomputert
heprocessincl
udes
ret
ri
evi
ng,tr
ansforming,orcl
assi
fi
cationofinf
ormation.
Howev
er,
thepr
ocessi
ngofdat
alar
gel
ydependsont
hef
oll
owi
ng−

 Thev
olumeofdat
athatneedt
obepr
ocessed

 Thecompl
exi
tyofdat
apr
ocessi
ngoper
ati
ons

 Capaci
tyandi
nbui
l
ttechnol
ogyofr
espect
ivecomput
ersy
stem

 Techni
cal
ski
l
ls

 Ti
meconst
rai
nts

Met
hodsofDat
aPr
ocessi
ng
Letusnowdi
scusst
hedi
ff
erentmet
hodsofdat
apr
ocessi
ng.

 Si
ngl
euserpr
ogr
ammi
ng

 Mul
ti
plepr
ogr
ammi
ng

 Real
-t
imepr
ocessi
ng

 On-
li
nepr
ocessi
ng

 Ti
meshar
ingpr
ocessi
ng

 Di
str
ibut
edpr
ocessi
ng
Si
ngl
eUserPr
ogr
ammi
ng
Iti
susual
lydonebyasi
ngl
eper
sonf
orhi
sper
sonaluse.Thi
stechni
quei
ssui
tabl
eev
enf
or
small
offi
ces.
Mul
ti
plePr
ogr
ammi
ng
Thistechni
queprov i
desfaci
li
tytost or
eandexecutemorethanonepr ogram i
ntheCentral
Processing Uni
t( CPU)si mult
aneously.Fur
ther,the mult
ipl
e programming techni
que
i
ncreasestheoverallwor
kingeffi
ciencyoft
herespecti
vecomputer
.
Real
-t
imePr
ocessi
ng
Thi stechni
quefaci
li
tatestheusertohav edir
ectcontactwit
ht hecomput ersyst
em.This
techniqueeasesdatapr ocessi
ng.Thi
st echni
queisalsoknownast hedir
ectmodeort he
i
nt eract
ivemodetechniqueandi sdev
elopedexclusi
velyt
operform onetask.Iti
sasortof
onlineprocessi
ng,whichalwaysremai
nsunderexecution.
On-
li
nePr
ocessi
ng
Thistechni
quef acil
i
t atestheent ryandexecutionofdatadirect
ly;so,itdoesnotst oreor
accumulatefi
rstandt henprocess.Thet echni
quei sdevel
opedinsuchawayt hatreduces
thedataentryer ror
s,asi tvalidatesdataatv ar
iouspoint
sandal soensurest hatonly
corr
ecteddataisent ered.Thi
st echniqueiswidelyusedforonl
ineapplicat
ions.
Ti
me-
shar
ingPr
ocessi
ng
Thisisanot
herfor
m ofonlinedataprocessi
ngthatfacil
it
atessever
aluser
stosharethe
resour
cesofanonl inecomputersystem.Thistechniquei sadopt
edwhenr esul
tsare
neededswif
tl
y.Moreover
,asthenamesuggests,
thissystem ist
imebased.
Fol
l
owi
ngar
esomeoft
hemaj
oradv
ant
agesoft
ime-
shar
ingpr
ocessi
ng−

 Sever
aluser
scanbeser
vedsi
mul
taneousl
y

 Al
ltheuser
shav
eal
mostequal
amountofpr
ocessi
ngt
ime

 Ther
eispossi
bil
i
tyofi
nter
act
ionwi
tht
her
unni
ngpr
ogr
ams

Di
str
ibut
edPr
ocessi
ng
Thi
si saspeci
ali
zeddat
aprocessingtechni
queinwhichvar
iouscomputer
s(whichare
l
ocatedremot
ely
)remai
nint
erconnect
edwi t
hasingl
ehostcomputermaki
nganetworkof
computer.
Allthesecomput ersystemsremai
ni nt
erconnect
edwit
hahi ghspeedcommuni cat
ion
network.Thisfaci
li
tat
esinthecommunicati
onbetweencomputer
s.However
,thecentral
comput ersy
stem maintai
nst
hemasterdatabaseandmoni
tor
saccordi
ngl
y.

3.
5Comput
erSecur
it
y

 Comput ersecurit
yisneededt oprot
ectthecomput i
ngsy st
em andt oprotectt
he
dat
at hattheystoreandaccess.
 Thepur poseofcomput ersecurit
yist oprovi
der el
iablesecur
ityservi
cesinthe
env
ironment ssuffer
ingsecurit
yatt
acks,
byusingsecurit
ymechanisms.
 Athreati sapot entialvi
olati
onofsecuri
tyandcauseshar m.A threatcanbea
mali
ciouspr ogr
am, anaturaldi
sast
erorathi
ef.

MALI
CIOUSSOFTWARE
 Malici
oususer susedifferentmethodst obreaki
ntothesyst
ems.
 Thesoftwaret hati
sintentional
lyi
ncludedintoasystem wi
ththeintenti
ontohar
m
thesystem iscaledmal
l ici
oussof t
ware.
 Vir
uses, Tr
ojanhorse,andWor msar eexamplesofmalici
ousprograms.
 Javascri
ptsandJav aappl etswrit
tenwiththepurposeofatt
acking,arealso
malici
ouspr ograms.

Vi
rus
Vi
rusisasoftwar eprogr am thati
sdest r
ucti
v einnature.Vi
ruspr
ogramshav
ethef
oll
owi
ng
pr
operti
es:
 Itcanat tachitselftootherhealt
hypr ograms.
 Itcanrepl i
cateitselfandthuscanspr eadacrossanetwork.
 Itisdif
ficulttotraceav ir
usafterithasspr eadacrossanetwor
k.
Vi
rusesharmt hecomput eri
nmanyway s—
 corruptordel etedat aorfi
lesont hecomput er,
 changet hef unctionali
tyofsoftwareappl i
cati
ons,
  usee- mai l pr ogr am t ospr eadi t selftoot hercomput ers,
 er aseev eryt hingont hehar ddi sk, ordegr adeper for manceoft hesy stem byut il
i
zing
resour cessuchasmemor yordi skspace.
 Vi rusinf ectsanexecut ablef i
leorpr ogr am.Thev irusexecut eswhenapr ogram
infectedwi th
 virusi sexecut edory oust artacomput erf r
om adi skt hathasi nfectedsy stem fil
es.
 Onceav ir
usi sact iv
e, itloadsi nt ot hecomput er’
smemor yandmaysav eit
selftot he
har ddr iveorcopi esi tselftoappl icationsorsy stem f i
lesont hedi sk.
 Howev er,v i
r usescannoti nfectwr i
tepr otect eddi sksori nfectwr i
ttendocument s.
 Vi rusesdonoti nfectanal readycompr essedf il
e.Vi rusesal sodonoti nfect
comput erhar dwar e;theyonl yi nfectsof twar e.
 Vi rusesar emosteasi lyspreadbyat tachment sine- mai lmessages.Vi r
usesal so
spr eadt hr oughdownl oadont heI nter net .
 Someexampl esofv irusesar e—“ Melissa”and“ ILov eYou” .
Worms
 Wor mi ssel f-repl i
catingsof twar ethatusesnet wor kandsecur i
tyhol estoreplicate
itself.
 Acopyoft hewor m scanst henet wor kf oranot hermachi net hathasaspeci fi
c
secur ityhol e.
 Itcopi esi tsel ft ot henewmachi neusi ngt hesecur i
tyhol e, andt henst art
sr epli
cating
from t her e, aswel l
.
 Awor mi showev erdif f
erentf rom av i
r us.
 Awor m doesnotmodi fyapr ogr am l i
keav irus, howev er ,itrepl i
catessomucht hati t
consumest her esour cesoft hecomput erandmakesi tsl ow.
 Someexampl esofwor msar e—“ CodeRed”and“ Nimda” .
Tr
ojanHor se
 Tr ojanhor sei sdest ruct ivepr ogr amst hatmasquer ade( pret endt obesomeoneonei s
not )asusef ul programs( user si nstallTr ojanhor sest hinkingt hatitwi l
lserveausef ul
pur posesuchasagameorpr ov i
deent ertainment )
 Howev er,Tr oj anhor sescont ainpr ogr amst hatcor ruptt hedat aordamaget hefil
es.
Tr ojanhor sescancor ruptsof twar eappl ications.
 Tr ojanhor sedoesnotr epli
cat et hemsel vesl ikev iruses.

Ty
pesAndSour
cesOfNet
wor
kThr
eat
s

Ty
pesofat
tack

a.Denial-of
-Ser vi
ce:
DoS( Deni al-
of-
Service)attacksar ethemostdi ff
iculttoaddress.Thesearethe
nastiest,
becauset hey ’
reveryeasytol aunch,di
ffi
cult(somet i
mesi mpossi
ble)t
o
tr
ack, andi ti
sn’teasyt orefuset herequestsoftheat tacker,
withoutal
sorefusi
ng
l
egiti
mat er equestsf orservi
ce.
b.Unaut hori
zedAccess:
Thegoal oftheseat tacksist oaccesssomer esourcet hatourmachineshouldnot
providetheat tacker.Howev er,thathostshouldnotpr ov i
decommandshel laccess
withoutbei ngsuret hattheper sonmaki ngsuchar equestissomeonewhoshoul d
getit,suchasal ocal administr
ator.
Sour
cesOfNet
wor
kThr
eat
s

1.Executi
ngCommandsI ll
ici
tl
y
Therearetwomai nclassif
icati
onsofthesev er
ityofthi
spr oblem:normal useraccess,and
admi ni
str
atoraccess.Anor malusercandoanumberoft hingsonasy stem (suchasr ead
fi
les,mailt
hem toot herpeople,etc.
)thatanattackershouldnotbeabl etodo.Thi smi ght,
then,bealltheaccesst hatanattackerneeds.Ont heotherhand,anat t
ackermi ghtwishto
makeconf igurat
ionchangest oahost .I
nt hi
scase, t
heattackerwillneedtogai n
admi ni
str
atorpri
v i
l
egesont hehost.

2.Confi
denti
ali
tyBreaches
Needt oprot
ectdataincommuni cat
ionagainstenemy,orthepubli
cbecause,therei
s
certai
ninf
ormationthatcoulddamageifitf
elli
ntothehandsofacompet i
tororenemy,i
n
thesecases,i
t’
spossiblethatcompromiseofanor maluser’
saccountont
hemachi necan
beenought ocausedamage’

3.
Dest
ruct
iveBehav
iour
Amongthedestr
uct
ivesor
tsofbr
eak-
insandat
tacks,
ther
ear
etwomaj
orcat
egor
ies.

a.DataDiddl
ing(
Cheat):
Thisty
peofat t
ackisli
kelyt
hewor stsor
t,si
ncethefactofabreak-
inmightnotbe
i
mmedi atel
yobvious.Per
hapsthenumber sinourspreadsheet
sorthedatesinour
proj
ecti
onsandpl ansmightbechanged.

b.DataDestruct
ion:
Someoft hoseperpetr
ateat
tacksaresimplytwist
edjer
kswholi
ketodel
etethi
ngs.I
nthese
cases,t
heimpactonourcomput ingcapabil
it
y—andconsequentl
yourbusi
ness—canbe
nothi
nglessthanifafir
eorotherdisast
ercausedourcomput
ingequi
pmenttobe
completel
ydestroyed.