ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Electrons : Energy levels

and atomic orbitals
Learning
Outcomes
 Shell
 A shell is a group of orbitals that are about
the same distance out from the nucleus.

 The shells are numbered 1, 2, 3 etc. These

numbers are known as principal quantum
numbers, n. The shell closest to the nucleus
(i.e. shell or level with the lowest energy) is
given the principal quantum number n = 1

 Each shell contains different types of subshells.

 Subshell
 A subshell is a group of orbitals with the same
energy level, but differ in their orientation in
space.
 Subshell is labelled as s, p, d and f
 The number of subshells in each shell equals
the shell number. Example, first shell has 1
type of subshell , s only and second shell has 2
types of subshells, s and p.
 Each subshell is made up of different numbers
of orbitals.
Atomic orbital

Definition
A region in space around the
nucleus where there is a high
probability of finding a
particular electron
4 types of orbitals
p orbital

s orbital

Shape - spherical Shape – dumb bell

 4 types of orbitals
d orbital f orbital

four-petal flower
shape
SUMMARY OF HOW THE FIRST FOUR SHELLS ARE MADE UP

Shell Number of Maximum

Number
[Principal Type of orbitals number of
of
quantum subshells electrons
electrons
number]
1st 1s 1 2 2
2s 1 2
2nd 2p 3 6
8
3s 1 2
3rd 3p 3 6 18
3d 5 10
4s 1 2
4p 3 6
4th 4d 5 10
32
4f 7 14
Energy levels of subshells before being filled with electrons
 ORDER IN WHICH SUBSHELLS ARE FILLED

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 4d 4f

HOW TO
REMEMBER ...
THE FILLING ORDER

1s
2s 2p
3s 3p 3d
4s 4p 4d 4f
5s 5p 5d 5f
6s 6p 6d
7s 7p
1. Pauli’s Exclusion principle
- each orbital (each box) can be occupied by 2
electrons of opposite spin

2. Aufbau principle
- electrons must occupy lowest available orbitals
first before filling orbitals of higher energy

3. Hund’s rule
- electrons occupy each and every orbital singly
first before pairing up.
Ground state
• An atom is in the ground state when the electrons are in
the orbitals of lowest available energy level. Most atoms
are in their ground state at room temperature

Excited state
An atom is in the excited state when one or more electrons
absorb energy and are promoted to a higher energy level.
An example of an excited sodium atom is shown below
 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
 List of subshells containing electrons
 Written in order of increasing energy
 Superscripts give the number of electrons

Example: Electron configuration of neon

number of electrons

1s2 2s2 2p6

main shell subshell

 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
1s 2s 2p 3s3p 4s 3d 4p 4d
4f

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 4d

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION

Write the electronic configuration of

Phosphorus (atomic number 15)

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 4d

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3

 THE ‘AUFBAU’ PRINCIPAL
4f This states that…
4d “ELECTRONS ENTER THE
4 LOWEST AVAILABLE
INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p ENERGY LEVEL”

3d The following sequence will

show the ‘building up’ of the
4s
electronic structures of the
3 3p first 36 elements in the
periodic table.
3s
Electrons are shown as half
headed arrows and can spin
in one of two directions
2p or
2
2s
s orbitals
p orbitals
1 1s
d orbitals
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
HYDROGEN
4d
4 1s1
INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
Hydrogen atoms have one
3d electron. This goes into a
4s vacant orbital in the lowest
available energy level.
3 3p

3s
‘Aufbau’
Principle
2p
2
2s

1 1s
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
HELIUM
4d
4 1s2
INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
Every orbital can contain 2
3d electrons, provided the
4s electrons are spinning in
opposite directions. This is
3 3p based on...
3s PAULI’S EXCLUSION
PRINCIPLE
The two electrons in a
2p helium atom can both go in
2 the 1s orbital.
2s

1 1s ‘Aufbau’
Principle
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
LITHIUM
4d
4 1s2 2s1
INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
1s orbitals can hold a
3d maximum of two electrons
4s so the third electron in a
lithium atom must go into
3 3p the next available orbital of
higher energy. This will be
3s
further from the nucleus in
the second principal
energy level.
2p
2 The second principal level
2s has two types of orbital (s
and p). An s orbital is
lower in energy than a p.

1 1s ‘Aufbau’
Principle
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
BERYLLIUM
4d
4 1s2 2s2
INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
Beryllium atoms have four
3d electrons so the fourth
4s electron pairs up in the 2s
orbital. The 2s sub level is
3 3p now full.
3s

2p ‘Aufbau’
2
Principle
2s

1 1s
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
BORON
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p1
INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
As the 2s sub level is now
3d full, the fifth electron goes
4s into one of the three p
orbitals in the 2p sub level.
3 3p The 2p orbitals are slightly
higher in energy than the
3s
2s orbital.

2p ‘Aufbau’
2
Principle
2s

1 1s
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
CARBON
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p2
INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
The next electron in
3d doesn’t pair up with the
4s one already there. This
would give rise to
3 3p repulsion between the
similarly charged species.
3s
Instead, it goes into
another p orbital which
means less repulsion,
2p lower energy and more
2 stability.
2s

HUND’S RULE
1 1s
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
NITROGEN
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p3
INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
Following Hund’s Rule,
3d the next electron will not
4s pair up so goes into a
vacant p orbital. All three
3 3p electrons are now
unpaired. This gives less
3s
repulsion, lower energy
and therefore more
stability.
2p
2
2s

HUND’S RULE
1 1s
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
OXYGEN
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p4
INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
With all three orbitals half-
3d filled, the eighth electron in
4s an oxygen atom must now
pair up with one of the
3 3p electrons already there.
3s
‘Aufbau’
Principle
2p
2
2s

1 1s
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
FLUORINE
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p5
INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
The electrons continue to
3d pair up with those in the
4s half-filled orbitals.

3 3p

3s

2p
2
2s

1 1s
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
NEON
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p6
INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
The electrons continue to
3d pair up with those in the
4s half-filled orbitals. The 2p
orbitals are now
3 3p completely filled and so is
the second principal
3s
energy level.
In the older system of
2p describing electronic
2 configurations, this would
2s have been written as 2,8.

1 1s
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
SODIUM - ARGON
4d
4
INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

With the second principal

4p energy level full, the next
electrons must go into the
3d
next highest level. The
4s third principal energy level
3 3p contains three types of
orbital; s, p and d.
3s
The 3s and 3p orbitals are
filled in exactly the same
way as those in the 2s and
2p 2p sub levels.
2
2s ‘Aufbau’
Principle

1 1s
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
POTASSIUM
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1
INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
In numerical terms one
3d would expect the 3d
4s orbitals to be filled next.

3 3p However, because the

principal energy levels get
3s closer together as you go
further from the nucleus
coupled with the splitting
2p into sub energy levels, the
2 4s orbital is of a LOWER
2s ENERGY than the 3d
orbitals so gets filled first.

1 1s ‘Aufbau’
Principle
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
CALCIUM
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2
INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
As expected, the next
3d electron pairs up to
4s complete a filled 4s orbital.

3 3p This explanation, using

sub levels fits in with the
3s position of potassium and
calcium in the Periodic
Table. All elements with an
2p -s1 electronic configuration
2 are in Group I and all with
2s an -s2 configuration are in
Group II.

1 1s ‘Aufbau’
Principle
 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION

Full Electronic configuration

Electronic configuration of Si is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2

[Ne] 3s2 3p2
Shorthand Electronic
configuration using Noble gas
core

Electronic configuration of Ca is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2

[Ar] 4s2
 SUMMARY OF ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION

Magnesium with proton number 12

Shells / Sub shells

1s 2s 2p 3s
Electrons in boxes or
Spin diagram ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓
Full Electronic
Configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
Shorthand Electronic
Configuration
[He] 2p6 3s2
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF TRANSITION ELEMENTS

Once electrons are filled into the 3d orbital.

The 3d orbitals now have a lower energy than
the 4s orbitals.
For example Scandium (proton number =21)
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d1

Therefore the electronic configuration of scandium (Z = 21) is

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d1 4s2 and
NOT 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d1
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF TRANSITION ELEMENTS

Write the electronic structure for Titanium (atomic number= 22)

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d2 4s2

Chromium & Copper

Two elements have unexpected electronic configurations:

a) Electronic configuration of chromium is
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1
(NOT 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d4 )
Reason: This is because the first arrangement is more
stable , as the 3d subshell is half- filled of
electrons.

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p
Chromium & Copper

b) Electronic configuration of copper is

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1
(NOT 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d9 )
Reason: This is because a completely filled 3d subshell
is more stable

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p
 Filled and half-filled orbitals have a lower
energy.

↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑

Filled Half - filled

 Makes them more stable.
 Changes the filling order of d orbitals
 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION OF IONS

• Positive ions (cations) are formed by removing

electrons from atoms
• Negative ions (anions) are formed by adding electrons
to atoms
• Electrons are removed first from the highest occupied
orbitals

SODIUM Na 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

Na+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 1 electron removed from the 3s orbital

CHLORINE Cl 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5

Cl¯ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 1 electron added to the 3p orbital
 QUESTIONS
Write the electronic configuration of the following
ions
a) Al3+ 1s2 2s2 2p6
b) Cu2+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d9
c) V+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d3 4s1
d) Cl- 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
 TEST YOURSELF
Write the electronic configurations of the
following ions
(a) Al3+ (b) Cu2+
(c) V+ (d) Cl-
 TEST YOURSELF
Fill the gaps in the table for each of the given
particles
 Free Radical
(i) A free radical is a species with one or more
unpaired electrons.

(ii) An example of a free radical is an isolated

chlorine atom with electronic configuration

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5

(iii) The unpaired electron in a free radical is shown

as a dot, example Cl●

(iv) Groups of atoms can also be free radicals,

example H3C● radical has a carbon atom with an
unpaired electron.
Electronic configurations & the Periodic Table
Electronic configurations & the Periodic Table

Li

Mg

Cl

Co
Electronic configurations & the Periodic Table
Information from electronic configurations of atoms
(i) Predict the Group of the element in the Periodic table
* Number of valence electrons = group number ;
Valence shell = period number
* Transition elements have partially filled subshells
* Elements of the same group in the Periodic table have the
same number of valence electrons hence same outermost
electronic configuration

(ii) Predict ion formed therefore formula of a compound

formed
 TEST YOURSELF
1 An element has X an electronic configuration of 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 .

(a) How many valence electrons does element X has?

(b) In which group is element X?

(c) In which period of the Periodic Table is element X?

(d) Write the formula of the ion if X forms an ion.

(e) Another element Y has an electronic configuration of 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
3p6 4s2 reacts with element X to form a compound. Predict the formula
of the compound.
 TEST YOURSELF
2 The atoms X and Y have the electronic configurations shown below.

X ,1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 Y, 1s2 2s2 2p4

Which one of the following compounds are they likely to form?

A XY C XY2
B X2Y D XY4
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
First ionisation energy is the energy required to remove
one electron from one mole of gaseous atoms to form
one mole of gaseous positive ions M+.
Ca(g) → Ca+(g) + e-

Second ionisation energy is the energy required to remove

one electron from one mole of gaseous positive ion to
form one mole of gaseous ion of charge +2
Ca+(g) → Ca2+(g) + e-
EQUATIONS SHOWING FIRST & SECOND
IONISATION ENERGY FOR AN ELEMENT
O(g)  O+(g) + e- ∆H = +1310 kJ mol-1
N(g)  N+ (g) + e- ∆H = +1400 kJ mol-1
The equations above show us the first ionisation energy
of oxygen and nitrogen

O+(g)  O2+(g) + e- ∆H = +3390 kJ mol-1

N+(g)  N2+ (g) + e- ∆H = +2860 kJ mol-1
The equations above show us the second ionisation
energy of oxygen and nitrogen
• The ionisation energies are always endothermic
because energy is absorbed to overcome the force
of attraction between the electron and the nucleus.
• Successive ionisation energies of an element
increases with the removal of each electron because
the remaining electrons are attracted more strongly by
the constant positive charge on the nucleus.
• The number of ionisation energies that an element
can have equals its proton number.
• The value of the ionisation energy gives an idea of
how strongly the nucleus pulls on the electron being
removed.
• The higher the ionisation energy, the more difficult
the electrons are to remove and the nearer they
must be to the nucleus.
Write the equations representing
a) the 1st ionisation energy of magnesium
b) The 3rd ionisation energy of aluminium

Mg(g) → Mg+(g) + e- ∆H = +736 kJ mol-1

Al2+(g) → Al3+(g) + e- ∆H = +2740 kJ mol-1

 Factors affecting ionisation energy
a) Atomic radius (distance of the electron from the nucleus)
Increase in atomic radius, decrease the ionisation
energy.
Reason :The bigger the atom , the further the valence
electron is from the nucleus.
Thus the attraction between the nucleus and electrons
is decreased (reduced) so less energy is required to
remove the electron .
 Factors affecting ionisation energy
b) Nuclear charge (i.e. the number of protons in the nucleus)

Increase in nuclear charge, increase in the ionisation

energy.
Reason: The attraction between the nucleus and the
valence electrons is stronger. More energy is required to
remove the valence electron.
 Factors affecting I.E
c) Shielding effect of inner shell electrons
The greater the shielding effect ,the lower is the ionisation
energy
Reason :

Thus reduce the attraction between the nucleus and the valence
electron

d) Spin-pair repulsion
Increase in repulsion, first ionisation energy is decreased
:
First I.E for the first 40 elements
Each ‘peak’ marks a noble
gas at the end of each period

Each ‘trough’ marks an alkali

metal at the start of each period
 Down the group Across the period

Ionisation energy decreases due to Ionisation energy increases due to

(a)increasing atomic size (a) increasing nuclear charge
The valence electrons arefurther
from the nucleus (b) decreasing atomic radius
The valence electrons are
(b) increasing shielding effect closer to the nucleus that is
The valence electrons are better increase in nuclear attraction
shielded by the inner shell of
electrons. (c) the shielding effect remains
constant since electrons are
Thus there is a decrease in the added to the same valence shell
attraction between the nucleus
and the valence electron (decrease Thus there is an increase in the
in nuclear attraction) attraction between the nucleus
and the valence electron (increase
in nuclear attraction)
 .

First ionisation energies of period 3

Mg : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
elements
Al : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
2000
Energy (Kj/mol)

1500

1000
This is because in Al, the first electron
500
to be removed comes from a 3p orbital
0
which is further from the nucleus than
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar the 3s electron removed from the Mg
Period 3 elements Thus less energy is required to
remove the electron

Why the 1st IE for

aluminium is less than
magnesium?
 Why the 1st IE for Magnesium is higher than Aluminium?

First ionisation energies of period 3

elements
S : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
2000
P : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3
Energy (Kj/mol)

1500

1000 This is because

500
(a) In S, the first electron to be
0
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
removed comes from a 3p orbital with
Period 3 elements paired electrons. This paired
electrons experience electron
repulsion. Thus less energy is required
to remove the electron
Why the 1st IE for sulfur (b) In P, the first electron to be removed
is less than comes from a half-filled 3p orbital of
greater stability. Thus more energy is
phosphorus?
required to remove the electron.
 Why the 1st IE for Magnesium is higher than Aluminium?

First ionisation energies of period 3

elements
Na : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
2000
Mg : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
Energy (Kj/mol)

1500

1000 This is because Magnesium has a

500 greater nuclear charge as the
0
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
shielding effect is the same.
Period 3 elements

Why the 1st IE for

magnesium is higher
than sodium?
Explain why the first ionisation energy of Ar is
greater than that of Cl.
SUCCESSIVE IONISATION ENERGIES

-Successive ionisation energies (I.Es)

simply means the 1st I.E, the 2nd I.E, the
3rd I.E etc for one particular element

-Provides evidence for the arrangement of

electrons in the shell by examining the
values of successive ionisation energies of
an element.
 Information obtained from plot of successive
ionisation energies

Graph of log(I.E) of an element against no. of electrons

6.0

5.5
Information can be
5.0
obtained
4.5
log10 of
ionisation 4.0
a)The group number
energy
3.5
b)Number of shells
3.0

2.5 c)Electronic configuration

2.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
electron removed
 Successive ionisation energies

Successive ionisation energies for potassium

6.0

5.5
Sharp rise n=1 1s2
5.0
n =2 2s2 2p6
4.5
log10 of
ionisation 4.0
energy n=3 3s2 3p6
3.5

3.0

2.5 n=4 4s1

2.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
electron removed

The sharp rise in the IE is the evidence for the transition to a new
energy level or shell.
 Successive ionisation energies

Successive ionisation energies for potassium

6.0
Potassium is n=1 1s2
5.5
in group 1
(1 electron in
5.0
n =2 2s2 2p6
4.5
the valence log10 of

shell) ionisation 4.0

energy n=3 3s2 3p6
3.5

3.0
Potassium 2.5 n=4 4s1
has 4 shells
2.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
electron removed
Electronic
Sharp rise in successive ionisation between
configuration is
the 1st and 2nd IE indicating a change to a
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 different shell/energy level .
 Successive ionisation energies

Successive ionisation energies for aluminium

(a) Aluminium is in group 13
(3 electrons in the valence shell)
(b) Aluminium has 3 shells.
(c) Electronic configuration is
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
 Successive ionisation energies

Which group is this element in?

50000

45000

40000

35000

30000

kJ/mol 25000

20000

15000

10000

5000

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
electron removed

Group I4
Sharp rise in successive ionisation between the 4th and 5th I.E
indicating a change to a different shell
 Successive ionisation energies

Which group is this element in?

20000

18000

16000

14000

12000

kJ/mol 10000

8000

6000

4000

2000

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
electron removed

Group 2
Sharp rise in successive ionisation between the 2nd and the 3rd IE
Indicating a change to a different shell
 Successive ionisation energies

Which group is this element in?

20000

18000

16000

14000

12000

kJ/mol 10000

8000

6000

4000

2000

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
electron removed

Group 13. Sharp rise in successive ionisation between the 3rd and 4th
IE indicating a change to a different shell
 Successive ionisation energies

Which group is this element in?

14000

12000

10000

8000
kJ/mol
6000

4000

2000

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
electron removed

Group 15
Sharp rise in successive ionisation between the 5th and 6th IE
 Successive ionisation energies

6.0  In which Group?

5.5
Group I
5.0
 How many electron
4.5
log10 of
ionisation 4.0
shell?
energy
3.5
4 electron shells
3.0  Write the electronic
2.5
configuration?
2.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 19 electrons
electron removed
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1
The successive IE of element Q is shown below
1314 3338 5301 7469
10989 13327 71337 84080
Determine the electronic configuration of Q.
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5rd 6th 7th 8th
1314 3338 5301 7469 10989 13327 71337 84080
2024 1963 2168 3520 2338 58010 12743

There is a sharp rise in successive IE between the

6th and the 7th indicating a change to a different shell
6 electrons in the valence shell
1s2 2s2 2p4
The first seven ionisation energies of an element, A, in kJ mol–1, are

1012 1903 2912 4957 6274 21 269 25 398.

(a) State the group of the Periodic Table to which A is most likely to belong. Explain
your answer.

.............................................................................................................................

.........................................................................................................................[2]

(b) Complete the electronic configuration of the element in Period 2 that is in the
same group as A.

1s2 .................................................................................................................. [1]

The fifth to eighth ionisation energies of three elements in the third period of the Periodic
Table are given. The symbols used for reference are not the actual symbols of the elements.

(a) State and explain the group number of element Y.

group number ...............................

explanation ............................................................................................................[1]

(b) State and explain the general trend in first ionisation energies across the third period.

.............................................................................................................................. [2]

(c) Explain why the first ionisation energy of element Y is less than that of element X.

................................................................................................................................[2]
The fifth to eighth ionisation energies of three elements in the third period of the Periodic
Table are given. The symbols used for reference are not the actual symbols of the elements.

(d) Complete the electronic configuration of element Z.

1s2...........................................................................................................................[1]