226 A. Bakhsh and R.

Malone

Chapter 11

Crop Water Requirements

Allah Bakhsh and Rob Malone†

Abstract
With the increase in population and the associated increased demand for food and
irrigation, great competition for limited water exists that makes conservation and
efficient use of water imperative. Where the water supply is diminishing, and getting
scarce or expensive, conservation methods are most apt to be practiced. New sources
of irrigation water supplies are limited, and the operating costs for water extraction
are increasing. To get the most out of each unit of water, one must know how much
water to apply, when to apply it, where to apply it, and how to design and manage an
irrigation system optimally. Knowledge of crop water requirements is necessary in
planning farm irrigation and drainage systems, for improving irrigation practices,
conserving energy, and enhancing irrigation efficiencies. The objectives of this
chapter “Crop Water Requirements (CWR)” are to describe relevant parameters that
affect CWR, describe climatic effects on CWR, train readers for solving problems
related to CWR. Methods to estimate crop water requirements have also been
included. Solved examples are also given in the chapter to further elaborate the
important concepts and their practical applications in the field. This book chapter
will be of value to irrigation specialists, students, faculty members and farmers
interested in conserving water and improving irrigation efficiency while maximizing
crop production.
Keywords: Crop Water Requirements, Evapotranspiration, Production Function,
Duty and Delta of Water, Leaching Requirement, Effective Rainfall, Soil Moisture
Measurement Irrigation Efficiency.

†
Allah Bakhsh
Department of Irrigation and Drainage, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan.
For correspondance: [email protected]

Rob Malone
National Laboratory for Agriculture and the Environment, ARS-USDA, USA.

Managing editors: Iqrar Ahmad Khan and Muhammad Farooq

Editors: Allah Bakhsh and Muhammad Rafiq Choudhry
University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan.
Crop Water Requirements 227

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, the reader would be able to understand the concepts of:
• Evapotranspiration, crop factor, crop water requirements, cropping zones of
Pakistan, water production function, irrigation scheduling and various
methods to estimate crop water requirements.
• Efficient irrigation water application.
• Available soil water, MAD, and Irrigation Efficiency.

11.1 Introduction
Crop water requirement (CWR) for a crop is the amount of water required to grow
that crop during its entire growing season. The CWR includes the amount of water
needed by a crop during its growing period; it further includes the water required for
pre-sowing irrigation (“Rouni”), crop growth and all water losses through
evaporation, transpiration and water required for metabolic activities. While
estimating the CWR, all types of precipitation falling on the crop or soil during its
growth period is considered. The knowledge of CWR for a crop especially with its
growth stages is important to meet water needs of the crop. As most part of the area
of Pakistan lies in arid to semi-arid region, assessment of CWR is very helpful in
planning water availability for the crop. The CWR is function of climate, crop type,
growth stage, and soil type. Based on annual rainfall, FAO (1986) defined the
climatic zones as:
Arid < 400 mm
Semi-Arid 400 to 600 mm
Sub humid 600 to 1200 mm
Moist sub humid 1200 to 1500 mm
Humid > 1500 mm
Besides considering rainfall as one of the e controlling factors regarding assessment
of CWR, the IWMI (2001) has delineated seven cropping zones by considering the
crops being grown as well as the climate as the main factors affecting CWR (Fig.
11.1). Cropping zones of the Punjab Districts are given in the Table 11.1. Ullah et al.
(2001) made a comparison of the average CWR of different crops sown in Pakistan
(given in ranges) with the CWR of Faisalabad. Table 11.2 shows that the CWR of
sugarcane, cotton and rice is high as compared to other crops. Hence, the values of
CWRin the districts of southern Punjab are comparatively higher as these crops are
mostly grown in these districts (Fig. 11.1).
228 A. Bakhsh and R. Malone

Table 11.1 Cropping Zones of Punjab Districts

Cropping Zone Districts
Rice-Wheat Sialkot, Narowal, Gujarat, Mandi Bahauddin,
Gujranwala, Hafizabad, Nankana Sahib, Sheikhpura
Mixed Lahore, Kasur, Okara, Pakpattan, Sahiwal, Toba Tek
Singh, Faisalabad, Jhang, Sargodha, Chiniot
Cotton-Wheat Bahawalnagar, Bahawalpur, Rahim Yar Khan,
Rajanpur, DG Khan, Muzaffargarh, Multan, Lodhran,
Vehari
Maize-Wheat-Oil seed Attock, Rawalpindi, Chakwal, Jehlum
Pulses-Wheat Bhakkar, Layyah, Mianwali, Khushab

Table 11.2 Average CWR of Different Crops in Pakistan and at Faisalabad

Crops CWR (mm) Faisalabad Crops CWR (mm) Faisalabad
(mm) (mm)
Wheat 271-515 316 Sorghum 370-537 406
Maize 289-367 336 Oil seeds 247-408 284
Sugarcane 1278-1887 1536 Kharif Minor 676-1221 785
Cotton 627-1156 749 Rabi Minor 372-527 392
Rice 587-1323 652
Source: Ullah et al., 2001
Crop Water Requirements 229

Fig. 11.1 Agro-Ecological Zones of Pakistan

Source: Ullah et al., 2001

11.2 Water Production Function

Irrigation water plays a critical role during crop growth and producing crop yields
especially in the arid climate regions but its amount has gained significant economic
value in wake of the energy crisis. Therefore, it is imperative to quantify the impact
of applied irrigation water on the crop yields. The relationship between crop yield
and water applied is mostly quadratic. After achieving a certain level of crop yields,
the slope of the function becomes flat while it is steep in the beginning. Whereas first
derivative i.e. slope can be equaled to zero to determine the optimum amount of water
required for obtaining maximum crop yields under environment. Example 11.1
illustrates the applied water and crop yield relationship (Cuenca, 1989).
Example 11.1: Under a crop environment, the applied irrigation water and crop yield
relationship are described by the following quadratic equation;
Y= –2524 + 28.36 (IW) – 0.015 (IW)2
Whereas the crop evapotranspiration and crop yield relationship is given as;
Y= –3700 + 30.64 (ET)
Where:
230 A. Bakhsh and R. Malone

Y = Crop yields (kg ha-1)

IW = Applied depth of irrigation water (mm)
ET = Evapotranspiration (mm)
Calculate:
a) The ratio of change in yield to the change in depth of irrigation water applied
when the depth of irrigation water is changed from 350 to 450 mm and 650
to 750 mm.
b) The efficiencies at 400 and 700 mm of applied water level when it is defined
as ratio of ET to IW.

Solution:
a) For IW=350 mm:

Y = −2524 + 28.36(350) − 0.015 (350)

Y = 5564.5 kg haY
For IW=450 mm:
Y = −2524 + 28.36(450) − 0.015 (450)
Y = 7205 kg haY
∆Y 7205 − 5564.5
= = 16.36 kg haY mmY
∆IW 450 − 350
For IW=650 mm:
Y = −2524 + 28.36(650) − 0.015 (650)
Y = 9572.5 kg haY
For IW=750 mm:
Y = −2524 + 28.36(750) − 0.015 (750)
Y = 10308.5 kg haY
∆Y 10308.5 − 9572.5
= = 7.36 kg haY mmY
∆IW 750 − 650
b) For IW =400 mm:

Y = −2524 + 28.36(400) − 0.015 (400)

Y = 6420kg haY
Rearrange the equation for ET vs. Y
3700 + Y
ET =
30.64
Crop Water Requirements 231

3700 + 6420
ET =
30.64
ET = 330.31mm
330.31
Efficiency = ×100
400
Efficiency at IW400 = 82.58%
For IW= 700 mm:Y = −2524 + 28.36(700) − 0.015 (700)
Y = 9978kg haY
3700 + 9978
ET =
30.64
ET = 446.41mm
446.41
Efficiency = ×100
700
Efficiency at IW700 = 63.77%

11.3 Factors affecting CWR

FAO (1998) described the item wise factors that can influence the CWR, include:
Climate: Temperature, wind, solar radiation, sunshine hours,
humidity, precipitation
Crop: Crop type, crop stage, crop height
Soil type: Sand, silt and clay fractions as that affect soil water
availability
OM: Organic matter, its type and concentration
Topography: Degree and slope
Drainage: Type of land drainage and sources of excess water
Irrigation practices: Method of irrigation and its efficiency
Groundwater Level: Depth and quality of groundwater

11.4 Terminologies Related to Use of Water

Terminologies pertaining to the estimated use of water such as Delta and Duty of
Water and Base Period of Crop have been described below.

11.4.1 Duty of Water (D)

It is the area to be irrigated using unit amount of flow of water during entire growth
period of the specific crop, is called as duty of water for that crop. Duty of irrigation
232 A. Bakhsh and R. Malone

water for growing 1000 hectares of wheat from sowing to harvesting using water
supply of 56 liters per second will be 17.86 ha L-1sec-1. All those factors, which can
affect water application to the field such as soil and topography, stream size, field
size, degree of level and irrigation practice, for meeting duty of water can be managed
for improving duty of water.

11.4.2 ∆)
Delta of Water (∆
It is, in fact, the CWR or amount of water required to grow the crop during its growth
period such as 400 mm of water for wheat crop applying 4 irrigations each of 100
mm in depth, including presowing (“Rauni”) irrigation. Thus, delta of water in this
case amounts to 400 mm of water.

11.4.3 Base Period (B)

It is the duration starting from the first irrigation applied to the field for sowing till
last irrigation is applied whereas crop period is the duration from sowing till
harvesting.
Relationship between duty, delta and base period can be described:
m
∆= 864×
}

Where:
∆ = Delta of water, cm.
B = Base period, days.
D = Duty of water, ha per cubic meter of water per second.
Example 11.2
A crop requires 50cm of water for its base period of 160 days. What will be the duty
of water?
Solution:
^%
Duty of water (D) = 864× = 2764.8 ha/m3/s
%

Example 11.3
Water at the rate of 12 m3/sis released at the canal head. Calculate the irrigated area,
if duty of water at the field is 1200 ha/m3 sand transit losses are 22%.
Solution:
A=D x Q
A=1200 x 12 = 14400 ha
As transit loss is 22%, therefore,
A=14400 x 0.78=11232 ha
Crop Water Requirements 233

Example 11.4
An irrigation canal has a Gross Commanded Area (GCA) of 8000 ha and the
Cultivable Commanded Area (CCA) is 75%. Irrigation Intensity (II) is 50%.
Calculate Delta of Water (∆) and the outlet discharge (Q) if base period (B) is 120
days and Duty of water (D) is 1600 ha/m3/s.
Solution:
C.C. A= G.C. A × 75% = 8000 × 0.75= 6000 ha
Irrigated area=C.C. A × I.I = 6000 x 0.50 =3000
As,
l
Q=
}
%%%
Q= = 1.88 m³/s
^%%
m
∆ = 864×
}

Thus, ∆= 864 x (120/1600) = 64.8cm

11.4.4 Irrigation Depth

It is the depth of water (dn) required to bring the soil to its field capacity level in the
effective root zone for plant growth.
FC − MC
d> = ×As×rª
100
Where,
FC = Field Capacity or the moisture available in the soil at 1/3 atmosphere tension.
MC = Moisture available at the time of irrigation,
As =Apparent specific gravity (i.e. ratio of bulk density of soil in g.cm-3to the density
of water in the same units as that of bulk density),
rz= Root zone depth in cm.
The gross irrigation depth can be calculated by using the following formula:
Net irrigation depth (d> )
Gross irrigation depth =
Efficiency of irrigation system

11.4.5 Effective Rainfall

It is the rainfall utilized for any beneficial purpose. In different fields, specialists
interpret the term in their own way. According to a hydrologist, the rain which
directly contributes to the storage reservoirs and indirectly from the surrounding area
by surface runoff is an effective part. For a hydro-electrical engineer, a portion of
rainfall, which is used for running the turbines to generate electricity is effective. A
234 A. Bakhsh and R. Malone

Geo-hydrologist defines effective rainfall as aportion which directly contributes to

the storage of groundwater. According to FAO (1978), agricultural engineers
consider that effective rainfall can be a portion of total rainfall, which is directly used
to satisfy crop water needs.

11.4.6 Leaching Requirement (LR)

It is the amount of excessive irrigation water applied to the field for passing through
the root zone to reduce the concentration of salts in the root zone for reclamation.
The leaching requirements can be estimated by the following formula provided.
ECƒ
LR = (11.5)
5ECr − ECƒ
Where,
LR=Minimum leaching requirement to control salts,
ECƒ = Salinity of applied water (dS/m),
ECr = Average soil salinity tolerated by crop (dS/m).
The total depth of water to be applied annually to meet both crop water need and
leaching requirement can be estimated by the following equation.
ET
IW =
1 − LR
Where,
IW= Depth of irrigation water applied (mm/year),
ET=Total annual crop water demand (mm/year),
LR=Leaching Requirement.

11.5 Soil Moisture Measurements

The degree of availability of soil moisture in the root zone is very crucial for ensuring
proper growth of the plants because efficiency of other agricultural inputs also
depends on the adequate soil moisture availability to the plants. Therefore, soil
moisture measurement can help in scheduling irrigations as well as determining the
depth of irrigation water required to fill the depleted amount of soil moisture in the
root zone. Soil moisture can be measured in different ways and by using different
equipment. Some methods are used to measure soil moisture directly from irrigator’s
point of view whereas the others measure the tension or force required by the plant
roots to extract water from the soil, which is held with the soil particles. The
following methods are most commonly used to measure the soil moisture in the root
zone.
Crop Water Requirements 235

11.5.1 Gravimetric Method

The gravimetric method of measuring soil moisture refers to the weighing of soil
sample and moisture in it. The soil sample is taken from the soil at the desired depth
and is placed in the oven for at least 24 hrs at 105 C° to remove all the moisture
contained in the soil sample. The volumetric soil moisture content is determined as
below:
W- − W•
SMC = × 100 x AX
W•
Where,
SMC = Soil moisture contents on volumetric basis (%),
Ww= Wet weight of soil sample (g),
Wd = Oven dried weight of soil sample the (g),
As = Apparent specific gravity of soil i.e. ratio of bulk density of soil (g cm-3) to
density of water (1 g cm-3).

11.5.2 Tensiometer
Tensiometer, as apparent from the name, measures tension, which is required by the
plants to extract water from the soil. Soil water is held with and within the soil
particles because of cohesion, adhesion and surface tension forces resulting in
suction forces. A tensiometer is a simple air tight device, filled with water and having
porous ceramic cup at one end and a meter on the other end. Water is released from
the porous cup to the soil depending on soil moisture status in its vicinity. If the root
zone around the cup is dry, water will be released from the cup which will be shown
in the form of tension reading in KPa (bar) or if root zone becomes wet, it will absorb
water into the cup and the reading in tension will be lowered. Tensiometers perform
better in sandy, loamy sand and coarse textured soils within tension range of 0.0 to
0.8 bar. Clayey soils mostly retain soil water at tension higher than 0.8 bar, which is
outside the range of tensiometers, however, in clayey soils, tensiometers can be used
if the depletion level is lesser than 50% of available water.
Tensiometer cup needs to be soaked in water overnight to saturate it and then fill the
barrel of the tensiometer with water. There should be no air inside the barrel, which
can be checked by allowing water to evaporate from the cup and seeing its effect on
tensiometer reading. It is preferable to transport tensiometer to the site by keeping its
cup dipped in water so that tension remains workable. Tensiometer has different
length and can be installed at the desired depth by making a hole in the soil using a
steel rod, slightly smaller than the diameter of the cup. Add ¼ cup of water into the
hole for moistening the soil before inserting the tensiometer gently into the soil. Care
is needed to keep soil moisture within the range of the tensiometer so that it works
reliably. If Tensiometer-readings respond to irrigation application and the drying
patterns, it means that tensiometer is working satisfactorily.
236 A. Bakhsh and R. Malone

Fig. 11.2 Tensiometer

11.5.3 Electrical Resistance Block

Electrical resistance block consists of two electrodes, which are enclosed in the
porous block or gypsum block. Resistance block works on the principle that water
conducts electricity. Therefore, the amount of soil moisture in the root zone is like
that in the porous blocks, which affects the flow of electricity within electrodes or in
other words resist the flow of electricity depending on the soil moisture availability.
Resistance block work better at tension higher than 0.5 bars because it responds
poorly for tension lesser than 0.5 bars and are therefore, suitable for fine textured
soils such as clayey and silty soils. These resistances are calibrated to measure soil
moistures.
Crop Water Requirements 237

Fig. 11.3 Electric Resistance Block

11.5.4 Neutron Probe

Neutron probe provides quick and easy estimates of soil moisture if it is calibrated
properly. A two inches vertical aluminum access tube is installed in the field where
soil moisture is to be measured. The neutron probe is lowered into the access tube
and count of neutron is measured at the counter to relate it with the soil moisture.
The neutron probe has a fast neutron emitting source, which emits neutrons that
collide with the hydrogen atoms in the soil water and get scattered. These scattered
slow moving neutrons are counted by the detector. The count of these scattered
neutrons is related with the soil moisture. It is an expansive device and needs care
during its operation because of neutron emissions.
238 A. Bakhsh and R. Malone

11.5.5 Time Domain Reflectometer (TDR)

The TDR is relatively new device and consists of two rods, which are inserted into
the soil at a certain depth where soil moisture is to be measured. TDR is an instrument
which sends electromagnetic wave through these rods, which are conducted through
the soil and reached back to the soil surface. The rate of conductance of
electromagnetic waves through the soil is related with the soil moisture in the soil.
Properly calibrated TDR can provide soil moisture estimates reliably. TDR is an
expansive device but is becoming commercially viable.

Fig. 11.4 Time Domain Reflectometer

11.5.6 Soil Moisture Meter

The soil moisture meter has a sensor at its tip, which when pushed into the soil gives
readings related to the soil moisture contents in the soil at its digital meter.
Crop Water Requirements 239

Fig. 11.5 Soil Moisture Meter

11.6 Terminologies in Evapotranspiration

11.6.1 Evaporation
It is the amount of water, which is evaporated from the soil surface, leaves of the
plants or during conveyance of water from the source to the plants. It includes all the
water losses, which can occur while meeting crop water needs of the plants.

11.6.2 Evapotranspiration (ET)

It is sum of evaporation and transpiration. Transpiration includes that amount of
water, which is lost through plant bodies during its growth.

11.6.3 Consumptive Use (CU)

It is evapotranspiration plus the amount of water consumed during tissue building
process of the plants or the water consumed for plant growth in addition to
evapotranspiration. As, the water used by the plants for building tissues is nearly 1%
of the total ET, therefore, CU is mostly taken as equivalent to ET.

11.6.4 Crop Coefficient (KC)

It is the ratio of actual evapotranspiration (ETc) of the crop to the reference
evapotranspiration (ETo). KC depends on soil type, climate, crop type and growth
240 A. Bakhsh and R. Malone

stages of crop. Some values of Kc of various crops grown in Faisalabad region are
given in the Table 11.3.

Table 11.3 KC Values for Different Crops in Faisalabad Region.

Rabi Minor
Sorgham

Oil seed
10 days
Months

Cotton

Kharif
Wheat

Pulses

Minor
Maize

Crops

Crops
Sugar
-cane

Rice
Jan 1 0.91 1.00 0.75 1.00
2 1.00 1.00 0.94 0.98
3 1.10 0.97 1.00 0.96
Feb 1 1.10 0.28 0.91 1.15 0.93
2 1.10 0.37 0.88 0.92 0.88
3 1.10 0.45 0.66 0.47 0.85
Mar 1 1.00 0.53 0.56 0.29 0.81
2 0.88 0.60 0.43 0.19 0.76
3 0.71 0.70 0.32 0.67
Apr 1 0.56 0.91 0.28 0.63
2 0.43 0.99 0.23 0.52
3 0.23 1.12 0.12 0.31 0.37
May 1 0.32 1.13 0.49
2 0.39 1.14 0.56
3 0.52 1.15 0.03 0.61
Jun 1 0.72 1.20 0.05 0.68
2 0.93 1.20 0.10 0.74
3 1.09 1.20 0.09 0.18 0.21 0.80
Jul 1 1.12 1.20 0.12 0.23 0.45 0.84
2 1.12 1.20 0.23 0.30 0.72 0.95
3 1.09 1.20 0.32 0.38 1.03 0.95
Aug 1 1.00 1.20 0.63 0.49 1.30 0.95
2 0.85 1.20 0.77 0.66 1.35 0.95
3 0.74 1.20 0.79 0.80 1.40 0.95
Sep 1 0.67 1.20 0.82 0.92 1.40 0.95
2 0.63 1.20 0.83 0.98 1.35 0.84
3 0.51 1.20 0.82 0.97 1.13 0.12 0.18 0.79
Oct 1 0.47 1.20 0.72 0.93 0.96 0.19 0.24 0.73
2 0.42 1.20 0.56 0.83 0.69 0.28 0.38 0.63
3 0.36 1.20 0.33 0.68 0.55 0.35 0.45 0.46
Nov 1 0.30 1.20 0.38 0.42 0.40 0.56
2 0.28 0.26 1.13 0.23 0.30 0.49 0.34 0.72
3 0.38 1.01 0.18 0.59 0.40 0.80
Dec 1 0.45 0.89 0.70 0.44 0.84
2 0.54 0.77 0.81 0.51 0.88
3 0.71 0.65 0.90 0.61 0.93
Source: Ullah et al. (2001)

11.6.5 Reference Evapotranspiration (ETo)

It is the rate of water loss in the form of evapotranspiration from a uniform grass, 8-
15 cm tall, shading the ground, not suffering from any disease, actively growing and
not short of water.
Crop Water Requirements 241

11.6.6 Actual Evapotranspiration (ETa)

It is the rate of actual evapotranspiration taking place under the real field conditions
considering status of the soil moisture as well as stage of the crop and climatic
conditions.

11.7 Methods for Estimating ET

The measurement of ET is helpful in planning the depth of water required by the
plants or evapotranspired through the plants. It can be measured directly under field
conditions and can also be estimated using climatic data.

11.7.1 Direct Measurement of ET

Direct measurement of ET has been made through Lysimeters either weighing type
or measuring inflow and outflow volumes of water. Weighing type lysimeters
provide more accurate data by monitoring periodic measurements of the weight of
the lysimeters compared with measuring all types of water entering the lysimeters
and leaving the lysimeters. The water budget equation can be used for any closed
system to estimate the unknown component while measuring the inflow and outflow
components into and out of the system:
Ws= Wi+ Wp –We – Wdp + Wgw
Where,
Ws = Change in soil moisture content over the considered period,
Wi = Water inflow into the system i.e. irrigation,
Wp = Precipitation,
We = Evapotranspiration,
Wdp = Deep percolation losses i.e. flow out of root zone,
Wgw = Contribution from groundwater.

11.7.2 Estimating ET from Climatic Data

As climatic variables of temperature, sunshine, wind, humidity and solar radiation
affect the rate of ET from the plants or from surface of the earth, therefore, these
variables have been used to estimate ET. One of the simplest methods is ET
measurement using Pan Evaporation method.

11.7.3 Pan Evaporation

It is measurement of evaporation from Class A Pan, which integrates effect of all
climatic variables and can be used to estimate the rate of ET by making its adjustment
through pan coefficient. The Class A pan is 121 cm in diameter, 25.5 cm deep, made
of galvanized iron. The pan is placed in an open field environment not obstructed by
trees or buildings or adjacent growing crop on a wooden frame about 15 cm above
242 A. Bakhsh and R. Malone

the ground surface. The water depth inside the pan is carefully maintained at level
from 5 to 7.5 cm below the rim of the pan. Water level in the pan is measured
regularly mostly in the morning. After taking measurements, water is filled in the
pan to keep its level within the desired limits. The ETo can be estimated as below:
ET€ = K ‚ × E‚
Where,
ETo = Reference evapotranspiration (same units as that of Ep),
Kp = Pan coefficient, usually taken as 0.7 but can also be estimated using climatic
data of relative humidity, wind speed, and the pan surrounded by dry fallow land or
green crop distance.
Evaporation measurements are usually taken after 24 hours i.e. at 7:00 am every day.
The difference in water level in the pan over 24 hours is considered as evaporation.
In case of rainfall, depth of rainfall is added to the previous water level for
determining the depth of evaporation. When water level in the pan approaches the
lower allowable level, water is added to the pan to raise its water level in the pan to
the upper limit after recording depth of evaporation for that day.
Example 11.5: Estimate reference evapotranspiration (ETo) from the pan data and
rainfall data given in Table 11.4

Table 11.4 Daily Pan Evaporation and Rainfall Data.

Days Water depth Rainfall Epan Days Water depth Rainfall Epan
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
1 156.0 - 5.0 17 150.3 20.0 4.6
2 151.0 2.0 6.3 18 165.7 25.8 1.9
3 146.7 3.1 8.4 19 189.6 32.3 3.4
4 141.4 - 5.9 20 218.5/151.2** 15.8 2.0
5 135.5 - 9.4 21 165.0 - 5.2
6 126.1 - 8.9 22 159.8 - 6.9
7 117.2 - 4.6 23 152.9 - 7.2
8 112.6 - 6.8 24 145.7 - 8.5
9 105.8 - 7.3 25 137.2 - 6.3
10 98.5/157* 3.7 7.6 26 130.9 - 8.4
11 153.1 - 5.4 27 122.5 - 6.6
12 147.7 - 9.6 28 115.9 - 8.9
13 138.1 - 7.2 29 107.0 - 6.6
14 130.9 - 6.4 30 100.4 13.6 7.6
15 124.5 13.9 6.3 31 106.4 - 7.4
16 132.1 24.1 5.9 1 (next month) 99 -
* 58.5 mm of water added.
** 66.3 mm of water taken out.

Example: Epan isthe difference in water depth between day 1 and 2 plus the rainfall
during day 1.
Crop Water Requirements 243

Solution:
ΣEpan=198.9 mm/month
Number of days in the month=31
Epan = ΣEpan/ Number of days in the month i.e. 198.9 / 31= 6.42 mm/day
Kpan=0.70
ET. = K ‚8> ×E‚8> = 0.70 × 6.42=4.5 mm/day

11.7.4 BlaneyCriddle Method

Blaney Criddle is a simple method to estimate evapotranspiration in case pan
evaporation data are not available. This method is not very accurate especially under
extreme conditions of dry, windy, sunny, humid and cloudy areas but still gives
reasonable estimates in the order of magnitude. ETo can be estimated as given below:
ET. = p× (0.46 T†¯8> + 8)
Where,
ETo= Reference mean monthly evapotranspiration (mm/day),
P = Mean daily percent of annual day time hours over the month,
Tmean =Mean daily temperature (oC) over the month.
Example 11.6: Using BlaneyCriddle method andthe data given in Table 11.5 and
11.6, estimate ETo.
i) Location: Faisalabad, ii) Latitude: 30oN

Table 11.5 Mean Daily Percentage (p) of Annual Daytime Hours for Different
Latitudes.
Latitude North Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
South July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June
60o 0.15 0.20 0.26 0.32 0.38 0.41 0.40 0.34 0.28 0.22 0.17 0.13
55o 0.17 0.21 0.26 0.32 0.36 0.39 0.38 0.33 0.28 0.23 0.18 0.16
50o 0.19 0.23 0.27 0.31 0.34 0.36 0.35 0.32 0.28 0.24 0.20 0.18
45o 0.20 0.23 0.27 0.30 0.34 0.35 0.34 0.32 0.28 0.24 0.21 0.20
40o 0.22 0.24 0.27 0.30 0.32 0.34 0.33 0.31 0.28 0.25 0.22 0.21
35o 0.23 0.25 0.27 0.29 0.31 0.32 0.32 0.30 0.28 0.25 0.23 0.22
30o 0.24 0.25 0.27 0.29 0.31 0.32 0.31 0.30 0.28 0.26 0.24 0.23
25o 0.24 0.26 0.27 0.29 0.30 0.31 0.31 0.29 0.28 0.26 0.25 0.24
20o 0.25 0.26 0.27 0.28 0.29 0.30 0.30 0.29 0.28 0.26 0.25 0.25
15o 0.26 0.26 0.27 0.28 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.28 0.28 0.27 0.26 0.25
10o 0.26 0.27 0.27 0.28 0.28 0.29 0.29 0.28 0.28 0.27 0.26 0.26
5o 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.27 0.27 0.27
0o 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27
Source: Jensen, 1981
244 A. Bakhsh and R. Malone

Table 11.6 Mean Monthly Temperature Data

Month Tmin Tmax Tmean p value (30oN) ETo(mm/day)
Jan 14.6 32.2 23.40 0.24 4.50
Feb 17.9 34.8 26.35 0.25 5.03
Mar 20.4 38.3 29.35 0.27 5.81
Apr 23.8 38.9 31.35 0.29 6.50
May 25.0 39.2 32.10 0.31 7.06
June 26.8 36.0 31.40 0.32 7.18
July 24.2 32.1 28.15 0.31 6.49
Aug 22.3 33.0 27.65 0.30 6.22
Sept 21.9 34.6 28.25 0.28 5.88
Oct 22.7 32.4 27.55 0.26 5.37
Nov 17.9 35.1 26.50 0.24 4.85
Dec 15.3 31.6 23.45 0.23 4.32

11.8 Irrigation Scheduling

It is schedule of applying irrigation water to the plants, which depends on the soil,
crop variety and its stage. The irrigation scheduling technique ensures adequate and
timely application of irrigation water so that plants don’t suffer from water stress and
there is no reduction in the crop yields. The question, however, is to determine ‘when
to apply’ and ‘how much to apply’. Studies have shown that irrigation scheduling can
save 15 to 35 percent of the irrigation without reducing yield (Evans et al., 1996).
The available water in the root zone can be depleted to a certain critical level, called
MAD (Management Allowable Depletion) and when soil moisture approaches to that
level, new irrigation water is applied to replenish the water lost as evapotranspiration.
The depth of irrigation water to be applied depends on the soil type that stores water
to make it available to the plants. It also depends on the root zone i.e. how deep water
can be extracted by the plants through their roots. In beginning of the growing season
of the crop, root zone is shallow when plants are younger so that at this time it needs
lesser water, which can only become possible if the irrigation method offers adequate
control over depth of irrigation water to be applied such as through sprinkler or drip
irrigation. Whereas flooding or surface irrigation mostly applies heavy irrigation
water, which percolates through the root zone and becomes inaccessible to the young
plants. Similarly, the depth of irrigation water depends on the type of soil because
sandy soil can’t store much water in comparison to that stored in the clayey soil.
It is the time when plants need irrigation water otherwise yield can be affected. This
stage can be determined by several methods such as monitoring soil moisture in the
root zone using soil moisture measuring devices, measuring leaf temperature using
infrared thermometer, soil sampling or by observation method. The farmers use
observation method to find whether plants need water by observing color of the
plants or patterns of the leaves. The depth of irrigation water to be applied can be
determined by measuring soil moisture status in the root zone, which can be
accomplished by sampling the soil at different root zone depths, which has been
elaborated in the following example.
Crop Water Requirements 245

11.8.1 Irrigation Scheduling Approaches

Irrigation scheduling may be further categorized as Fixed Scheduling, Flexible
Scheduling and Flexible Scheduling Incorporating Rainfall. Each category is
explained below.
11.8.1.1 Fixed Scheduling
In fixed method of irrigation scheduling, the following steps are followed:
1. Determine net depth of water required to replenish the lost soil moisture in
the root zone by getting soil samples from the field and processing them to
estimate the required depth of irrigation water in the field as outlined in the
solved example 11.5 OR
2. Calculate ETo using pan evaporation method or any other method using
climatic data and then estimate ETc by multiplying it with Kc, given in Table
11.3
3. Keeping in view the length of growing season or number of growing days,
estimate the total crop water requirement (CWR) for the whole growing
season.
4. Divide the total CWR by the net irrigation depth to determine the irrigation
interval.
5. Apply irrigation depth according to the irrigation interval determined in
step-4.

Example 11.7: Schedule surface irrigations for tomatoes planted in January under
the following conditions. Irrigation Efficiency: 60% for surface irrigation; 75% for
sprinkler irrigation; 90% for drip irrigation (FAO, 1986).
Given data
Crop: Tomatoes
Sowing date: 15 January
ETc (mm/month): Monthly data are given in Table 11.7
Depth of Irrigation applied: Monthly data are given in Table 11.7 = 60
Solution:
Net irrigation depth, dn = 50 mm
•D %
Gross irrigation depth, dg = = = 83 mm
r° %.^

Total irrigation water needs = 60+100+120+140+160 = 580 mm

%
Number of irrigations = = 11.6 ≈ 12
%

Total number of growing days = 135 (from Jan 15 to May 31)

Irrigation interval = = 11.25 ≈ 12 days

246 A. Bakhsh and R. Malone

The Scheduling procedure is as under:

Net irrigation depth of 50 mm applied after 12 days over the growing season.
Check Adequacy: Irrigation depth applied for 30 days = (50/12) x30 = 125 mm,
which would be lesser for the months of April and May and crop may go under stress.
Two months of April and May were under irrigated and plants may go under water
stress.

Table 11.7 Data Regarding Monthly Net Irrigation needed and Applied
Water Depth / Months Jan Feb Mar Apr May
Net irrigation need (mm) 60 100 120 140 160
Irrigation depth applied (mm) 63 117 129 125 129
Difference +3 +17 +9 -15 -31
Total difference = 3+17+9 – 15 – 31 = -17 mm (17 mm less water was applied) .
The limitations of the Method include:
• Irrigation depth will be same throughout the growing season and it may
underestimate during peak CWR.
• The crop may suffer from water shortage. This difficulty can be overcome
by determining CWR for each month and adjusting irrigation interval for
peak period to avoid soil moisture stress. This procedure is explained under
flexible irrigation scheduling method.

11.8.1.2 Flexible Scheduling

Repeat the same steps as outlined above except adjusting irrigation interval during
peak CWR period as explained in the following example.
Example 11.8: Monthly data on net irrigation needed and applied are given in
Table 11.8
Solution:
Requirement during April& May = 140 + 160 = 300 mm
%%
Number of irrigations = =6
%
^
Irrigation interval for these two months = = 10.2 ≈ 10 days
^

New Scheme would be same for Jan, Feb and March, while in April and May it would
be; application of 50 mm in days.
Crop Water Requirements 247

Table 11.8 Monthly Data on Net Irrigation Needed and Applied

Months Jan Feb Mar Apr May
Net irrigation need (mm) 60 100 120 140 160
Irrigation depth applied (mm) 63 117 129 150 155
Difference +3 +17 +9 +10 -5
Total difference = 3+17+9+10 – 5 = 34 mm
This scheme can work as there is only difference of 5 mm in the last month while
overall there is surplus irrigation application of 34 mm.
11.8.1.3 Flexible Scheduling Incorporating Rainfall
This approach has been explained in the following worksheet using water balance
approach as given below.
Example 11.9: Compute irrigation scheduling for wheat crop under following
conditions;
Soil Type: Loamy soil,
Field Capacity (FC): 30% or 90 mm,
Bulk Density (BD): 1.2 g cm-3
Root Zone (RZ): 25 cm,
Wilting Point (WP): 14% or 42 mm,
Available Moisture (AM): 16% or 48 mm,
MAD: 50% or 24 mm,
Residual S.M: 3% or 16 mm,
ETo: Collected from crop physiology Dept. UAF,
Kc: From IWMI report 24
Solution: Root zone was computed in proportion to Kc values used. Daily SM
balance approach was used.
248 A. Bakhsh and R. Malone

Table 11.9 Irrigation Scheduling Information

Month Days RZ Av SM ETo Kc ETc Irri- Rain- Resi- Used
(cm) (mm) (mm/d) (mm/d) gation fall dual (mm)
(mm) (mm) S.M
1-Nov 1 25.00 24.00 2.60 0.30 0.78 23.22 0.78
8-Nov 8 25.00 18.54 2.60 0.30 0.78 17.76 6.24
15-Nov 15 30.83 17.09 2.60 0.37 0.96 16.13 12.61
22-Nov 22 36.67 13.46 2.60 0.44 1.14 12.32 19.71
29-Nov 29 36.67 5.46 2.60 0.44 1.14 4.31 27.72
3-Dec 33 43.33 2.50 2.50 0.52 1.30 40.40 1.20 32.76
6-Dec 36 43.33 40.30 2.50 0.52 1.30 39.00 36.66
13-Dec 43 50.83 38.13 2.50 0.61 1.53 36.60 46.44
20-Dec 50 50.83 31.98 2.50 0.61 1.53 30.45 57.11
27-Dec 57 60.83 27.32 2.50 0.73 1.83 25.49 69.89
3-Jan 64 74.17 20.40 2.00 0.89 1.78 18.62 83.37
10-Jan 71 77.50 10.15 2.00 0.93 1.86 8.29 95.91
14-Jan 75 77.50 2.71 2.00 0.93 1.86 73.55 0.85 103.35
17-Jan 78 77.50 74.40 2.00 0.93 1.86 1.50 72.54 108.93
24-Jan 85 87.50 80.29 2.00 1.05 2.10 78.19 123.15
31-Jan 92 91.67 70.92 2.00 1.10 2.20 68.72 137.95
7-Feb 99 91.67 52.47 3.50 1.10 3.85 48.62 164.90
14-Feb 106 95.83 34.73 3.50 1.15 4.03 30.70 192.90
21-Feb 113 99.17 20.60 3.50 1.19 4.17 16.44 221.22
25-Feb 117 99.17 8.11 3.50 1.19 4.17 91.26 3.94 237.88
28-Feb 120 99.17 95.20 3.50 1.19 4.17 91.04 250.37
1-Mar 121 100.00 96.00 4.50 1.10 4.95 91.05 255.32
7-Mar 127 100.00 77.75 4.50 1.10 4.95 72.80 285.02
14-Mar 134 100.00 49.58 4.50 0.93 4.19 45.40 316.61
21-Mar 141 100.00 20.29 4.50 0.76 3.42 16.87 345.14
25-Mar 145 100.00 14.75 4.50 0.76 3.42 83.88 11.33 358.82
28-Mar 148 100.00 91.78 4.50 0.76 3.42 88.36 369.08
4-Apr 155 100.00 70.60 5.00 0.56 2.80 67.80 389.64
10-Apr 161 100.00 53.80 5.00 0.30 1.50 52.30 405.14

Number of irrigations = 4
Total depth of irrigation water applied: 289 mm + 28.33 mm effective rainfall = 317
mm = 12.5 inch

References
Cuenca, R.H. (1989). Irrigation System Design: An Engineering Approach, Prentice
Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632.
Evans, R., R.E. Sneed and D.K. Cassel (1996). Irrigation scheduling to improvewater
and energy-use efficiencies. North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service. AG
452-4.
FAO (1978). Effective rainfall in irrigated agriculture. Available online at
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5560e/x5560e00.htm#Contents.
FAO (1986). Irrigation Water Management: Irrigation Water Needs, Training
manual3, available online at
http://www.fao.org/docrep/s2022e/s2022e00.htm#Contents.
Crop Water Requirements 249

FAO (1998). Crop Evapotranspiration: Guidelines for Computing Crop Water

Requirements. Irrigation and Drainage Paper 56.
Jensen, M.E. (1981). Design and operation of farm irrigation system. American
society of agricultural engineers 2950 niles road, P.O. Box 410 St. Joseph,
Michigan 49085.
Ullah, M.K., Z. Habib and S. Muhammad (2001). Spatial distribution of reference
and potential evapotranspiration across the Indus Basin Irrigation Systems,
Working paper 24, International Water Management Institute, Lahore, Pakistan.