NATIONAL CERTIFICATE

IN

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH

BUILDINGPRACTICE
MODULE

[399/13/S 01]

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AIM

TO EQUIP THE TRAINEE WITH KNOWLEDGE AND

SKILLS/TECHNIQUES IN BUILDING SO AS TO
PROMOTE PUBLIC HEALTH AND SAFETY

OBJECTIVES

AFTER THE TRAINING, THE STUDENTS SHOULD BE

ABLE TO apply THE SKILLS, KNOWLEDGE AND
TECHNIQUES OF BUILDING IN THE PRACTICE OF
ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH

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BUILDING
Definition:
Can simply be defined as the construction or erection of a structure.
The construction of a structure is done in stages and these stages include
among others:
 Site clearance
 Setting-out
 Excavation
 Concreting
 Wall construction
 Roofing
 Plastering and
 painting

TOPIC 1

HISTORY OF BUILDING
The history of building is as old as mankind and hence the design and
construction is ever changing to suite the modern standards of living.
Various construction materials are available but however bricks are widely
used since they:
are easy to work with
produce strong and durable structures
less costly as compared to stones and concrete
can be used to produce decorative work
The story of the Israelites in Egypt is a good reference to reveal that
brickwork has since been practiced even before Christ.

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PURPOSE AND TYPES OF BUILDINGS
Generally the purpose of a building determines it’s shape, style, quality and
cost.

A building encloses space, and in doing so it creates an Internal

Environment.

The structural elements (ext walls) of a building are termed the External
Envelope and it protects the occupants and their belongings from the
External environment.

Purpose of the External Envelope

a) To provide the desired internal environment

b) Providing safety and security to the occupants and their belongings
c) To provide privacy
d) Should also provide light and ventilation

What is a structure?
An organised combination of connected elements joined or constructed to
perform some required functions.

Many different structures are required to satisfy the needs of this ever
changing and demanding society and these different types of structures
create the BUILT ENVIRONMENT.

TYPES OF BUILDINGS
Buildings are classified under two main categories which are:
[A] LIVING ACCOMMODATION [DWELLINGS]
[B] WORKING ACCOMMODATION

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(A) LIVING ACCOMMODATION [DWELLINGS]
Under this category we have all types of residential buildings. These
should be so constructed that they meet the minimum requirements
such as:

 Light addimmitence
 Wall height
 Ventilation
Dwellings include: houses, flats, bungalows, mansions etc. The purpose
of dwellings is to provide human beings with shelter and a place to
store their goods and chattels [all their movable property].
Dwellings are divided into 3 groups according to their heights that is:
1) Low rise buildings – from 1 to 3 stories
2) Medium rise buildings – from 4 to 7 stories
3) High rise buildings – from 8 upwards
Glossary of dwellings terms:
I. Apartment- a set or suite of rooms that forms a complete
dwelling.
II. Bungalow- this is a one storey house.
III. Charllet- this is a small light wooden built dwelling. Mostly found
in recreational facilities like safari lodges.
IV. Cottage- a small house originally intended for farm labourers or
company employees.

Examples of living accommodation:

a) Flat- a dwelling in a building of more than 1 storey but in form of
a block. It forms a separate dwelling and access to which is via
communal entrance.
b) Maisonette- a dwelling occupying part of large building but
unlike a flat, it has separate entrance.
c) Tenement- a block of apartments or flats with certain shared
facilities mainly situated in the poor inner city areas.

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(B) WORKING ACCOMMODATION

Divided into 4 main groups which are:

1. Industrial
2. Commercial
3. Offices
4. educational
Industrial
These include workshops, garages, mining buildings etc. These can be of
solid construction or framed structures. Mostly these structures are
constructed to serve intended purposes.
Commercial
Under this heading we have banks shopping complexes, markets.
Mainly they are solid wall construction with exception of structures like
markets or vending areas which can be of framed structures.
Most commercial buildings have an attractive outward appearance
usually of face brick, cladding etc.
Offices
Buildings used for administration and for clerical works and this
usually in connection with a business.
Educational
Buildings used for educational purposes e.g. colleges, schools and
universities. These can be purpose made or can be by conversion.
Other types of building are:
Agricultural
These include silos, drying sheds, green houses, granaries etc. they are
also constructed to serve the intended purpose.
E.g.: structures for tobacco processing require solid wall construction
but drying sheds require framed structures.
Religious accommodation

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 All buildings used as place of worship to cater for one’s spiritual needs.

THE BUILDING TEAM

The construction of a structure requires a team of tradesman to produce
the desired results.

This team is collectively known as the building team and they have their
pattern of operation and communication as shown by the diagram below:

CLIENT
[1]
QUANTITY
SURVEYOR
[3]
ARCHITECT
[2]
SPECIALIST
ENGINEER
[4]
LOCAL
CLERK of
AUTHORITY WORKS [5]
[6]

HEALTH and
BUILDING
SAFETY
CONTRACTOR INSPECTOR
[7] [8]

SUB SUPPLIERS
CONTRACTOR [10]
[9]

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[1] THE CLIENT

Is the person or company with the actual need for construction or building
works.

Has the responsibility of financing the whole project, infect s/he employs
directly or indirectly the entire team.

[2] THE ARCHITECT

S/he is the client’s agent and is considered to be the leader of the building
team. His roles include:

I. Interpreting the client’s requirements.

II. Translates the requirements and develops them into drawings.
III. Generally supervises all aspects of the project until completion.

[3] QUANTITY SURVEYOR

S/he is the client’s economic consultant or accountant and his roles

include:

I. Giving advice during the design stage on how the project can be done
within the client’s budget.
II. Measuring the quantity of labour and materials required.
III. Calculate and prepare the value of work done to enable interim
payments.
IV. Advises the architect on the cost of additional works or variations.
V. Prepares the final account of the work for presentation to the client
at the end of the contract.
VI. Prepares a bill of quantities [B.O.Q.] used by the contractors when
pricing building works.

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[4] SPECIALIST ENGINEER

Engaged by the Architect to assist in their areas of work and these include
civil, structural and service engineers.

S/he roles include:

I. Preparing drawings and calculations to enable contractors to quote

for their areas of work.
II. Make regular inspections to make certain installations are carried
out according to the designs.

[5] CLERK of WORKS (C.O.W.)

Appointed by the client or the architect to work as their on-site

representative.

S/he makes sure work is done according to drawings and contract

documents.

Make regular inspections on standard of work, materials and

workmanship.

Roles include:

I. Makes regular and relevant reports to the client and to the architect
and also keeps a daily record of events in case of disputes.
II. Makes general agreements with the contractor on how work can
effectively be carried out.

[6] LOCAL AUTHORITY [L.A.]

Has the responsibility that work is done or confirms to the requirements of

relevant building regulations [by-laws].

Employs planning officers, building inspectors to approve and inspect

construction works e.g building inspectors, health inspectors e.t.c.

Allocates land for construction projects and provides basic services like
provision of water, plumbing services, roads e.t.c.
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[7] BUILDING CONTRACTOR

Enters into a contract with the client or the architect to carry-out building
works.

To function effectively, contractors must establish and maintain good

working relationships within their organisation by:

a) Having good co-operation and communication within their various

sections.
b) Providing good working conditions.
c) Nurturing a good working spirit where worker are motivated,
rewarded for their success and allowed to work on their own
initiatives under supervision for the good of the company.

[8] HEALTH AND SAFETY INSPECTOR

Is employed to ensure that gvnt’s legislations concerning health and safety
are fully implemented by the contractor.
s/he ensures that:
a) Employees have the right safety attire for the work to be done.
b) Equipments, machinery are in safe working conditions
c) Operators of various machineries receive adequate safety knowledge
like: -safe working loads, -safe workings speed.

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TOPIC 2
BUILDING TOOLS
AIMS
 For the trainee to know the importance of using the correct tool for
the right job.
 To know and understand the care and maintenance given to various
building tools.

QUALITIES OF GOOD BUILDING TOOLS

 They should be durable [robust] –provide service for a long period of

time.
 Good tools should give accurate readings or measurements

When purchasing tools: cheap tools are not good to buy because they
may be eventually costly.
Tools should be bought from reputable manufacturers [eg] Stanely,
Wimbely, Gerdoe, Webco etc.
A good craftsman should take good care of his tools because they represent
part of his character.

CATEGORIES OF BUILDING TOOLS

Building tools are broadly classified under 4 categories:

[1] ALIGNMENT TOOLS

Used mainly to obtain truly vertical and horizontal surfaces. Under this
heading we have: the spirit level, line level, line and pins, straight edge,
gauge rod etc.
i. SPIRIT LEVEL
Mostly found within the range of 60mm to 1200mm.
-should be durable, able to resist occasional knocks
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 -should be long enough to give/provide better accuracy.
-spirit levels with adjustable bulbs are most preferable to those with
fixed bulbs.
Care & Maintenance
-rub with a dump cloth after a day’s work and store in cool and safe
place.
-avoid using it to push bricks into their final position.
-should not be left in direct sunlight

Uses
I. For plumbing vertical surfaces and leveling horizontal surfaces.
II. For transferring levels with the aid of a straight edge or a
builder’s line.
III. To align bricks within it’s length
IV. To construct inclined surfaces like gable ends and staircases

[2] MORTAR TOOLS

This group comprises of all tools which work with mortar either during
bricklaying, plastering or flooring.
These tools include the bricklayer’s trowel, steel and wooden floats,
internal and external corner tools and also all types of jointers.

The Bricklayer’s trowel

handle
Tongue
Rivet/stopper
blade ferrule
toe

neck/shank
225 - 275

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Uses of a bricklayer’s trowel
-for picking mortar from the mortar board and spreading it onto the wall.
-for rough cutting of soft bricks
-for mixing mortar in small quantities
-for knocking bricks into their final position using the edge of blade
-for joggling and farrowing

Care and maintenance

-wash it with water after’s work
-oil the blade if it is to be left for a long period time
-avoid knocking bricks into position using the stopper
-should not be used cutting hard bricks
-avoid using it for leverage purposes

[3] SETTING-OUT TOOLS

These include the builder’s square, builder’s line, measuring tape, club
hammer, pegs

[4]DIGGING AND CUTTING TOOLS

Under this category we have the bolster, comb or chasing hammer,
mattock, pick, spade, shovel
However some text books have other categories of building tools which
include: Measuring and Plastering tools of which tools under these
categories can be fused into the main groups.

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Topic 3
Building procedures
LOCATION OF BUILDNGS

This is done by considering factors like:

Accessibility
Intended use of the structure
Prevailing winds
Characteristics of a Good building site

I. Accessibility
A site should be well accessible. Materials to be delivered should
reach the site without any difficulties.
II. Water source
The provision of safe drinking on a site should be a first priority for
without it outbreak of diseases is likely to occur. Water for
construction purposes can be permanent or provided as work
proceeds.
III. Sanitation
A good site should have sanitary facilities and these should be
provided be for the commencement of actual construction works.
IV. Site should have effective communication networks in the form of
telephone lines, wireless systems or good road networks. These are
essential in reporting accidents, vandalism and also making material
delivery requests.
V. Accommodation
Sites should provide decent accommodation for employees during or
after working hours. Shelter for site administration and storage of
materials should be provided before commencement of work.

Preliminary site works

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These are normally done on new sites and it includes:

Provision of water and sanitary facilities

Improving accessibility, that is road networks for delivery of
materials.
Provision of temporary accommodation
Site clearance. This can be done either by hand or by machine
depending on the nature of the site.
On new sites, topsoil should be cleared to minimum depth of 150mm.
topsoil is composed of grassroots and humus thereby having an
unreliable Bearing capacity.
(MBBLZ [1977] chapter 2, section 25 subsection 1 and 2)

Setting Out

Setting out is the transferring of information from the drawings onto the
actual ground. It requires adequate knowledge of interpreting building
drawings which are building plans, elevations, sections and specifications.
This includes knowledge on scale drawing, building symbols, abbreviations
and also reading the measuring tape.

The first step is to establish a Building line. This a base line from where all
other setting out procedures are ascertained from.

In urban areas the building line will be clearly marked on the working
drawings [on the site plan].

It is usually ascertained from fixed points like existing buildings, kerb line
or from the centre of the road or as shown on the plan. It’s important to
check for accuracy of the building line to avoid infringement with the Local
Authority’s requirements.

Before setting out is done, a set of drawings should be submitted to the

Local Authority for approval.

Drawings for Approval

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According to the (MBBLZ [1977] Chapter 2, section 5, subsection 1, part 1
and 2) and Rural Council Act Chapter 211states that:

“No person shall construct a building or alter an existing one, or undertake

any sewerage works on any site until plans have been submitted to and
approved by the relevant Local Authority.”

The plans to be submitted include:

I. Site plan
It shows the location of the proposed building in relation to its
surrounding and site boundaries.
Scale: 1:200, 1:500
Indicates particulars of location which includes:
- Name of adjacent streets
- Building lines
- Dimensions of boundaries
- Position of proposed bldng and existing features
- Direction of true north
II. Working drawings
It is also known as the location drawing. It shows the position and
dimensions of the various rooms and spaces within the building.
Scale: 1:100, 1:50
Drawings indicate:
- Floor plan
- Elevations
- Sections
- Roof plan

Also shows:

- The owners details

- Name and stand number
- Intended use of all rooms
- Sanitary fittings

III. Sewerage and Drainage plans

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 Contents of these plans can be shown on the working drawings
though they can be shown separately

Setting-out a rectangular building

This can be done using the large builder’s square and 3:4:5 methods

Setting out a rectangular building using the 3:4:5 methods:

 Draw the baseline and mark points A and B 4m long along the line
 From point A draw a line approximately perpendicular to line AB
measure 3m and strike an arc
 From point B, measure 5m and strike an arc which intersects with
the arc 3m from point A
 Mark the point of intersection as C
NB the process creates a right angle at point A with AC- 3m, AB- 4m
and BC- 5m
 Measure the length or width of the building along AC or AB and
repeat the process to the other remaining corners.

A B

Use the diagonal method to check for accuracy.

a and b must be equal.

b

TOPIC 4
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BRICKWORK

A Standard Brick
Zim standard brick [230mm X 115mm X 75mm]
British standard [215mm X 102.5mm X 65mm]

KICK/FROG ARRIS
BED FACE

STRETCHER FACE
HEADER FACE

Bonding defined:
The arrangement of bricks in a pre-determined pattern maintaining
strength and stability.

The interlacement of bricks produced when they lap or project

beyond those immediately below or above them.

LAP

C
A
B
half lap

Terms in Bonding

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Course: a complete layer of bricks comprising of the unit and the mortar
joint[bed joint].
Bond: refers to a recognized arrangement of units in a wall.
[eg: stretcher bond]
Lap: the distance by which a brick project beyond the face of that
immediately below above or below. [eg: half lap]
Quoin: refers to a corner of a wall and can either be squint or right-angled
quoin.
Stopped-end: refers to a square termination of wall, no provision for future
extension is provided.
Bat: is a cut brick. [eg: a half brick]
Elevation: the view of an object or structure as it appears directly in front
of the viewer. Features hidden from the viewer are shown using hidden
feature lines.
Plan: the view of a structure or object as seen from the top.
Toothing: a method of providing for future extensions were alternate
courses are recessed.
Raking-back: another method of providing for future extensions were
consecutive courses are set back.
Indents: a method of providing for extensions mostly used on partitions
whereby bricks are laid on sand courses.

TOOTHING
STOPPED
END

RAKING-BACK

Reasons for Bonding

To maintain or enhance the strength and stability of the structure.

To facilitate even distribution of load among the units.
To maintain a recognized pattern on a wall hence giving a uniform
surface.
For decorative purposes. It improves the esthetic value of a structure.
Principles in Bonding

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In wall construction certain principles should be obeyed to satisfy the
above reasons and these include:
No perpendicular joints should coincide in consecutive courses.
No cut bricks less than a half bat should be used except a queen
closer which should only be placed next to a quoin header.
A quarter lap should be produced by introducing a queen closer next
to a quoin header or by using a three quarter bat.
Perpendicular joints should be kept in-line vertically as much as
possible.
When changing direction the bond also changes in the same course.

TYPES OF BONDS

There are various types of bonds but the common ones are:
1. Stretcher bond
2. English bond
3. English-garden wall bond

1 STRETCHER BOND

Consists of stretchers in consecutive courses maintaining half lap which is

obtained by introducing a half bat or a header on alternate courses at the
quoins.
Stretcher bond is mostly used on half brick thick walls [115mm] and on
block work.
Used where appearance is of secondary importance, on work to be
plastered unless when used on face work.

ELEVATION OF A WALL IN STRETCHER BOND

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 HALF BAT OR HEADER FACE

BED JOINT

PERP JOINT

STRETCHER FACE half lap

Half bat
PLAN OF COURSE 1

PLAN OF COURSE 2

PLAN OF COURSE 1 FOR 230mm THICK WALLS

Header Colar joint

PLAN OF COURSE 2

Transverse joint

Junctions in stretcher bond

Return Angle [115mm] Return Angle [230mm]

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 Half bat

Plan of course 1 Plan of course 1

Plan of course 2 Plan of course 2

ELEVATION ELEVATION

RAKING-BACK TOTHING

ISOMETRIC VIEW
Tee junction Cross junction

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Tie brick

Plan of course 1 plan of course1

Half bats

3 3
Plan of course 1 /4 bats /4 bats

Tie brick
Plan course2

ELEVATION

2 ENGLISH BOND

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Consists of headers and stretchers in alternate courses maintaining quarter
laps.
-said to be the strongest bond in wall construction hence its used in
external load bearing wall and in footing courses [brickwork in below d.p.c
level.
The quarter lap is obtained by introducing a queen closer next to a quoin
header.

Header course
Quoin header

Stretcher course
Quarter lap
ELEVATION
Queen closer

PLAN OF COURSE 1
Bed face Transverse joints

Longitudinal / Collar
joint

PLANOF COURSE 2

Junctions in English

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Return Angle Tee Junction

Plan of course 1 Plan of course 1

Plan of course 2 Plan of course 2

ELEVATION ELEVATION

The cross junction

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Plan of course 1

Plan of course 2

Elevation
Continuous outline showing visible corners of the junction
3 ENGLISH GARDEN-WALL BOND

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Consist of a header course followed by an odd number of stretcher courses.
It incorporates both the aspects of the stretcher bond and the English bond
on elevation.
It should be a common practice to maintain the same number of stretcher
courses through-out the wall. [1:3] or [1:5].
The header course can be laid using bricks of contrasting colour as a way of
decorating the structure.
Its stronger than the stretcher bond since the header course terminates the
collar joint which is continuously found on walls in stretcher bond.

English bond

Stretcher bond

Elevation [1:3]
[* Plan of courses are the same as those for English and stretcher bond]

Double Return Angle

Continuous outline

showing visible corners

of the junction

Lines showing junction hidden from viewer

Elevation
Double Return Angle

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 Plan of course 1

Plan of course 2

Plan of course 3

Plan of course 4

Plan of course 5

WALL CONSTRUCTION
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Methods of work
Apart from principles and rules in bonding, other essentials in wall
construction are that walls should be:
i. Truly plumb
ii. Truly level
iii. Square
iv. Well gauged
Plumbing
Defined as the establishment of true vertical surfaces which are at right
angles to a true level surface. A true vertical surface is that which is in line
with pull of gravity
A wall which is out of level leaning outwards is said be overhanging.
A wall which is out of level leaning inwards is said to be battering.
Plumbing is done with a spirit level using the plumbing bulb. The bulb has
two markings on it and when plumbing the spirit bulb in the tube should be
centralized between the two markings.

Plumbing bulb

Leveling bulb

Leveling
Can be defined as the establishing of relative heights on the earth’s surface.
A true level surface is that which is perpendicular to the pull of gravity.
Leveling bulb plumbing bulb

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A wall which is out of level is said to have a pig-in a wall. To avoid
constructing walls which are out level, all levels on site should be
ascertained from a common fixed point known as a Datum point or datum
peg.
The relationship between plumbing and leveling is that the two planes or
axis intersect at right angles.
Gauging
Concerned with making courses to have the same thickness and the course
thickness is marked on a gauge rod. A gauge rod can be of metal or timber
but 38mm X 38mm timber sections are commonly used.
A course comprises of the unit [brick] with a thickness of 75mm or 65mm
and the mortar joint [the bed joint] having a minimum thickness of 5mm
and maximum thickness of 20mm.

Ways of laying bricks

In wall construction there are 6 ways of laying a standard bricks:
i. As a stretcher -with the stretcher face on elevation.

75

230
ii. As a header -with the header face on elevation.

75

115
iii. As brick on end -with the header face on elevation and the
stretcher face lying on the bed joint.

75
115

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iv. As a brick on edge -with the bed face on elevation and the stretcher
face on the bed joint.

230

115

v. As a sailor -with the bed face on elevation and the header face
on the bed joint.

115

230

vi. As a soldier -with the stretcher face on elevation and the header
face on the bed joint.
75

230

Working along the line

Working along the line is termed running-in and it’s made with the aid of
corner blocks other than using line and pins.

It must be a common practice to leave a gap between the line and the brick
to avoid disturbing the line.

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Openings on walls

These are made for some of the following reasons:

To admit light into the building
For ventilation purposes
To provide acess into and within the various rooms of the building.
To give a decorative appearance.

Such openings include:

Window openings
Door openings
Verandas

Light admmittence
The MBBLZ chapter 8, section 3 states that only openings or portions of
openings situated 300mm above the floor level shall be included in the area
of required daylight openings.
Section 4, subsection [1] states the minimum permissible area required for
daylight openings expressed as a percantage of the floor area:
 Kitchen - 12%
 Workrooms / workshops - 15%
 Other habitable rooms - 10%

Ventilation area
MBBLZ chapter 10, section 5, sub-section [1] states that every habitable
room shall have an opening of an aggregate area not less than 5% of the
floor area.
Sub-section [2] states that such opening shall included on the external
walls of the building.

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BRIDGING OF OPENING
This can be done by either of the following methods:
 Arch construction
 Construction of a lintel

ARCHES
Defined as curved constructions on walls. They provide a more ornmental
way of bridging openings than lintels.
Arches are generally classified under 3 groups which are:
1) Rough arches
2) Fine axed arches
3) Gauged arches

Rough Arches
Little or no cutting of bricks is done on this type.
Joints are wedge shaped because of the curved construction.
Mostly used on work to be plastered, work which does not require a high
standard finish.

Fine-axed Arches
Carefully set out with bricks cut to the same size in wedge shape.
Has a pleasing appearance and can be used on general face work.

Gauge Arches
Built using purpose made bricks producing a very ornamental piece of
work. Requires a lot preparatory work before layng the bricks to produce
even joints and smooth curves.

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Terms in Arch construction
i. Voussiors –these are the individual bricks used in arch construction.
ii. Span –the distance between the jambs. The distance in-between the
wall supporting the arch or the springing points.
iii. Soffit –this is the surface of the underside of an arch.
iv. Springing points –these are points from where the arch curve starts.
v. Rise –the vertical distance from the centre of the springing line to the
highest point on the soffit.
vi. Key brick –the highest or central brick on an arch. It’s ussually the
last brick to placed in position during arch construction.
vii. Crown –the highest point of an arch upon where the key brick is
placed.
viii. Intrados –the underside edge of an arch as seen on elevation. The
voussiors for rough arches are set out on this curve.
ix. Extrados –the upper edge of an arch as seen on elevation. The
voussiors for fine-axed and gauged arches are set out on this curve.
x. Haunch –the lower part of an arch from the springing point half way
to the crown.
xi. Skew back –the sloping abutments from where the aech springs.
xii. Striking point –the centre point from where the curve of an arch is
drawn. This is the centre of rotation. Voussiors should radiate from
this point and they be said to be normal to the curve of the arch.

Crown keybrick

Extrados voussiors

Haunch

Skew back rise soffit

Span striking point

springing point

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 TYYPES OF ARCHES
1) Segmental Arches

Under this type we also find the Rough, Fine-axed and Gauge arches.

The Rough Segmental Arch

Constructed using normal shaped bricks resulting in ‘V” shaped or

wedge shaped joints.
Used on work to be plastered or work to be covered by cladding. No
cutting of bricks is required.
Key brick

C extrados

A B

skew back soffit

auxiliary circle striking point

Geometrical construction

I. Draw the span AB and bisect it

II. Mark the rise C
III. Join points A and C
IV. Bisect AC and extent it until it intersects the bisector of the span at O
V. With O as centre, radius OA or OB draw an arc joining points ACB
which becomes the intrados of the arch.
VI. With centre O, radius OA + depth of face, draw an arc to form the
extrados of the arch.
VII. Mark the voussiours on the intrados
VIII. Draw an auxiliary circle at point O with a diameter equal to the
thickness of the brick.
IX. To draw the voussiours, radiate lines alternating from the tangents of
the circle and it forms the wedge shaped joint.

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 2) The Semi-circular Arch
We also find the three groups of arches under this category. The dead
man used for the type of this arch is termed the arch centre.

Geometrical construction of the Rough circular Arch

Draw the span AB and bisect it.
The radius of the arch is ½ the span and it makes the rise of the
arch.
The centre of the span is the striking point to draw the intrados
and the extrados.
Draw the auxiliary circle and follow the same procedures as for
the rough segmental arch.

LINTELS

These are horizontal beams bridging over openings. Can either be concrete,
wood, steel or brick lintels.

In concrete works, reinforced concrete is used and this can either be pre-
cast or in-situ cast.

The points or the place where the lintel rests transmitting it’s load to is
termed the abutments.

Lintels should rest on abutments by a minimum distance of 150mm and

this distance is termed bearing.

Reinforcements are place near the bottom of the lintel to counter act the
action of tensile stress. The distance to be left between the reinforcements
and the bottom part of the lintel is termed concrete cover.

Pre-cast lintels should be clearly marked top or bottom for the correct
positioning of reinforcements.

J. MAGA | 36
 Action of forces on Lintels

compressional force lintel failing under load

Reinforcements load

tensile force
abutments

bearing span

DOORS AND WINDOW FRAMES

These can either be of metal or wood and can be fixed during or after
construction of walls.

It’s advisable to fit frame during construction to produce a strong unit.

Frames are fixed to the wall by building the lugs on their sides into the
walls.

Fixing a door frame

Identify the frame to be positioned.

Support the frame using props with nails driven at the ends to hold
the frame in position.
Plumb and level the frame by adjusting it were necessary by pushing
or pulling the props.
Place weights at the base of the props to avoid free movements of the
frame.
Fix a distance piece at the centre of the frame to avoid bricks pushing
it inwards.

J. MAGA | 37
 You can mark your courses on the frame using your gauge rod and
stretch your line from the frame.
Lay your bricks against the frame and apply mortar on the space
between the frame and the bricks as work proceeds.
Secure the frame into wall by building in lugs into walls or by fixing
hoop irons onto the frame and then build into the wall.
Secure at least 3 lugs on each side of the frame. Two in-line with the
bottom and top hinges and the third in line with the key box or at the
centre of the frame.

Space between wall and frame to

be filled with mortar vertical surfaces to
be frequently checked
for plumpness

Lugs to be built into the wall

Door frame

Brick wall

When working with timber frame, secure hoop irons to the frame by
driving wire nails or wood screws into the frame.

J. MAGA | 38
TOPIC: 5
FOUNDATIONS AND FLOOR construction

Foundation: part of the structure which is in direct contact with the natural
ground.
-part of the substructure which transmit the weight of the whole
structure to the natural ground.
Terms in foundations
I. Backfill- refers to excavated materials from trenches which
when suitable can be used to fill in and around the walls.
II. Bearing capacity- the safe load which the soil can carry without
sinking.
III. Bearing pressure- the weight/ force per unit area being exerted
to the ground by a structure.
IV. Dead load- refers to load from permanent elements of the
structure like the roof and that from all permanent fittings.
V. Imposed load- load from movable property, occpants and their
belongings.
VI. Natural foundation- refers to the permanent rock or ground on
which a structure is to be constructed upon.
VII. Artificial foundation- refers to the man-made foundation
VIII. Settlement-refers to ground movement caused by:

Both dead and imposed loads from the structure

Changes in volume of ground water as a result of
seasonal changes.
Mass movement of the soil in unstable areas
Vibration of heavy machinery
IX. Damp proofing- is a way of preventing the penetration of
moisture into a building or structure.

J. MAGA | 39
Classes of dpc and an example in each class:

a) Flexible dpc like bituminous felt and damp-proof membrane.

b) Semi-rigid dpc like asphalt and lead
c) Rigid dpc like slate and engineering bricks laid in English bond.

The Building Regulations states that no wall or pier shall permit moisture
movement from the ground up the wall or into the inner surface of the
structure.

A horizontal damp proof material must be incorporated on the wall at a

minimum height of 150mm from the highest point on the ground.

Building regulations on foundations

a) Should be able to receive, sustain and safely transmit to the ground
both dead and imposed load imposed on it.
- This should occur without causing settlement or any movement
which might impair the strength and stability of the structure.

b) A foundation shall be taken to such a depth and be so constructed

that it will safeguard the structure against damage by swelling,
shrinking or freezing of the subsoil.

c) Should be capable of resisting any attack by sulphates or other

deleterious substances which might be in the soil.

Choice of foundation type

The choice of a type of foundation to use is done after a physical visit and
site investigation is done. Factors considered include:
a) The bearing capacity of the soil on the site
b) Topography of the site
c) Purpose or intended use of the structure
d) Excavation costs

J. MAGA | 40
Types of foundations
There are four basic types of foundations which are:
Strip Foundation
Type of foundation which is used on most low rise buildings. The width of
the foundation should be at least 3 times the thickness of the wall. The
thickness of should be equal to the projection but in no case should it be
less than 150mm.
A

Should be equal to B but in case

less than 150mm

Ax3

Stepped Foundation
Type of foundation used on sloping grounds to reduce the amount of
excavation and materials to be used on the substructure. Steps to be set in
multiples of course thickness to avoid use of split bricks. They should
overlap to a minimum of 300mm and the concrete should have minimum
thickness of 150mm.
To be in multiples of course thickness

Minimum 150mm steps may be bevelled

300 minimum overlap

J. MAGA | 41
Raft Foundation
Type of foundation which covers the whole area upon where the structure
is to be constructed. Suitable on loose and unstable soils.
Can be reinforced and thickened under walls for added strength. Should be
constructed with an apron to prevent water from scouring underneath the
concrete slab.
Finished floor level
Apron

Raft thickened under walls reinforcements

Pad Foundation
Most suitable on framed structures where the roof is to be supported
by columns either of concrete, steel or bricks. Eternal walls will be
built as curtain or panel walls not for load bearing purposes.
Panel wall or ground beam

brick column pad foundation base plate

floor slab ground beam steel column

bolt and nut
pad foundation
plan
cross section

J. MAGA | 42
FLOOR CONSTRUCTION
A floor can be defined as the interior base of any development or building
which is boarded by the envelope walls.

Floors are classified are classified under 3 categories:

1. Basement floors –these are floors below the natural ground level.
Access is by means of staircase or by hoists [lifts]
2. Ground floors – floors at the natural ground level. This class of floors
is found on most if not all types of buildings.
3. Upper floors – floors above the natural ground level. Access is also by
means of staircases or by hoists.

Functional Requirements

i. All floors resting on the natural ground should be impermeable

ii. Floors should be able to receive and sustain then safely transmit both
dead and imposed loads to the ground.
iii. Floors should be thermal and sound insulators.
iv. All floors should be durable and so constructed to serve the intended
purpose of the structure.

Types of Floors

There are two common types of floors which are:

a) Solid floor
b) Suspended floor

The Solid Floor

The most common type of floor on most buildings. Can be found in all the
classes of floors. [basements, ground and upper floors]

When constructed on buildings without basements, they rest directly on

the natural ground and will be termed Solid ground floors.

J. MAGA | 43
 THE SOLID GROUND FLOOR

Floor finish [tiles or cements slurry]

230
30mm Floor screed [cement/river sand]
100mm Concrete Floor Slab

d.p.c. damp proof membrane

150 30mm Blinding [sand or ash]

n.g.l. 150mm Hardcore

450 natural earth

Back fill [compactable gravel]

690 200mm Concrete foundation [mass concrete]

Solid floors on upper levels will not have the hardcore and the blinding.
They act as the roof for those underneath and as a floor to those at their
level.

i. Floor finish – the final finishing done on top of the floor screed to give
to serve the desired purpose. This can be tiling or floor topping. If the
building requires a rough floor finish, the screed can be finished by
floating using a wooden float.

ii. Floor screed – should have a minimum thickness of 30mm consisting

of cement and river sand in the proportion of 1:3 or 4. Should be
mixed to a semi-dry state or so as to bond well with the floor slab.
Can be the final floor finish depending on the purpose of the building.
The floor screed is normally finished with a wooden float finish.

iii. Concrete floor slab – mostly mass concrete [unreinforced] having a

minimum thickness of 100mm. The concrete should be well
compacted to form a dense unit in the proportion of 1:3:6. The floor
slab should be finished so as to provide a key to the floor screed
[rough finished]. In some buildings, the floor slab can be laid so as to
J. MAGA | 44
 provide the final floor finish and completed with a wooden float
finish.

iv. Damp proof membrane – laid to prevent moisture rising from the
ground up the floor. Polythene sheets [plastics] are normally used
and it should overlap with the d.p.c. on the external wall.

v. Blinding – consist of river sand or ash with a minimum thickness of

30mm laid to protect the d.p.m. from being punctured by the material
forming the hardcore.

vi. Hardcore – should be constructed to a minimum thickness of 150mm

using compactable materials. Non-decomposable materials only
should be used like broken bricks, stone and gravel.
The hardcore can be laid on top of backfill. The backfill should be well
compacted at 250 to 300mm intervals.

Methods of Laying Solid Floors

1) Monolithic Method
A process whereby the floor slab, the floor screed and the floor
topping are laid continuously. This method provides a very strong
and durable floor since the floor will be comprised of one unit.

2) The Separate method

A process whereby the screed and the topping are laid after the
concrete work has since been done. When laying the floor screed:
 the concrete slab should be hacked
 well cleaned and all loose and dust particles removed
 some powder cement should be sprinkled
 The slab should be wetted so as to form a good bond between
the slab and the screed.
 The screed can be laid in sections to obtain accurate levels and
easy cutting using the straight edge.

J. MAGA | 45
THE SUSPENDED GROUND FLOOR

230 Skirting Board

Floor Boards [eg T&G]

Floor Joist [75mm x 50mm]

d.p.c.

Air Brick [38x38mm] Wall plate

d.p.c. d.p.c. 125min Honey comb wall

100mm floor slab

150

150mm Hardcore

450 Backfill [compactable gravel]

690 200mm Concrete Foundation

J. MAGA | 46
TOPIC: 6
ROOF construction
Roof

This is the framework above walls upon where covering materials are fixed
or placed.

Functional requirements:

Must be strong and stable

Must be durable

Roof covering: refers to the materials used to cover the framework eg

asbestos, grass, tiles, plastic and corrugated iron sheets.

Pitch: refers to the angle of slope or inclination between the framework

and the horizontal members or surfaces.

Pitches for various roof covering materials:

Asbestos- 150

Corrugated iron sheets 100

Tiles- 350

Grass [thatch] 450

Roofs are classified are according to shape of construction or pitch. There

are two basic types or classes of roofs:

1) Flat roofs
2) Pitched roofs

Flat Roof

This is a type of roof with a pitch that is not more than 100

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Pitched Roof

A type of roof with a pitch more than 100. Under this heading we have:

i. Gable-end roof
A double pitched type of a roof with the shorter end terminating with
a triangular section of brickwork. This is the most common type of
roof on many structures.

ii. Hipped-end roof

A double pitched type of a roof with the roof slope returned around
the shorter end to form a sloping triangular section.

iii. Gambriel roof

A double pitched roof with the shorter end having a small gable at the
ridge and lower part having a half hip.

iv. Mansard roof

A double pitched roof where each side has two pitches. The lower
part has a steep pitch while the upper part rarely exceeds 300 the
shorter ends may be finished with a gable-end or a hipped-end.

J. MAGA | 48
Most roofs are constructed of timber and we have purlin roofs and trussed
roofs.

Purlin roof is mostly used on small size dwellings whereas trussed roofs
are for buildings with large spans [width] ranging from dwellings to
industrial complexes.

Section through a Trussed Roof

Ridge
Roofing sheets purlins
Queen post king post
wallplate strut

Cornice
ceiling board ceiling brandering ext wall

d.p.c floor screed concrete slab

150

150 hardcore blinding 450

690 concrete foundation

J. MAGA | 49
Topic 7
Heat and fire science
Fire triangle: a model used to show or illustrate the components necessary
for most types of fires.

The elements should be present in correct proportions for a fire to start

and to extinguish a fire you eliminate one of the elements:

i. An oxidising agent [oxygen]

ii. Fuel

iii. Heat oxygen[blue] heat [red]

Fuel [brown]

Fire starts when all these elements are present in their correct proportions:

i. Oxygen- this supports combustion by providing a combustible

gas.

ii. Heat- essential for the fire to start and helps to remove
moisture from nearby fuel thereby pre-heating the material
like wood.

iii. Fuel- this is the combustible material like papers, combustible

liquids etc.

4 types of fire and their control measures:

i. Class A [Green, ordinary combustibles]

Fire from ordinary combustibles like wood, papers, cloth, grass etc. this
type of fire represented by green triangle and can be controlled by water or
by the use of fire extinguishers with the green colour code containing
carbon dioxide.

J. MAGA | 50
 ii. Class B [Red, flammable liquids and gasses]

This fire from liquids like petrol, diesel and are represented by a red
triangle and can easily controlled by fire extinguishers labelled class B.
cannot be controlled by water because it causes the liquids to float on top
and the fire continues.

iii. Class C [Blue, electrical fire]

Fire caused mainly by electrical faults like short circuits in electrical

equipment. Represented by a blue triangle and these cannot be controlled
by water but by using specific fire extinguishers and also by switching off
power supply.

iv. Class D [Yellow, combustible metals]

Involves fire from combustible metals as a source of fuel. Represented by a

yellow triangle and can be controlled easily by class A extinguishers which
contain carbon dioxide to reduce oxygen.

Ways of heat transfer:

i. Conduction- transfer of heat between materials in direct contact

or in metals. Heat travels from high to low temperatures until the
whole body has a uniform temperature.

ii. Convection- the transfer or movement of heat in liquids like

during boiling water.

iii. Radiation- the movement of heat through space or in the air, does
not require body contact.

J. MAGA | 51
 Definition of terms:

i. Flue- a duct or pipe which conveys burnt gasses into the

atmosphere.

ii. Chimney- the structure enclosing a flue or flues. This mostly of

brickwork.

iii. Hearth- part of a fireplace upon where fire is made.

iv. Chimney stack- part of the chimney which projects above the roof of
the building.

Fire place construction

Minimum diameter 100mm
flue
flue lining]
concrete lintel

fireback
superimposed hearth

constructional hearth

hardcore

concrete foundation

J. MAGA | 52
Single breast fire place in English bond

Plan of Course 1

Plan of Course 2

Elevation

J. MAGA | 53