CHAPTER ONE

GASEOUS STATE

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1.1. The Four States Of Matter
Matter can be described simply as the "stuff" that makes up all material things in the
universe. By definition, matter is anything that has mass and occupies a space. In
fact, chemistry is a science that deals with matter and the changes that it undergoes.
Four states of matter are observable in everyday life: solid, liquid, gas and plasma.
Further states are possible but do not naturally occur in our environment.
1.2. Differences between Solids, Liquids, Gases and Plasma:
A solid has a definite shape and volume. Many solids are crystalline; they have three-
dimensional shape. The properties of solids can be explained at the atomic level. The
tightly packed particles (atoms) are held together by strong attractive forces. There is
little motion of the atoms in a solid, only a slight vibration within the crystal lattice.
Solids are very difficult to be compressed because the molecules are already very
close together.
Unlike solids, liquids take the shape of their containers except for a generally flat
surface at the top. Like solids, however, liquids maintain a nearly constant volume and
very difficult to be compressed. Also unlike solids, liquids flow, but some liquids flow
more readily than others. The viscosity of a liquid is a measure of its resistance to
flow and is one of the special properties of each liquid.
Gases do not have a definite shape or volume; they take the shape and volume of the
container they occupy. Gases expand to fill completely whatever container they
occupy, but also can be compressed into smaller containers. For example, air can be
compressed into a steel tank and used by a diver, under water, for a period of time.
Gases also diffuse rapidly; that is, they mix with other gases as they move to fill the
available space.
Air is a mixture of several gases including nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), a little
argon (less than 1%), and traces of other gases including carbon dioxide and neon.
The molecules of gases are moving faster than those of liquids and solids and the
molecules of gases are moving in a Brownian random movement.

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Plasma, doesn’t have definite shape or volume like a gas, unlike gases plasma are
electrically conductive, produce magnetic fields and electric current. It consists of
positively charged nuclei swim in a sea of freely-moving electrons. Those electrons
allow matter in plasma state to conduct electricity. Examples of matters in plasma
state: Sun, neon light, electric sparks and plasma TVs. A gas is usually converted to
plasma by heating to extremely high temperature (as during nuclear fusion) where
electrons leave the atoms and form a sea of free electrons.

1.3. Intermolecular forces between the molecules

There is one key idea that you should understand if you are to appreciate the
differences between the four states of matter, you should know that the state depends
on the intermolecular forces between the molecules and also on the temperature or
thermal energy which moves them apart.
The distance between the molecules of gases and plasma is relatively long and the
intermolecular forces between the molecules are very weak when compared with the
molecules of solids and liquids where the intermolecular forces between the molecules
are strong and hence the molecules are very close.

1.4. Kinetic- Molecular Theory of Gases

The Principal Assumptions of the Kinetic-Molecular Theory

1- A gas is made up of very small particles known as molecules (or atoms for inert

gases) that are in constant random, straight line motion.

2- These particles have the same mass.

3- The number of molecules is so large that statistical treatment may be applied.

4- Molecules of a gas are far apart, which means that a gas is mostly empty space.

5- There are no forces between molecules except during the instant of collision. Each

molecule acts independently of all the others.

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 6- Individual molecules may gain or lose energy as a result of collisions, but in a
collection of molecules at constant temperature, the total energy remains constant.

By applying the principals of this theory, the scientists became able to:

 Understand the behavior of gases.

 Calculate the pressure of a gas which is a result of the collision of the molecules with
the wall of the container.

 Calculate the average kinetic energy of gas molecules.

1.5. Temperature of Gases

Temperature of gases has great effect on many gas-characteristics and on the physical
state of gases. The absolute temperature is known by Kelvin temperature (K) where

T (K) = T (C) + 273.15 (C means Celsius) and hence:

Absolute zero of temperature = 0 K = 273.15 C.

As temperature of the gases increases the velocity of the molecules and the degree of
disorder of them increase also the distance between them increases.

The temperature is a measure of heat content of a system and also is a measure of the
average kinetic energy of the molecules.

* The average kinetic Energy, E for one gas molecule:

𝟏 𝟑
E= m v2 = kT
𝟐 𝟐

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Where E is average kinetic energy of a gas molecule, m is mass of one molecule and v
is the average velocity of all molecules, T is the absolute temperature (Kelvin) and k is
Boltzmann's constant, of value 1.38 x 10-23 J K-1.

E of a gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature T

The Main Effects of Increasing Temperature of Gases

 Average kinetic energy of the molecules increases and hence their velocity increase.
 The degree of disorder (Entropy) increases.
 Heat content increases.
 Attraction forces between molecules decreases and distance between molecules
increases.
 The pressure and volume of this gas increase.

1.6. Gas laws:

 Pressure law:-
The pressure exerted by a constant amount of gas when measured under the condition
of constant volume is found to vary linearly with its absolute temperature. Or for
certain constant amount of gas under constant volume the pressure is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature.

P α T (for constant amount of gas at constant volume) constant amount of gas means
constant mass (m) and constant number of moles (n). The mathematical form is:

P1/P2 = T1/T2
 * Charle’s Law:-
The volume occupied by a constant amount of gas when measured under the
condition of constant pressure varies linearly with its temperature. Or for constant
amount of gas under constant pressure, the volume is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature.

V α T (for certain constant amount of gas at constant pressure) and the mathematical
form is:

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 V1/V2 = T1 / T2

 * Boyle's law:-
At constant temperature, the pressure exerted by a given amount of gas varies
inversely with its volume.

P α 1/V [fixed amount of gas at constant temperature] the mathematical form is:

P1/P2 =V2/V1 or P1V1 = P2V2

 * Avogadro`s law
Equal volumes of all gases measured under the same conditions of pressure and
temperature contain an equal number of moles and hence equal number of molecules.

V α no of moles @ [constant P, T]
V α n @ [constant P, T]
From the previous laws we come to a conclusion that : for constant amount of a
gas :

P1V1 / T1 = P2V2 / T2

1.7. The mole

The mole of a certain substance is defined by the amount of this substance which
contains 6.022x1023 [Avogadro's number (NA)] of elementary entities. The
elementary entities in solid carbon are atoms of carbon C; in inert helium gas are
atoms of helium He; in oxygen gas, they are molecules of oxygen O 2. This number of
elementary entities found in any mole has been experimentally determined to be
6.022x1023 = Avogadro's number = NA.

Hence one mole of oxygen gas contains 6.022x1023 oxygen (O2) molecules and one
mole of helium contains 6.022x1023 helium (He) atoms. We may have a fraction of

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 mole, but never have a fraction of an atom. (The gas molecules consist of two atoms
or more, except inert gases which consist of one atom).

The number of moles (n) of any gas may be calculated from the number of molecules
of this gas:

n = number of molecules / 6.022x1023

1.8. The Molar mass or formula mass (Molecular weight) [M]:-

It is the mass of 1 mole expressed in grams. The molar mass of any substance depends
on its chemical formula. For molecules consist of more than one atom it is the sum of
the atomic masses of its atoms and for mono-atomic inert gases as helium, the molar
mass equal the atomic mass.

The atomic masses of some atoms are given below:

O = 16, N = 14, C = 12, H = 1, He = 4, Na = 23, Kr = 86.

The molar masses of some gases are given below:

Oxygen gas O2 = 16+16 =32 g/mol.
Nitrogen gas N2 = 14+14 =28 g/mol.
Carbon dioxide CO2 = 12 + 16 + 16 = 44 g/mol.
Hydrogen gas H2 = 1+1 =2 g/mol.
Sodium hydroxide NaOH = 23 + 16 + 1 = 40 g/mol.
Helium, He = 4 g/mol.

 *Number of moles n: may be calculated from mass of gas and its molar mass or from
the number of molecules as follows:
n = mass of gas in g/molar mass (M) = number of molecules / 6.022x1023

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1.9. Molar volume:-
It is the volume of 1.0 mole. Molar volume of any gas at standard conditions (STP),
i.e. at 1 atm. and 273 K equal to 22.4 liter.

Molar volume of any gas = 22.4 lit. [at 0oC and 1 atm ]

1.10. Ideal Gas Equation of State:

Boyle`s law V α 1/P (constant n, T)
Charle`s law V α T (constant n, P)
Avogadro`s law V α n (constant P, T)

By combination V α nT/P
PVα nT

P V= n R T

R: is called the universal gas constant.

n ( number of moles )  always in mole
T (temperature) is always in Kelvin K = 273 + oC
If pressure P is in atm, and volume V is in liter, the value of constant R is:
R = 0.082 L. atm / mol. K
If pressure P is in Pascal (N/m2) and volume V is in m3, the value of the
constant R is: R = 8.314 N. m / mol. Or K = 8.314 J / mol. K
Proof:
@ 1 atm and 0oC (273 K), V = 22.4 liter for 1 mole i.e. n= 1
PV = n R T, R = P V/ n T
Hence R = (1.0 atm.) (22.4 l) / (1.0 mol) (273 K )
R = 0.082 lit. atm /mol. K

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OR: R = (1.013x105 N/m2) (22.4 x10-3 m3) / (273 K) (1.0 mol)
R = 8.314 Nm/ mol K = 8.314 J/ mol K
Example: Find the pressure exerted by 20 g hydrogen gas occupying 300
ml at 20oC.
Answer: V= 300/1000 = 0.3 l, T = 20 + 273 = 293 K, n= 20/2 = 10 mole,
hence
PV = n R T, P (0.3) = 10 * (0.082)* (293), P = 800.86 atm.