American Philological Association

Modern Performance and Adaptation of Greek Tragedy Author(s): Helene P. Foley Source: Transactions of the American Philological Association (1974-), Vol. 129 (1999), pp. 1-12 Published by: The Johns Hopkins University Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/284422 . Accessed: 06/10/2011 06:02
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Transactionsof the AmericanPhilological Association 129 (1999) 1-12

residentialAddress 1998
Washington, D.C.

ModernPerformanceand Adaptationof Greek Tragedy

Helene P. Foley Barnard College, Columbia University "Leave it to a playwright who has been dead for 2,400 years to jolt Broadway out of its dramatic doldrums" begins a recent New York Times review (December 4, 1998) of a British Electra by Sophocles starringZoe Wanamaker and Claire Bloom. This fall the Timeshas repeatedlyremarkedon the "deluge" of Greek tragedy in the 1998-99 theater season: the National Theater of Greece's Medea, Joanne Akalaitis' The Iphigeneia Cycle (a double bill that combines Euripides' two Iphigeneia plays), a revival of Andrei Serban's famous Fragments of a Greek Trilogy, and a four-and-a-half-hour adaptationof the Oedipus Rex were announced at the start of the season. Off-off Broadway versions will inevitably follow. The Brooklyn Academy of Music even hosted a dance/theatre piece based on the Eleusinian Mysteries.' The Classic Stage Company, an off-Broadway theater group devoted to performance and adaptation of Western classics, currently receives more scripts that re-work Greektragedythan any other category of drama.2 From a global perspective, New York is simply reflecting a trend set by important modern playwrights and directors worldwide. Greek drama now occupies a regularplace in the London theaterseason. In the past twenty years, acclaimed productionshave been mountednot only in Europebut also in Japan, India, and Africa. Translations are even beginning to proliferate in China, occasionally with unexpected results. A recent Chinese translatorof Sophocles' OedipusRex referredto all the Greek gods generically as Apollo, since he could count on his audience's ability to recognize this name from the United States

l"TheMysteriesof Eleusis,"directed Vasilios Calitsis,October1998. by 2Asreported LeonoreChampagne. by

Helene P. Foley

The Greek theaterfestival at Delphi has played host to many of space program.3 these performances, with the result that, for example, the Greek National Theater's 1998 performance of Medea showed a significant Japanese influence.4What accounts for this currentrevival of Greek dramaand what are its implications for us as scholars and teachers of Classics? As classicists, we tend to do a good deal of soul-searching about our field's relevance for and interest to an increasingly diverse modem audience. The reception of the Classics in popular culture, from Disney's Hercules to New Age goddess worship, might at times disconcert some of us, but for contemporary artists, from poets and playwrights to film-makers and composers, our texts are certainly neither dead nor viewed as the property of dead white males. Feminist classical scholars have wrung their hands over the difficulties of handling the misogynistic elements of Greek drama in a classroom, but this has not excluded from the stage feminist versions of Greek dramasuch as the French directorAriane Minouchkine's famous Les Atrides (a tetralogy including the Iphigeneia at Aulis and the Oresteia), the English poet Tony Harrison's Medea: A Sex War Opera, or the American playwright and actress Ellen McLaughlin's Iphigeneia and Other Daughters.5 Despite debate over the Western canon in United States universities, Rita Dove, the AfricanAmerican poet who recently served as poet laureate of the United States, published in 1994 (revised 1996) The Darker Face of the Earth, an adaptation of Oedipus Rex set in the pre-civil-war South. An Alaskan Yup'ikAntigone that toured Europe in 1985 included a shaman Tiresias and tribal masks and music that enhancedthe heroine's stirringdefense of traditionalInuit mores.6 Moreover, many of these performancesand adaptationshave served as a meeting ground for an immense variety of theatrical traditions. The use of mask, dance, music, ritual, and poetry in Eastern and other world theater traditions not only overlaps with that of Greek tragedy, but offers an opportunityto bring to life those aspects of ancient dramathat are alien to the tradition of Western nineteenth-centuryrealism. Thus, although world theater has generally had a pervasive influence on contemporaryavant-gardetheaterin

1986:79. 3Niansheng 1998. September 4CityCenter,directedby Niketi Kontouri, 1985. McLaughlin's 5Harrison by play was performed the Classic Stage Companyin New 1995. YorkCity anddirectedby DavidEsjomson,January-March Pouch 68, Bethel, Alaska, AK 99559. 6Availableon video from KYUK-TVProductions, 1987. See also Hunsaker

Modem Performanceand Adaptationof GreekTragedy

the West, it develops a special resonance in the case of Greek tragedy. Minouchkine's Les Atrides, for example, drew on multiple Asian traditions including Indian Kathakali and Japanese Kabuki and Noh. The Japanese director Suzuki Tadashi brought Noh drama into confrontationwith Western mores and traditions in his Bacchae, Trojan Women,and Clytemnestra.The African Nobel laureateWole Soyinka's The Bacchae: A CommunionRite drew on a variety of popularmusical and stage traditionsincluding African-American gospel and British vaudeville and mayday dances. The white authors and producers of the much-revived The Gospel at Colonus brought Sophocles' Oedipus at Colonus alive as a sermon performedby African-Americansingers and actors before an African-Americangospel chorus. The adaptationenabled the directors to create both a powerful relation between chorus and actors/singersand a communitywith a genuine stake in the action. Scholarship on the performanceand adaptationof Greek tragedy in the United States has begun to appearin the InternationalJournal of the Classical Tradition, Classical and Modern Literature, Arion, the electronic journal Didaskalia, and a range of theater journals as well as in books by such pioneering scholars as Marianthe Colakis, Karelisa Hartigan, and, preeminently, MarianneMcDonald.7The recent Cambridge Companion to Greek Tragedy contains two important articles on the topic.8 The Archive of Performancesof Greek and Roman Drama,establishedby Edith Hall and Oliver Taplin at Oxford, will contain materialsfrom over the past five hundredyears. Only a few of us have begun to teach courses that respond to this exciting contemporary phenomenon, probably due to the dearth of audio-visual materialsand the distance from urbancenters where many of these plays have been performed. Having done so myself, however, I would like not only to recommendthe experimentto the rest of you, but to reflect for the remainderof this lecture on some possible reasons why I think these texts have made such an impact on the modern stage and what these performances bring to our own and understanding teaching of the originals. Greek tragedy permits a political response to irresolvable, extreme situationswithout being crudelytopical. Set in an imaginarypast that offers few specifics in the way of setting or physical description, it is also amenable to both changes of venue and to multi-racialcasting. We are all familiar with the

7See,e.g., Colakis 1993, Hartigan 1995, andMcDonald1992. 8Burian 1997 andMacintosh1997.

Helene P. Foley

ways it has been used in this centuryas a facade for staging political protest or a response to a particularpolitical climate. Antigone, for example, served this purpose in occupied France during World War II, in Ireland during the 1980s, and as the centerpiece of Athol Fugard's South Africanprison play, TheIsland.9 Aeschylus' Prometheus Bound is the play that has been most translated in modem China, perhaps due to the heroic resistance of its divine hero to a tyrannicalregime.10 Moreover, every contemporaryperformanceof a Greek tragedy must be an adaptation of sorts, since it involves translation of the language of the original and confronts a profound ignorance of the music, dance, and theatrical context that conditioned its first presentation. This impediment removes the barrierof language and theatricalconvention faced, for example, in the case of Shakespeareandrama, and thus invites experimentation.As the contemporary Indian director Suresh Awasthi put it in his discussion of using Indian theater techniques to perform a Tamil Antigone, "The very claim of authority,and the attempt for its realization in doing classics, foreign or our own, is a selfdefeating objective. It negates the very purpose of doing a classic, which by its nature lends [itself] to different kinds of interpretationand approaches in accordancewith contemporarytastes and values of theatrepractice."'l Availability of dramaticopportunitiesfor actors of all ages can be another motive for reviving Greek drama.According to anotherrecent New YorkTimes article (September 29, 1998), contemporaryactresses and female playwrights favor Greek tragedy because of the extraordinaryrepertoire of powerful and subtle female roles. As playwright and translator Timberlake Wertenbaker remarked,the Greek poets "didn't look down on women and didn't give them small, stupid roles. The great flaw of modem plays is that they always try to make women nice. These women are terrible,and they have the courage of their horror."Or as David Leveaux, director of the Sophocles Electra currentlyon Broadway, noted, "It's hard to find a play that pits a number of ferociously powerful women against each other." Yet I would argue that a more fundamentalreason, as either Aristotle or Freud would have been the first to point out, is plot. American TV, film, and theater are often based on the travails of dysfunctional families. Still, some

9See Steiner1984, Roche 1988, andFugard1976. 10Kediu 1985:78. lAwasthi 1987: 121.

Modern Performanceand Adaptationof Greek Tragedy

stories, as Aristotle noted (Poetics 1453a.17-22), are more effective at moving a theater audience than others. Sophocles' Electra is far more than "a timeless family tragedy and a lurid tabloid crime story"-to quote the recent Times' review once more. Greek plots can, as Freud demonstrated,aim at uncovering deep psychological truthswithout degeneratinginto soap opera and, due in part to the presence of divine forces and a public, political setting in the remote past, provide a more complex notion of motivationthan can be projectedby reduced, modem charactersin the present. Avant-gardeproductionsthat aim to retain a Brechtiansense of distance in relationto disturbingpsychological and historical events have for comparablereasons also found Greek dramaconvenient. In practice, a number of other performances and adaptations have expanded on the sexual and psychological dynamics of the original plots, especially in the case of the Oedipus story. Intelligent, sexually liberated Jocastas have been particularlypopularof late. Both Rita Dove's Jocasta-figure in TheDarker Face of the Earth and Philip Freund'sheroine in his play Jocasta deliberately choose a black slave lover; he becomes the father of a mixed-race, rejected Oedipus. Here at last we find an environment where the failure to recognize the identity of the lost child is historically plausible.12 Steven Berkoffs working-class "Eddy"(in his play Greek) goes so far as to greet the discovery that he has marriedhis now middle-class mother not with horror,but with a wish to returnimmediatelyto her bed.13 The complex psychological resonance of Greek plots is only part of the story, however. Americans are getting over the need to write "original"dramas and are now on the lookout for plots with a known track record. Spareness,raw candor, and theatrical techniques that distinguish theater from film are becoming fashionable. Characterin contemporarytheater more often serves action. Moreover, although gods and the chorus can often be viewed as impediments to performing Greek drama on the modem stage, present-day playwrights often yearn for the sense of over-determinationthat shapes Greek tragedy. A student from my course on classical tragedy and performanceasked the contemporaryAmericanplaywrightCharlesMee why he has turnedso often to "remaking" these plays. "You must understand," replied, "thatgetting into he a Greekplot is like stepping into a Rolls Royce."

12Dove1996 andFreund1973. 13Berkoff 1994.

Helene P. Foley

The dancer and choreographer MarthaGrahamexplained her attractionto Greek myth along similar lines. Americans,Native Americans excepted, lack a rich mythical tradition of their own and must borrow from other traditions. In this respect we are like the Athenians of the archaic and classical periods, who had to appropriateHeracles' labors to put their local hero Theseus on the cultural map. In Graham's view, Greek myths constituted both her own and a Since classical myths are still taught in more broadly shared "family history."14 American primary schools, these stories still have a certain, if perhaps many dim, authorityin our memories. At the same time, myths that rely on a pagan traditionare linked with no majororganizedreligion and thus in a sense belong without offending anyone with clout, to the public domain, can be appropriated and even thrive on misreading(I think again of Disney's Hercules). In adapting these myths, contemporaryartists also follow classical tradition, where these traditional stories were not sacred scripture, but were constantly and competitively remade to please a changing, and, as time went on, ever more diverse audience. Experimentation with Greek tragic plots has gone in a number of directions. Andrei Serban's highly-praisedFragments of a Greek Trilogy, first performed at New York's La Mama Etc. in 1972-74 and revived regularly since, distilled Euripides' Trojan Womenand Medea and Sophocles' Electra into stunning plot sequences performed without comprehensible language. Drawing on a mixture of Greek, Latin, and African and Amer-indian tribal languages, the actors,capitalized on the phonetic force of ancient tongues to create a "ballet for the mouth."'5The actors aimed to "inhabittheir bodies" with the sound of ancient texts, using every possible human body cavity as a resonatorto discover what enabled Greek actors to project and produce intense communication with an audience and its gods in a huge open space.16 Techniques of integrating voice, body, and movement borrowed from Noh, Kathakali,Kabuki, and Balinese theatrewere used to tap what Serbancalled the "energy" that produced the ideas of the texts. The agon between Jason and Medea, both positioned on platforms at either end of a rectangular space, became an intense contest of sounds hurled and spit with a rage that could believably end in the killing of children. In Trojan Womenthe vengeful Trojan

14New YorkTimes(March11, 1987):28. on 15Elizabeth 21, Swados,quotedin a WNYC-TVdocumentary Ellen Stewart,September 1990 (Green1994:48 n. 21). 16Bartow 1988:294 andMenta1995: 16.

Modem Performanceand Adaptationof Greek Tragedy

women hissed and clucked in a terrifying fashion as they smeared the body of the naked Helen with mud and straw; Andromache's piercing vibrato plaint over Astyanax mingled rhythmicallywith the sounds of water used to wash the boy's body. (Excerpts of Serban's trilogy are currentlyavailable on video and can be purchased from Insight Media). MarthaGraham'schoreography,which stands behind many of these recent experiments, similarly represented Greek plots throughthe language of the body, what she called the "hiddenlanguage of the soul."17 Jean-Pierre Vemant has argued that Greek tragedy engages in a continuous dialogue with an imagined,heroic past.'8Contemporary playwrights also turn to Greek tragic plots to reflect on the relation between twentiethcentury reality and an irrecoverablepast, on a failed aspirationto civilization. Echoing much of the despair of the Euripideanoriginal, Charles Mee's Orestes dwells on what he views as the ruined moral landscape of post-Vietnam America.19 He uses Euripides' plot as a scaffolding that hovers in the background as a reference point while it is simultaneously shattered, interrupted,and remade. Such fragmentingand reorderingof tragic plots aims deliberately to eliminate dramatic irony, unity of action, and sharp reversals of expectation. The chorus of Mee's Orestes, set in a hospital, is composed of crazed post-war vets and Fury-like nurses in black. The trial of Orestes, a wellmeaning yuppie who gradually descends further and further into violence, occurs on stage, but is interrupted the war victims and by the nurses' talk of by aberrantsex in the foreground. The closing intervention of a heavily-miked Apollo (who is supposed to speak in the voice of the current United States President) has no effect. Instead, as one of the vets cries: "Every man must shout:there's great destructiveworkto be done. We're doing it!" (79). (I need not remarkon the renewed relevance of this particular remakingof Euripides'text.) The Japanese director Suzuki Tadashi has also fragmentedand destroyed Greek tragic plots and their known values, then reconstructedthem to make a new statement that involves a violent confrontationwith the sensibility of the older plays. His Clytemnestra, for example, borrows scenes from all known versions of the Orestes myth and reordersthe sequence of the traditionalplot.20 Reflecting the fluidity of time, identities, and realities in the plots of Noh
7NewYorkTimes(March11, 1987):28. 18Vernant 1981. 19Mee1998. 20Suzuki 1986: 121-58.

Helene P. Foley

drama,21some scenes in Clytemnestra evolve in a chronological sequence, others apparently represent flashbacks or flashforwards that reflect internal conflict in Orestes and Electra. In the final scene a mutual suicide pact between Orestes and Electra concludes in an incestuous embrace; the ghost of Clytemnestra,dressed in a Noh costume, returnsto kill her spiritually corrupt children. In Suzuki's version the siblings' betrayal of filial piety and the breakdownof the family become the ultimate crime. The play's debates neither acquit nor condemn Orestes, who sees no hope of exoneration. The gods are powerless and the play closes ironically, as the final, untraditionalconcluding scene opens to the tune of a 1980s Japanesepop song entitled "Riverof Fate." Suzuki also deliberately brought Eastern and Western traditions into conflict in his performances.His multi-ethnic casts spoke in both English and hence his plays were designedto communicate differentlyto and thus Japanese; divide different members of its equally multi-national audience. In Clytemnestra,Orestes alone spoke English.22He wore a T-shirt and shorts and Electra a slip, whereas the other characters wore variations on traditional Japanese dress. In the final scene Orestes and Electra drew the suicidal knife from a wastebasket with a prominent Marlboro label before being killed by Clytemnestra'sNoh ghost. The play links East and West throughits exploration of the effects of a psychologically dominantmaternalfigure on her children,23 but simultaneously sees the west as the origin of modern spiritual corruption, miscommunication, and isolation. Eastern familial piety ultimately makes the Westernjustice of the Greek originals impossible. By contrast,Yukio Ninagawa in his 197824Medea deliberatelyaimed both to escape from the contemporary Western domination of Japanese popular theaterthrough a merging of Easternand Westerntraditionsand to create what he hoped would be a kind of "universal"theater. In an effective merging of traditions, for example, red ribbons symbolizing blood issued from the mouths of Medea and the sympathetic chorus as the heroine resolved on revenge following the exit of Creon; the accompanying music, however, was strictly Western. The use of an all-male cast and dramatictechniques borrowed from Kabuki enabled the lead actor, TokusaburoArashi, to exploit with particular 1989. 21Goto
in televisionproduction 1985. 22This discussionis basedon a rehearsal tapedfor Japanese

23McDonald 1992.

24After 1978 premierein Japanthe play touredworldwideandwas stagedin the United its Statesin 1986.

ModernPerformanceand Adaptationof GreekTragedy

effectiveness and self-consciousness the division in Medea between motherand vengeful hero. The actor, who was trainedas a Kabuki onnagata (a male actor who plays female roles), began early in the performanceto play off gestures, body movements, and intonations of voice traditionally linked with one sex against those linked with the other. After the Aegeus scene, he suddenly removed his elaborate female costume with its prominent breasts to reveal a masculine body beneath the heroine's blood-red robe, but retainedhis feminine face make-up. Medea's final debate over the killing of the children thus developed a powerful visual dimension. Some classicists might respond to such experimental performances and adaptationsof Greek tragedy along the lines of a minority of reviewers who have objected to their "cheap multiculturalism,"lack of authenticity, and disrespect for the texts, above all for the words of the texts. Admittedly,modem theater, and especially avant-garde theater, rarely reaches a broad popular audience;nor are all these modem performancesof Greek dramaas compelling as one might wish.25Nevertheless, the confrontationbetween ancient text and modem performancecan sparkthe imaginationof modern students and theatergoers and invite them to make these texts their own in a fashion they might otherwise feel intimidated about doing. When I juxtapose ancient texts and modem versions in the classroom, I am often surprised at the loyalty to the originals that the process generates.Nowhere is this more surprisinglytrue than in the case of the feministresponse.On first reading,the Oresteia can produce in the classroom a group of budding Kate Milletts. Yet when confronted with a deliberately feminist version of this and other Greek tragedies, the same students can find themselves resisting the domestication and disempowerment of frightening, articulate heroines like Clytemnestra and Medea. As Sallie Goetsch has argued in a review of Ariane Minouchkine's Les Atrides, Minouchkine's decision to stage Euripides' Iphigeneia at Aulis before the Oresteia created a more sympathetic Clytemnestra, but also reduced and feminized her in a fashion that unbalanced the play.26 In Agamemnon, Minouchkine's tiny, plainly dressed Clytemnestra was dwarfed by the gorgeously costumed chorus of old men and diminished by using feminine wiles to seduce Agamemnon into walking into the palace, rather than persuading him, as in Aeschylus, to tread on tapestries against his better judgment. The non-sexual and passive bag ladies and dogs that formed the
25See Golder 1996 for a negative view. 26Goetsch 1994.

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Helene P. Foley

chorus of Eumenides played no significant role in the action because they produced no genuine fear in any of the other characters. They chanted and danced their binding song on Orestes, for example, when the hero was off-stage. What does the revival of Greek tragedy on the modern stage offer us as classicists, and how can we participate constructively in the process? In my undergraduate days at Swarthmore College, some classicists came to our studentproductionof Hippolytus and sat throughit following the Greek in their texts ratherthan observing the action on stage. No wonder the makers of theater sometimes perceive classical scholars as unreceptive to innovation. Yet other classicists have been actively involved in offering dramaturgicaladvice from the earliest phases of major productions. Scholarly studies on performanceand translations amenable to performance accompanied by suitable introductions have begun to emerge in greaternumbers.Indeed, given the growing interest in Greek dramain Asia, new translationswith accompanyingmaterialsin a variety of non-Westernlanguages might help to develop a broaderglobal interestin our field. We can take advantageof currentopportunitiesto spread broaderinterest in Greek tragedy by participatingin or organizing presentationsin a variety of local media, including workshops for theatre-goersof all ages. We can lobby for the modification of laws that prevent archival videotapes of these performancesfrom being made available for study at colleges and universities. Indeed, this is probably the most importantthing we can do, because, although these laws were meant to protect theater professionals, they in fact often do more harm than good by destroying any access to importantproductions and eliminating opportunitiesto mold new theateraudiences. At the same time, modern performanceshave much to teach us. Artists provide important critical responses to Greek drama from a variety of perspectives not always available in the academy. This is especially the case with non-Westernperformances,since there are few Asian or African classicists aroundto offer us their scholarly viewpoint. The commercially available audio tape of The Gospel at Colonus has sold remarkably well; no element of this tape was more popular than the gospel song made from Robert Fitzgerald's translationof part of the polla ta deina ode from Sophocles' Antigone.27In its changed setting, this excerpt, with its stress on the inability of otherwise ingenious humans to confront death, immensely facilitated the play's merging of Christian and pagan traditions. It made me understand that actors'

27Elektra/Asylum/Nonesuch Records 1988.

Modern Performanceand Adaptationof Greek Tragedy

11

interpolations may not always, as we sometimes seem to assume, have corruptedthe originals; indeed, they may also have entirely transformedthem for a later age. Let me close with another example from personal experience. When Olympia Dukakis was rehearsingthe role of the heroine in Euripides' Hecuba for a production directed by Carey Perloff at the American Conservatory Theater in San Francisco, she could not motivate Hecuba's insistence on the play's bizarre closing trial scene.28In her conception of the part, the queen's revenge was enough, and the trial a dramaticletdown. As I struggledto offer an explanation to her, the play suddenly took on a new strangeness to me; once again the performer'sperspective posed questions about scenes that classicists have not explored. Overall, then, to the degree that we are self-conscious about what our texts offer to modern theater,we will be better equipped both to learn from and contributeto the process of staging or reimaginingthem. As scholars of Greek drama we are, as Charles Mee remarked,indeed riding in a RollsRoyce. And I advise all of you to test this assertion by attending Peter Meineck's workshop on Aeschylus' Oresteia tonight.29 Works Cited
in Awasthi,S. 1987. "GreekDramain Performance India."International Meetingof Ancient GreekDrama. Delphi 8-12 April 1984 and Delphi 4-25 June 1985. EuropeanCultural Centerof Delphi.Athens. 117-23. New York. Bartow,A. 1988. TheDirector's Voice:21 Interviews. I. Berkoff,S. 1994. TheCollectedPlays, Volume LondonandBoston. Breuer,L. 1989. TheGospelat Colonus.New York. for the to In Burian,P. 1997. "Tragedy Adapted Stages andScreens: Renaissance the Present." P. E. Easterling, TheCambridge to 228-83. ed., Companion GreekTragedy. Cambridge. Colakis, M. 1993. The Classics in the American Theaterof the 1960s and Early 1970s. N. Lanham, Y. Dove, R. 1996. TheDarkerFace of the Earth.Brownsville,OR. P. Freund, 1973. ThreePoetic Plays. New York. A. Fugard, 1976. TheIsland.New York.

28ACT producedthe play in both 1995 and 1998. The conversationoccurredduring rehearsals the 1995 production. for The A with P. 29"Staging Oresteia:Mask and Modem Performance. PracticalWorkshop," Meineck,R. Richmond,and membersof the USC/AquilaMFA Acting Internship Program. Sponsored by the APA Three-Year Colloquium on Varieties of Performancein the the from 8:30-11:30 p.m. on December28, 1998, at Mediterranean, workshopwas presented the Marriott Wardman ParkHotel in Washington, D.C.

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Goetsch, S. 1994. "Playing Against the Text. Les Atrides and the History of Reading Aeschylus."TulaneDramaReview38.3: 75-95. H. Go 4.1: 174-209. Golder, 1996."Greek Tragedy-Or WhyI'd Rather to the Movies."Arion Fusionof SuzukiTadashi." AsianTheater Journal 6.2: 103-23. Goto, Y. 1989. "TheTheatrical Directors the Reinvent Classics. New York. Green,A. S. 1994. TheRevisionist Stage.American Middlesex. T. Harrison, 1985.DramaticVerse1973-1985. Harmondsworth, Hartigan,K. 1995. Greek Tragedyon the AmericanStage: AncientDrama in Commercial and Theater,1882-1994. Westport London. D. International Hunsaker, "Yup'ikAntigone." Meetingof AncientGreekDrama.Delphi 8Cultural Centerof Delphi. Athens. 12 April 1984 and Delphi 4-25 June 1985. European 175-79. Kediu, L. 1986. "The Greek Dramain China."Proceedingsof the Delphi Conferenceon AncientGreekDrama,15-20 June 1986. Athens.78. in Nineteenth- Twentieth-Century and P. Productions." Macintosh,F. "Tragedy Performance: to 284-323. E. Easterling, TheCambridge ed., Companion GreekTragedy. Cambridge. M. on Sun, McDonald, 1992.Ancient Modern Light.GreekDrama theModern Stage.New York. and Mee, C. L. 1998. HistoryPlays. Baltimore London. Menta,E. 1995. TheMagic WorldBehindthe Curtain.AndreiSerbanin AmericanTheatre. New York. Proceedings of the Delphi Niansheng,L. "OedipusRex: its Productionand Translation." on Conference AncientGreekDrama,15-20 June 1986. Athens.79-82. Roche, A. 1988. "Ireland'sAntigones:TragedyNorth and South."In M. Kenneally,ed., Gerrard's Idiomsin Contemporary IrishLiterature. CulturalContextsand Literary Cross, England.221-49. Steiner,S. 1984.Antigones.Oxford. Suzuki, T. 1986. The Wayof Acting: The TheatreWritings SuzukiTadashi.Trans.J. T. of Rimer.New York. In Vernant,J.-P. 1981. "Tensionsand Ambiguitiesin GreekTragedy." J.-P. Verant and P. and eds., Tragedy Mythin AncientGreece.Sussex,N. J. 6-27. Vidal-Naquet,