Edexcel International Advanced Level Physics.

Topic 4 : Electric Circuits.

4A : Electric Circuits.
Electric Current.
Some particles have an electric charge.For example,electrons carry a negative charge
and protons carry a positive charge.The charge is measured in Coulombs.If electric
charge moves,it is known as an electric current.The current is caused by an electric
force,which is known as a voltage.A voltage is produced by a source of electrical
energy like batteries.This means that current is the rate of movement of charge.
❖ Charge = Current * Time.
Q = It
❖ Current = Charge / Time.
1A is the movement of 1C of charge per 1 second.
The charge on one electron is -1.6 * 10-19 C.Hence,1C of charge contains 6.25 * 1018
electrons,which is given by 1/charge on the electron.Protons has the same charge but a
positive sign since protons are positively charged.Hence;
Charge = Number of carriers * Charge on one carrier.
Ions also carry a charge and to calculate the charge on it,the above formula is used.
Charge is carried by a charge carrier.The charge carrier is pushed by a source of
electric energy.

Electric Energy Transfer.

All circuits must have a source of energy and a load (components using electricity)
connected by a conductor.Voltage is a measure of amount of energy a component uses
per unit of charge that passes through it.
However voltage is a general name throughout the circuit.Voltage at the source of
energy supply is known as electromotive force (emf).Voltage at the component is
known as potential difference (p.d.).
A bulb of 2V consumes 2 joules of energy when 1C of charge passes through it.This
implies that every 6.25 * 1018 electrons transfer 2 joules of energy to the bulb.A cell
that supplies 2J of energy to 1C of charge,the cell has an emf of 2V.
❖ emf or voltage or pd = Energy transferred / Charge passing.
❖ ε or V or pd = E / Q.
An electronvolt (eV) is the amount of energy an electron gains when it passes through
a voltage of 1V at the source of electrical energy.
❖ 1 eV = 1.6 * 10-19 J.
In the whole circuit charge and energy is always conserved.The input is equal to
output.A bulb will output energy in form of light,heat or other forms.
The whole process of the circuit is explained below;
➢ An emf pushes a charge carrier with electric energy.The charge carrier reaches the
load,energy is transferred from the carrier to the component and uses it to perform
the action.

The Relationship Between Voltage & Current.

The voltage ‘drives’ current around the circuit.This means that a higher voltage will
result to increased current.Hence voltage is directly proportional to current.But this is
not the case always.In some circuits,the relationship is altered.
Electrical resistance is the opposition of current flow.If resistance increases,it will
result to a decrease in current flow.SI unit is ohms.
The relationship of Voltage,Current and Resistance gives the formula below;
❖ Voltage = Current * Resistance
❖ V = IR
Ohm’s law states that : Current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to
voltage but inversely proportional to resistance,provided that temperature and other
physical properties remain constant.
If a conductor obeys Ohm’s law,it is known as an Ohmic conductor.Some conductors
are non-Ohmic hence an increase in voltage will result to a decrease in current.
If a V-I graph is plotted,current is plotted against voltage.On the y-axis,current is
plotted and on the x-axis,voltage is plotted.However,the resistance is the inverse of
the gradient of the graph.This means that a steeper gradient resembles a smaller
resistance.
An ohmic conductor will produce a straight line.For a non-Ohmic conductor,gradient
is different at all points since it produces a curve.
Filament bulbs,diodes and thermistors are non-Ohmic conductors and hence produce a
curve when its graph is plotted.
I. Filament Bulbs →These types of bulbs have a
metal filament that heats up when current
increases.When voltage of the circuit is
increased,current increases and hence the wire
heats up more.Resistance also increases since
temperature has increased.This results to
decreased current.For low voltages, current
is low hence resistance doesn’t increase.This
will produce a straight line in a graph but
gradually curves as voltage increases.
II. Diodes →These are components that allow
current to flow in only one direction.If
current flows in the opposite direction
(reverse bias),the diode will offer extreme
resistance.But if current is too much,the
 diode is damaged.For the current to flow in the forward bias,it still requires a
threshold(minimal) voltage for current to flow.
III. Thermistor →They can be Positive Temperature
Coefficients (PTCs) or Negative Temperature
Coefficients (NTCs).In NTCs,when temperature
increases,resistance decreases.According to the
Ohm’s law,temperature must remain constant.But
the temperature changes which results to a
change in resistance and current.The relationship
is not also linear.These 2 reasons prove that a
thermistor is a non-Ohmic conductor.
The theory behind NTCs is discussed under the topic of semi-conductors.
The above are examples of non-Ohmic conductors.

Resistivity.
Different materials of different dimensions offer different resistances.Resistivity is a
general property.This means that all samples of the same material,of any dimensions
have the same resistivity,but will offer different resistances.The SI unit is ohm-metre.
The resistivity is determined by the number of electrons per unit volume (which is
affected by temperature).Resistivity decreases with an increase in number of electrons
❖ Resistance = {Resistivity * Length of Material} / Cross-sectional area
❖ R = ρL / A
Resistivity is same for a material,but resistance keeps changing with a change in some
physical properties.
A. Length of wire→ The longer the wire,the more the collisions of charge carriers
and hence resistance increases as length of wire increases.
B. Cross-sectional area→ For a thin wire,charge carriers collide frequently.This is
because there is less space per unit area.More collisions result to greater
resistance.
C. Temperature→ When temperature increases,charge carriers gain kinetic energy
and vibrate faster resulting to frequent collisions and hence,resistance
increases.
D. Type of material→ Some materials have a low resistivity and some have high
resistivities.More resistivities results to increased resistance.
However,some materials change their resistivities with temperature,but not all.

Conduction And Resistance.

To conduct electricity,a material must have delocalised charge carriers (electrons
or ions).They must be free to move.All materials have electrons,but not all are
delocalised.If electrons are free to move,they can move,hence causing a current.
Metals have delocalised electrons hence they conduct electricity.
Without a source of voltage supply,electrons move randomly in a conductor.This
results to stationary charge despite collisions occuring.
Current flows from positive terminal to the negative terminal in a conventional
flow because electrons flow in the opposite direction (from negative to positive
terminal).Since current flow is conventional,electrons move at a very slow speed
of 1 millimetre per second.Without a voltage,the electrons move at a speed of
thousand of kilometres per second.This velocity is known as the drift velocity.
✓ The Transport Equation
• Current = Charge / Time
• Charge = Number of electron * Charge of 1 electron * Volume of the
conductor
• Hence Charge = neV
 • Volume = Cross-sectional area * Length (Distance)
• Distance or length = Drift velocity * time
• Hence Q = neAvt
• From the first point→ I = neAvt / t
• Hence the transport equation → I = neAv.
Transport Equation = Number of electrons * charge on 1 electron * cross-sectional
area * drift velocity.

Drift velocity is affected by :

A. Increase in temperature increases the number of collisions and hence decreases
the drift velocity.
B. Cross-sectional area affects drift velocity.Thickness of a wire determines how
many electrons are present per unit volume.
C. Current
D. Number of charge carriers.

Semi-conductors and superconductivity.

Semi-conductors are materials that have very less delocalised electrons.If an electron
gains enough energy,it leaves the atom leaving behind an ion.In solid materials,many
atoms join together forming a band.Different electrons may have different energies
but can still be within the same band.There is an energy level known as Valence
Band.Electrons in this band are tied to the atom and hence do not move.When they
gain enough energy,they move to the Conduction Band.They become delocalised at
the conduction band and hence can move to form current.
1. Diodes have different semi-conductors joined which creates energy barriers at
the junction.A P-type semi-conductor is joined with a N-type semi-conductor.It
must be connected correctly to the cell.The P-type semiconductor is connected
to the positive terminal of the cell.The N-type semiconductor is connected to
the negative terminal of the cell.
2. Light-Dependent Resistors (LDRs) are devices whose resistance depends on
light.If there is high light intensity,electron gain energy and jump to the
conduction band.As light intensity increases,more electrons are available at the
conduction band.This reduces the reistance since current increases with
availability of more electrons.
3. Thermistors also work like LDRs but electrons gain thermal energy when
temperature increases.An increase in temperature leads to decreased resistance.
Insulators have a very large gap between valence and conduction band.Hence they
conduct electricity at very high voltages,but this results to physical damage like
melting.For example,glass conducts electricity at an electric field of 10 million
volts per metre,which is very large.
For conductors (not semi-conductors), resistance decreases with reduced
temperature.When the external temperature reaches 0 Kelvin (-273o C),there is
zero resistance.This means that no energy is lost to the surrounding.This is known
as Superconductivity.
 4B : Complete Electrical Circuits.
Series And Parallel Circuits.
Series Circuits. Parallel Circuits.
Current is same throughout the circuit. Current is shared between components.

Voltage is shared between components. Voltage is same throughout the circuit.

➢ Note that to measure current and voltage,ammeters must be connected in series

with the component but voltmeters must be connected in parallel with components.
➢ Ammeters have a low resistance.If placed in parallel,all the current flows through
the ammeter and no current flows to the component.
➢ Voltmeters have a very high resistance.If placed in series,it consumes all the
current and no current reaches the component.
Resistance is also calculated differently.
In a series circuit ;
Voltage differs,Current is same.
• Total Voltage → V1 + V2 + V3 + …
• V = IR
• I * RT = I * R1 + I * R2 + …
• Divide both sides by ‘I’.
• RT = R1 + R2 + …

In a parallel circuit ;
Current differs,Voltage is same.
• Total Current → I1 + I2 + I3 + …
• I=V/R
• V / RT = V / R1 + V / R2 + …
• Divide both sides by ‘V’
• 1 / RT = 1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + …
Potential Dividers.
Voltage is divided between components connected in a series circuit.The picture
below shows how voltage is shared according to the resistance.

The 10 ohm resistor will consume 2V but the 20 ohm resistor consumes 4V.They both
add up to 6V.
• I1 = I2
• I1 = V1 / R1
• I2 = V2 / R2
• Hence ; V1 / R1 = V2 / R2
• 2 / 10 = 4 / 20 → 0.2 Amperes.
A variable resistor can also be connected to the circuit to alter the proportion of
voltage for a specific component.For example,a torch that only needs 3V will be
damaged if connected to a circuit of 6V.A variable resistor can prove helpful in these
type of situations.By increasing the resistance of the variable resistor,the torch will
receive enough voltage.

✓ THE POTENTIAL DIVIDER EQUATION.

• Output Voltage = Input Voltage * { R2 / (R1 + R2) }
Sensor components can also be connected to a potential divider circuit.Examples of
sensor components include LDRs and thermistors.They can be used to control an
external circuit.
If a LDR is connected in parallel with a bulb,it can alter resistance of the circuit.When
it gets dark,the resistance of LDR will increase.This will result to the voltage
increasing and hence the bulb becomes brighter.As conditions become darker,the
LDR resistance goes up,increasing the proportion of voltage supplied.This increases
the voltage across the bulb,and makes it brighter.This circuit increases the brightness
of the lamp as the surroundings become darker.

emf And Internal Resistance.

All components in a circuit offer some resistance.The best ammeters also have very
small resistances.The sources of emf like batteries also offer Internal Resistance.It is
very small that can be ignored.But when using large currents,it can be noticed.

• Internal Voltage = Current * Internal Resistance

• VInternal = Ir
• Terminal Voltage = Electromotive Force – Ir
• VTerminal = ε – Ir
This means that Electromotive force = IR + Ir.
If a graph is plotted,the equation can be written in form of y = mx + c.
• V = -rI + ε
Power In Electric Circuits.
Work is the same as energy transferred (W = E).
• Since E = VQ ; W = VQ
The above is used to calculate voltage
• The equation for current (Q = It) can be combined with the above equation.
• W = VIt
Power is the rate of energy transfer or doing work
• P = E / t or P = W / t
• Since W =VIt ; P = VIt / t
• This forms the equation ; P =VI.
Resistances can also be calculated using the above equations.
• Since P = VI and V = IR , P = I2R
• Since I = V / R and P = VI , P = V2 / R.
Efficiency of energy and power is calculated by the following formulae ;
✓ Efficiency = Useful Energy Output / Total Energy Input.
✓ Efficiency = Useful Power Output / Total Power Input.
The answer can be multiplied by 100 to give a percentage value.