Edexcel International Advanced Level Physics.

Topic 3 : Waves And The Particle Nature Of Light.

3A : Basic Waves.
Wave Basics.
Waves are a medium to transfer energy.However,there is no net movement of matter.
They are classified as either mechanical or electromagentic (EM).
Mechanical waves need a medium (matter) for them to travel but EM waves don’t
need a medium.EM waves travel faster in a vacuum compared to matter.
EM waves transfer energy by oscillations (cycles) of electric and magnetic fields.

✓ Displacement is the position on a particular point on a wave at a particular

instant of time and is measured from the mean position/equilibrium position.
✓ Amplitude is the magnitude of maximum displacement reached by the
oscillation in the wave.
✓ Frequency is number of complete wave cycles per second. (To calculate
frequency,divide time period by 1.)
 ✓ Wavelength is the distance between a point on a wave and same point on next
cycle of the wave.
✓ Period is the time taken for one complete oscillation to occur.It is also the time
taken for the wave to travel one wavelength (To calculate time period,divide
frequency by 1.)
✓ Phase is the stage where a given point is on a wave through a complete cycle.
✓ Wave speed is the rate of movement of the wave.
The above are some terms used while describing waves and their graphs.The wave
equation will help carry out calculations involving waves :
❖ Wave Speed = Frequency * Wavelength.
❖ v = λ f.

Wave Types.
1. Transverse waves:Waves that vibrate at right angles to the direction in which
energy is moving.Light waves,EM waves are all examples of transverse waves.
2. Longitudinal Waves:Waves that vibrate along the direction in which the energy is
moving.They have compression and rarefractions.Sound is an example of
longitudinal wave.
Compression is an area in a longitudinal wave in
which the particle oscillations put them closer to
each other than their equilibrium state.
Rarefaction is an area in a longitudinal wave in
which the particle oscillations put them further
apart from each other than their equilibrium
state.
The image shows the equilibrium and the
disturbed state of air.The air with sound wave present contains compressions and
rarefractions.
 The waves can also be drawn as
wavefronts,where each solid line represents
a point on a wave,perhaps a wave
crest.These lines are known as wavefronts.

3B : The Behaviour Of Waves.

Wave Phase And Superposition.
Some positions on a wave can be described by the names, for example, troughs and
crests.Other points on a wave are described by a number known as a phase.The phase
is measured in angles or radians.
Wave Cycle Position Start 1 / 4 of a 1 / 2 of a 3 / 4 of a 1 whole 1.5 2 cycles
cycle cycle cycle cycle cycles
Phase in Degrees 0 90 180 270 360 540 720
Phase in Radians 0 π/2 π 3π / 2 2π 3π 4π
When waves,travelling through the same medium,meet at a point,each wave will
cause a disturbance.The amplitudes of each wave
will sum up and a wave of different amplitude is
produced.This is known as wave superposition.The
principle of wave superposition states that the
resultant effect of two waves travelling at a given
point in the same medium is the vector sum of their
displacement. The waves will then travel as they
were initially.The diagram shows the superposition
of wave A and B.
Stationary Waves.
If a wave is produced between 2 boundaries,a standing wave is formed.A standing
wave is a stationary wave pattern that is formed when continuous waves travelling in
opposite direction superpose constantly.These waves are of the same frequency and
speed with similar amplitudes.Hence they are known to be coherent.
Coherent waves are waves of same frequency and a constant phase difference.
Other waves are known as progressive waves.They transfer energy unlike standing /
stationary waves.In a standing wave,points of zero displacement are known as nodes
and points of maximum displacement are known as anti-nodes.A standing wave is
produced if the wavelength produces a node at each boundary.
The image shows different standing waves which can be produced by waves of
different amplitudes.

The waves on a stretched spring can be calculated by determining its tension and other
fundamentals.The equation is ;
• Wave Speed = √{ T / μ }
• If these equation is combined with the wave equation,the frequency can be
calculated.
 • λ * f = √{ T / μ }
• f = { 1 / λ } * √{ T / μ }
• The wavelength can be found from the overtone or harmonic.

Diffraction.
This is the spreading out of waves when they travel through a gap,or past the edge of a
barrier or object.
None of the properties of a wave are changed by diffraction.The wavelength,
frequency,period and speed are the same before and after diffraction.The only change
is the direction in which the wave is travelling.
There are many factors that affect the spreading of the wave.They are discussed
below.
I. The size of the gap affects how a wave is diffracted.If the gap is narrow,the
wave diffracts more,especially when the gap is equal to the wavelength.A
wider gap results to the wave diffracting less.
 II. A shorter wavelength will result to less diffraction.The greater the
wavelength,the greater the diffraction.

Wave Interference.
When the waves superpose,it leads to either constructive or destructive interference.
Interference is the phenomenon that occurs when two waves meet to form a resultant
wave of greater,lower or same amplitude.The conditions for interference to occur are;
1. The waves must be coherent.
2. The waves must be monochromatic (of the same wavelength).
✓ If the waves are in phase,they cause constructive interference.The path
difference of waves in phase is ‘n λ’ where n is an integer.
✓ If the waves are completely out of phase,they cause destructive
interference.The path difference of waves out of phase is ‘(n+1/2)
λ’ where n is an integer.
If a single slit and a laser is used,various patterns can be viewed.A single slit has very
tiny holes that results to diffraction of light.If the laser’s wavelength or the width of
the slit is changed,the pattern will also change.A narrow slit will widen the central
maxima,the further maxima and minima.Fringes are produced due to interference.
There are new waves spreading out from every point on the slit,and hence the wave
interfere despite there is one gap only.
A diffraction grating is used to create many diffracted wave patterns since it has many
slits.This creates wave interference which results to light and dark spots.A single slit
can be used but it doesn’t produce a constant pattern.A diffraction grating produces a
constant pattern.The grating equation is shown below.

Light can also be diffracted using a double-slit.If a wave is diffracted using a double-
slit,two coherent waves are produced.They superpose and interfere.There will be
points of constructive and destructive interference and hence fringes are produced.
The fringes will have bright and dark areas.
Sound waves can also be interfered using 2 speakers and it
results to areas of loud sound and areas of no sound.
Constructive Interference occurs at position X and
destructive interference occurs at position Y.This means
that a person will hear loud sound at position X and will
hear no sound at position Y.
❖ However,compared to a double slit,the interference
pattern produced by a diffraction grating has
fewer,more widely spaced points of maximum
intensity (fringes of maximum and minimum
intensity).

3C : More Wave Properties Of Light.

Refraction.
When waves travel from one medium to another medium,the wavespeed changes.This
results to change in direction in which the wave was travelling.Due to a change in
wavespeed,wavelength also changes.But frequency will remain constant.
If light waves travel from an optically dense to less dense medium,the speed increases
and hence it travels away from the normal.If it travels from an optically less dense to a
denser medium,the speed decreases and the wave travels towards the normal.
Refractive Index of a material is the measure of amount of refraction caused by
different materials.The refractive index of glass is 1.5 while for water,it is1.3 and
hence,under normal circumstances,glass will refract light more than water.
The symbol for refractive index is n.
• Refractive Index = Speed of light in vacuum / Speed of light in the material.
• n=c/v
The above formula deals with the speed of light,which cannot be measured in all
circumstances.Hence Snell’s law is used to carry out calculations regarding refraction.

• n1 sinɵ1 = n2 sinɵ2
n is the refractive index of both materials and sin ɵ is the angle of incidence and angle
of refraction.Refractive index can also be calculated using the formula below.
• n = sin i / sin r
• Where ‘i’ is the angle of incidence and ‘r’ is the angle of refraction.
Dispersion of light is the splitting of white light into rainbow of 7 colours using a
prism.Light is refracted when it enters into and emerges from the prism.
However,calculations are also involved in dispersion of light.

• n1 sinɵ1 = n2 sinɵ2
• n=c/v
• n = c / fλ
• If light enters a prism from air (n = 1.00),the equation formed is ;

• sinɵ1 = c sinɵ2 / fλ.

(n1 is 1.00)
Total Internal Reflection.
When light waves refract,some of it is reflected.Amount of reflection depends on
angle of incidence and amount of refraction.Total internal reflection occurs when all
the light is reflected inside the optically dense medium.
There are 2 conditions required for TIR to
occur;
1. Light must be travelling from optically
dense to less dense media.
2. The angle of incidence must be greater
than the critical angle.
The critical angle is the angle of
incidence that produces an angle of
refraction of 90°.
From Snell’s law,we can calculate the critical
angle and the refractive index of materials.

• n1 sinɵ1 = n2 sinɵ2
• n1 sinɵC = n2 sin90
• n2 = n1 sinɵC
• n2 = 1.00
• Sin C = 1 / n1

Total Internal Reflection can be useful in endoscopes,optical fibres,binoculars,

periscopes,microscopes and telescopes.The concept is also used in reflectors used in
vehicles.

Polarisation.
Light waves are created by electric charges that vibrate.Light emitted from the sun,a
lamp or candles is unpolarised.This means that the electric fields are vibrating/
oscillating in all directions.But light can be polarised.Polarised light have electric
fields vibrating in only one direction.
The image shows polarised light.The blue
fields show magnetic vibrations.The red fields
show electric vibrations.The electric fields are
oscillating in a vertical direction which means
that the light is polarised.
The electric field’s vibrations determine whether the light is polarised or not.
Polarisation can occur by reflection,refraction,using polaroid filters and chemicals.
❖ Polaroid filters have chemicals with long-chain molecules known as a polaroid
sheet.They are aligned accordingly.They will only allow vibrations that are
parallel to the polarisation axis.The vibrations that are perpendicular to the
polarisation axis are blocked.
If the molecules are aligned horizontally,the polarisation axis is aligned
vertically.Hence it will allow vertical vibrations.

❖ Light can also be polarised by reflection

and refraction.When light reflects,it is
polarised.The degree of polarisation
depends on the angle of incidence,but
generally,it tends to polarise horizontally.
 Unlike reflection,when light refracts,the vertical vibrations enter the new
medium.

3D : Quantum Physics.
Wave-Particle Duality.
According to wave theory,light is described as a wave.This is demonstrated by
diffraction and interference.This is because particles cannot undergo diffraction and
interference.
However,experiments in quantum theory,like the photoelectric effect,can only be
explained if EM radiation is assumed to behave as particles.Light energy is carried in
particles known as photons.Photons are ‘packets’ or quantum of EM waves that do not
have mass.This implies that energy is not transferred continuously but in discrete
packets (the photons).Each photon carries a specific amount of energy.To calculate
the energy carried by a photon,the following formula is used;
• Photon Energy = Planck’s constant * Frequency of the EM wave.
• E = hf
• Planck’s constant is the amount of energy that a photon can carry according to
the frequency of wave in which it travels.The value of h is 6.63 * 10-34 Joules
seconds (J s).
Accroding to particle theory,electrons are described as particles.This is demonstrated
by ionisation.This is because waves cannot be ionised.
However,experiments in quantum theory,like the diffraction and interference of
electrons,proves that electrons are waves.If electrons are made to travel at very high
speeds,they pass through gaps and will produce a diffraction pattern.
These observations prove that electrons are waves.
The idea that EM radiation and electrons behave as waves and particles in certain
circumstances is known as Wave-Particle Duality.

The Photo-electric Effect.

This is a experiment that proves light is a particle and light energy is carried in
photons.
Ultra-violet light is shone onto a metal plate (zinc or caesium is generally used) which
is negatively charged,electrons will leave the metal and hence the metal will lose its
charge.However,a certain minimum amount of energy electrons require to
escape from the surface of the metal.This energy is known as the work function and is
denoted by Φ.
If red light is shone,it won’t dislodge an electron even if it is shone for long.This is
because it has a lower frequency.If electrons don’t gain enough energy from a
photon,it will transfer all energy to the metal before it interacts with another photon.
But on the other hand,violet light will dislodge an electron even if shone for a short
amount of time.This is because the electrons need photons of a certain minimum
frequency known as threshold frequency.
The Photo-electric Effect Equation.
• Max. Kinetic energy of dislodged electron = Photon energy – Work function.
This is because the energy in the photon is transferred,but an amount of energy
is used by the electron to be dislodged.
• Max. KE = hf – Φ
• In terms of energy conservation,the photon energy is completely transferred to
the metal.The energy transferred is used to dislodge electrons.The energy left is
kinetic energy which is used by the electron to move.
• Hence → hf = Φ + Max. KE
• The SI units of terms used in the equations is in Joules,but electronvolts (eV) is
the unit used.eV is the amount of energy electrons gain when passing through a
voltage of 1V.

These are the 2 equations relating to the photoelectric effect.

If a graph is plotted,a straight line is produced.
y = mx + c
Max. KE = hf + Φ.
If a metal anode is used and it is connected to a electrical circuit,current is produced
when light is shone onto the anode.This creates current.As voltage is increased,the
anode becomes positively charged eventually.When voltage is much more,the
photoelectrons (electrons dislodged by photon energy) will be attracted back to the
metal anode.This results to zero current.This voltage is known as Stopping voltage.

Electron Diffrcation And Interference.

Photoelectric effect is discussed above to prove the particle nature of light.Electron
diffraction and interference proves that electrons behave as waves.
If many electrons are released by electron guns,they diffract and interfere if a slit is
used.A graphite plate was used when this experiment was carried out first.The
electrons diffracted since graphite atoms acted as barriers and gaps.The electrons
diffracted and interfered resulting to a circular pattern.

de Broglie equation.
• Wavelength of electron = Planck’s constant / Momentum of the electron.
• The momentum is inversely proprotional to wavelength.
• λ = h ρ.
If a double-slit is used,fringes are produced similarly like waves
do.

Atomic Electron Energies.

Each and every electron have specific amount of energy.This
determines the energy level in which the electron is.However,
when the electrons gain energy from photons,they get excited
and jump to a higher energy level.If they gain enough energy,
they are dislodged from the atom.The electrons will de-excite
and move to lower energy levels.When this occurs,they lose
energy in form of photons.
The electrons will only absorb the energy that is exactly equivalent to the energy
required to jump to another energy level.If white light is shone,the electrons will only
absorb the energies of light of certain frequencies.This results to some colours missing
from the light after it passes from the atoms.
If white light is shone to hydrogen gas,some colours will be missing after light passes
from the gas.
The ground state of the hydrogen atoms is 2.18 * 10-18 Joules which is equal to
equivalent to 13.6 eV.If the electron gains 13.6 eV,the electron will dislodge from the
gas atom.
Line spectra is a phenomenon which occurs when excited electrons emit light of
different wavelengths and hence corresponds to different colours.