Fundamentals

of
Surveying

ENGR. ROGER ALAN S. MIGUEL

ULS, INC. INSTRUCTOR
Introduction to Surveying
 This section will present:

1. A Basic understanding of the concepts

and tools of Land Surveying.
2. Importance of Surveying
3. General classification and Types of
Surveying
4. Surveying Methods
SURVEYOR

A surveyor is one who has the ability to use

mathematics as a means to visualize objects and
measure distances, sizes, and other abstract
forms. They have to work with precision and
accuracy, as mistakes can be costly.
SURVEYING Definition…
Surveying is called both a science and an art.
Surveying is the art and science of establishing
angular and linear measurements to establish the
form, extent, and relative position of points, lines,
and areas on or near the surface of the earth
through applied mathematics and the use of
specialized equipment and techniques.
SURVEYING Definition…

Surveying is a method of determining the three-

dimensional position of points and objects (x, y
z) on the surface of the earth.
 SURVEYING Purpose…
1. Established points are sometimes used to
create land maps and determine boundaries
for ownership or governmental purposes.
2. used to produce a topographic model that is
useful in civil engineering and construction.

Surveyor use trigonometry, physics, and practiced skill.

SURVEYING Concepts…

Surveying establishes the spatial position (location)

of points and objects. These locations are recorded
as numerical data in the form of 3-D Cartesian
coordinates, which means that each point has an
X,Y and Z coordinate.
SURVEYING Concepts…

Z direction = parallel to gravity (a vertical line)

X-Y plane = perpendicular to gravity (a horizontal
plane)

Basically, coordinates are aligned with the earth’s

gravity.
Elevation (Z coordinates)…
Elevation is the angular distance of something
(such as a celestial object) above the horizon.

Two ways to measure elevation

1. Direct Leveling
2. Trigonometric Leveling
Horizontal Location/Position (X-Y coordinates)…
Horizontal position is the location of a point relative to two
axes: the equator and the prime meridian on the globe, or x
and y axes in a plane coordinate system.
Horizontal locations, or coordinates, are determined by
measuring the Polar Coordinates of a point using the known
point as the origin.
Polar coordinates are determined by measuring an angle and
a distance.
 Surveying Techniques…

1. Global Positioning Surveying (GPS)

2. Digital Theodolite/EDM
3. Transit and Tape
Global Positioning Surveying (GPS)
Positioning from satellites based on time, vectors, and
additional base station triangulation. Survey grade GPS is
accurate to within 5mm (< 1/4”) AFTER least squares
adjustment and network triangulation. On the fly
(uncorrected) can vary from 2cm (3/4”) to 1m (3’).
Mapping grade is anywhere from 1m (3’) to 30m (100’),
with some increasing accuracy with post-processing of
points based upon control monumentation.
Digital Theodolite/EDM
Measuring through digital readout of horizontal circles
(degrees, minutes, seconds) and distances (slope, horizontal,
and vertical) through infrared. The typical accuracy of EDM
is ¼”.
Transit and Tape
Measuring through a vernier readout of the horizontal circle
and using a steel chain (tape) to measure distances.
GENERAL CLASSIFICATION

1. Plane Surveying

2. Geodetic Surveying
Plane Surveying

is that type of surveying in which the earth is

considered as a flat surface, and where
distances and areas involved are of a limited
extent that the exact shape of the earth is
disregarded.
Geodetic Surveying
Are surveys which take into account (consider) the true
shape of the earth. All lines lying on the surface are
curved lines.to obtain an accurate map of wide
areas ad controls for all surveys.to obtain
information regarding the position of points, and
heights above sea level.
(1) astronomic positioning, (2) triangulation, (3)
trilateration, and (4) traverse
TYPES of SURVEY

1. Cadastral Surveys
Usually closed surveys which are undertaken
in urban and rural locations for the purpose
of determining and defining property lines
and boundaries, corners, and areas.
TYPES of SURVEY

2. City Surveys
Are surveys of the areas in or near a city for the
purpose of planning expansions or
improvements, locating property lines, fixing
reference monuments, the configuration of the
land, and preparing maps.
TYPES of SURVEY
3. Construction Surveys
These are surveys which are undertaken at a
construction site to provide data regarding
grades, reference lines, dimensions, and the
location and elevations of structures which
are of concern to engineers, and builders.
TYPES of SURVEY
4. Forestry Surveys
A type of survey executed in connection
with forest management and mensuration,
and the production and conservation of
forest lands.
TYPES of SURVEY
5. Hydrographic Surveys
Refers to surveying streams, lakes,
reservoirs, harbors, oceans, and other
bodies of water.
TYPES of SURVEY
6. Industrial Surveys
Refers to the use of surveying techniques in
shipbuilding, construction, and assembly of
aircraft, and in other industries where a very
accurate dimensional layout is required.
TYPES of SURVEY
7. Mine Surveys
Surveys, which are performed to determine the
position of all underground excavations and
surface mine structures, to fix surface
boundaries of mining claims, and etc.
TYPES of SURVEY

8. Photogrammetric Surveys
Are surveys which make use of photographs
taken with specially designed cameras either
from airplanes or other ground stations.
TYPES of SURVEY
9. Route Surveys
Involves the determination of alignment,
grades, earthwork quantities, and location of
natural and artificial objects in connection
with the planning and design of highways,
railroads, and other linear projects.
TYPES of SURVEY

10. Topographic Surveys

Are those surveys made for determining the

shape of the ground, and the location and
elevation of natural and artificial features
around it.
IMPORTANCE OF SURVEYING
➢ The planning and design of all Civil Engineering projects such
as the construction of highways, bridges, tunnels, dams, etc.
are based upon surveying measurements.
➢ Moreover, during execution, a project of any magnitude is
constructed along the lines and points established by
surveying.
➢ Thus, surveying is a basic requirement for all Civil
Engineering projects.
 Other principal works in which surveying is
primarily utilized are:
1. To fix the national and state boundaries;
2. To chart coastlines, navigable streams, and lakes;
3. To establish control points;
4. To execute hydrographic and oceanographic
charting and mapping; and
5. To prepare a topographic map of the land surface of
the earth.
 Other principal works in which surveying is
primarily utilized are:

6. To collect field data;

7. To prepare plan or map of the area surveyed;
8. To analyze and to calculate the field parameters for
setting out operation of actual engineering works.
9. To set out field parameters at the site for further
engineering works.
Surveying Methods

The following sections describe some of the

equipment and methods used to employ
these concepts.
Basic Surveying
Equipment/Tools
Basic Surveying
Equipment/Tools
Basic Surveying Equipment/Tools
Basic Surveying
Equipment/Tools
Basic Surveying Equipment/Tools
Surveying Measurement
 Measurement
➢ Is a process of determining the extent, size, or
dimensions of a particular quantity in
comparison to a given standard.
➢ In surveying, it is usually concentrated on
angles, elevations, time, lines, areas, and
volumes.
SURVEYING MEASUREMENTS
1. Direct Measurement
➢ Is a comparison of the measured quantity with a
standard measuring unit or units employed for
measuring a quantity of that kind.
Ex.
✓ Applying a wire or tape a line
✓ Determining a horizontal or vertical angles with a
transit.
SURVEYING MEASUREMENTS

2. Indirect Measurement
➢ Is done when direct measurement is not possible. In
this type of measurement, the observed value is
determined by its relationship to some known
values.
The “Meter”

One (1) meter is defined as a length equal to

1,650,736.73 wavelengths of the orange-red light
emitted by burning the element krypton-86 at a
specified energy level in the spectrum.
 The “Meter”
➢ International unit linear measure
➢ Proposed sometime in 1789 by French Scientist
➢ Defined as 1/10,000,000 of the Earth’s meridional
quadrant (originally)
➢ May 20, 1875 treaty was signed in Paris by
representatives of 8 countries (3 from Europe, 4 from
American Continent, and 1 from the Middle East) which
created a permanent International Bureau of Weights and
Measures.
 The “Meter”
Direct result, the standard linear measure was
established as the INTERNATIONAL METER which is
initially based on an iron meter bar standardized in Paris
(1799)
➢ Was defined as the distance between two lines
engraved across the surface (near the ends) of the bar
with an X-shaped cross-section, composed of 90%
platinum and 10% iridium when the temperature of the
bar is O° C
 The “Meter”

➢ International meter bar – deposited at International

Bureau in Servres, near Paris France.
➢ Oct. 1960, redefined at the 11th General Conference
on Weights and measures, agreed upon by 36 countries
 The SI Unit

➢ Is the standardized and simplified units of measurement

throughout the world, promulgated by the International
System of Units known SI.
 The SI Unit
➢ The IBWM promulgated in 1960 the International System of
Units (SI)
➢ Ultimate goal: to modernize the metric system by
introducing a coherent and rational worldwide system of units.
➢ Jan. 1, 1983 – English System was phased out in the
Philippines
➢ Metric conversion or change over – signed into Law last
Dec. 1978 by former Pres. Marcos.
The SI Unit
Units in SI of major concern to surveying are:

[m] for linear meter,

[rad] for angles,
[o] degrees are usually accepted in practice.
 Prefixes

Mega [M] = 1 000 000 deci [d] = 0.1

Kilo [k] = 1 000 centi [c] = 0.01
Hecto [h] = 100 milli [m] = 0.001
Deca [da] = 10 micro [µ] = 0.000 001
Nano [n] = 0. 000 000 001
1. Linear, Area, and Volume Measurement
The SI units for length (including width and height)
➢ Km, m, cm, &mm
➢ may also refer to other linear dimensions such as
width, depth, thickness, height, or distance.
1. Linear, Area, and Volume Measurement

The SI units for Areas

➢ square meter is used (small tracts of land, floor areas
of buildings and structures)
➢ hectares – commonly used for large tracts of land
such as cities, provinces, sugar cane plantations, rice
fields, and forests.
1. Linear, Area, and Volume Measurement

The SI units for Volume

➢ cubic meter, liter & milliliter

1 ha = 10,000 sq. m = 100 ares

1 ares = 100 sq. m.
1 sq. km. = 1,000,000 sq. m. =10 ha
2. Angular Measurements
In the Philippines, the sexagesimal units are used with
SI for angular measurements because of their practical
importance and our familiarity with it.
a. Sexagesimal Units –angular measurements are
degree, minute, and second.
b. Centesimal Units –grad is the angular unit. Used
by countries in Europe and Middle East.
 2. Angular Measurements
The SI unit for plane angles is the radian [unitless].
Radian- the circular measure
-angle subtended by an arc of a circle having a length equal
to the radius of the circle.
Radian and Degrees Relationship
2π rad = 360 °
1 rad = 57 ° 17 ‘ 44.8 ” 1 ° = (3.1416/180) rad
= 57.2958 ° 1 ’ = (3.1416/10800) rad
.01745 = 1 ° 1 ” = (3.1416/648000) rad
 Radian and Degrees
Relationship

The hundred part of a right angle is 1 g

grad/gon, and one 100th part of 1 g is
centesimal arc minute 1 c, and one 100th
part of centesimal arc minute is
centesimal arc second 1 c c,
Degrees to radians and radians to degrees conversion
Degrees to radians and radians to degrees conversion
Degrees to radians and radians to degrees conversion
Degrees to radians and radians to degrees conversion
Degrees to radians and radians to degrees conversion
Significant Figures

Significant figures are the number of digits in a

value, often a measurement, that contributes
to the degree of accuracy of the value.
Significant Figures
To determine the number of significant figures in a number
use the following 3 rules:

1. Non-zero digit is always significant.

2. Any zeros between two significant digits are significant
3. A final zero or trailing zeros in the decimal portion ONLY
are significant
Example: .500 or .632000 the zeros are significant
.006 or .000968 the zeros are NOT significant
 Significant Figures Samples
1. One Significant Figures (100, 400, 9, 8000, .001, .000005)
2. Two Significant Figures (24, 0.24, 0.020, 0.000065, 3.6)
3. Three Significant Figures (655, 12.3, 3.65, 10.01, 0.000249)
4. Four Significant Figures (7654, 32.25, 0.8742, 15.00,
0.00006712)
5. Five Significant Figures (13455, 0.86740, 100.00, 46.059,
40.000)
 Significant Figures
To determine the number of significant figures in a number
use the following 3 rules:

1. Non-zero digit is always significant. 12345 = 5 Sig Fig

2. Any zeros between two significant digits are significant.
108.0097= 7 Sig Fig
3. A final zero or trailing zeros in the decimal portion ONLY
are significant
Example: .500 or .632000 the zeros are significant (3 & 5 Sig Fig)
.006 or .000968 the zeros are NOT significant (1 & 3 Sig Fig)
 Significant Figures
➢ All zeros that are on the right of a decimal point are significant,
only if, a non-zero digit does not follow them.
➢ 20.00 = 4 Sig Fig
➢ All the zeros that are on the right of the last non-zero digit, after
the decimal point, are significant.
➢ 0.0079800 = 5 Sig Fig
➢ All the zeros that are on the right of the last non-zero digit are
significant if they come from a measurement.
➢ 1090 = 4 Sig Fig
 Significant Figures Examples
Q.1: Identify the number of significant digits/figures
in the following given numbers.
a. 45
b. 0.046
c. 7.4220
d. 5002
e. 3800
Q.2: Write 12.378162 correct to 4 significant digits.
 Solution:
Number Number of Significant digits/figures
45 Two
0.046 Two
7.4220 Five
5002 Four
3800 Two

The number 12.378162, rounded to 4 significant digits is 12.38

 Rounding Significant Figures

Rounding off a value is the process of dropping one or more

of the final digits so that the value retains only the significant
figures required for further computation or for portraying
the final results.
Rounding Off Numbers

Digits less than 5

24.244 --------------- 24.24
24.24 --------------- 24.2
Rounding Off Numbers

Digits greater than 5

226.276 --------------- 226.28
226.28 --------------- 226.3
Rounding Off Numbers

Digits equal than 5

26.175 --------------- 26.18
156.285 --------------- 156.28
156.285 --------------- 156.29
Surveying Fieldnotes
Surveying Fieldnotes
➢ Surveying field notes constitute the only reliable and
permanent record of the actual work done in the field.
If the notes are incorrect or incomplete, all efforts done
in gathering the survey data are wasted.
➢ Official record of survey, must be complete, legible,
concise and comprehensive, and logically arranged
according to a recognized practice.
Fieldnotes

Fieldwork observations should be recorded directly in

the notebook at the time of observation. Usage of
scrap sheets of paper for later transference in the neat
form to the field book defeats the purpose of the latter.
 Fieldnotes

Fieldwork observations should be recorded directly in

the notebook at the time of observation. Usage of
scrap sheets of paper for later transference in the neat
form to the field book defeats the purpose of the latter.
Field Notebook

Should be of good quality rag paper, with a stiff

board or leather cover made to withstand hard usage
and pocket size.
SURVEYING
Types of Notes
1. Sketches
2. Tabulations
3. Explanatory Notes
4. Computations
5. Combination of the above
SURVEYING
Types of Notes
1. Sketches
A good sketch
will help to convey a
correct impression.
They are drawn to
free-hand and of
liberal size.
 Types of Notes
2. Tabulations
Numerical values
observed in the field are
best shown in a tabulated
format. Tabulated form of
note keeping conveys the
required information as
simple and definite.
 Types of Notes
3. Explanatory Notes
It provides a written
description of what has
been done in the field.
These are employed to
make clear what the
numerical data and
sketches fail to do.
 Types of Notes
4. Computations
Calculations often
form a large part in
surveying. It should be
clear and orderly in
arrangement in order for
others to understand.
SURVEYING
Field
Notes
Information Found in Notes

1. Title of the Field Work

2. Time of Day and Date
3. Weather Conditions
4. Name & Designation of Group Members
5. List of Equipment
 Information Found in Notes
1. Title of the Field Work
The official name of the project or title of the fieldwork
should always be identified. The location of the survey and
preferably the nature or purpose should always be stated.

2. Time of Day and Date

These entries are necessary to document the notes and
furnish a timetable, as well as to correlate different surveys.
 Information Found in Notes
3. Weather Conditions
Temperature, wind velocity, typhoons, storms, and
other weather conditions have a decided effect on
accuracy in surveying operations.

4. Name & Designation of Group Members

This information will be necessary for
documentation purposes and other future references.
 Information Found in Notes
5. List of Equipment
All survey equipment used must be listed. The type
of instrument used has a definite effect on the accuracy
of a survey.
 Field Survey Party
1. Chief of Party (CoP) 9. Flagman
2. Assistant Chief of Party (ACoP) 10. Rodman
3. Instrumentman 11. Pacer
4. Technician 12. Axeman
5. Computer 13. Aidman
6. Recorder 14. Utility Man
7. Head Tapeman
8. Rear Tapeman
 Field Survey Party
1. Chief of Party
The person who is responsible for the overall
direction, supervision, and operational control of the
survey party.
2. Assistant Chief of Party
The person whose duty is to assist the Chief of
Party in the accomplishment of the task assigned to the
survey party.
Field Survey Party
3. Instrumentman
The person whose duty is to set up, level, and
operate the surveying instruments such as transit,
theodolite, and total station.
4. Recorder
The person whose duty is to keep a record of all
sketches, drawings, measurements, and observations
taken or needed for a fieldwork operation.
SURVEYING
5. Rodman
The person whose primary duty is to hold the stadia
or levelling rod when sights are to be taken.
SURVEYING
Survey Party
6. Head Tapeman
The person responsible for the accuracy
and speed of all linear measurements with
tape.
SURVEYING
Survey Party
7. Rear Tapeman
The person whose duty is to assist the
Head Tapeman during taping operations and
other related works.
SURVEYING
Survey Party
8. Others
• Computer
• Flagman
• Pacer
• Axeman/Lineman
Errors & Mistakes
Errors

An error is defined as the difference between the true

value and the measured value of a quantity. It is
beyond the control of the one performing the
operation.
Mistakes

Mistakes are inaccuracies in measurements that occur

because some aspects of the surveying operation are
performed by the surveyor with carelessness,
inattention, poor judgment, and improper execution.
 Types of Error

1. Systematic Error
2. Accidental Error
 1. Systematic Error
➢ This type of error is one which always has the same sign and
magnitude as long as the field conditions remain constant and
unchanged. (Making a measurement with 30-m tape which is 5 cm
too short (same error))
➢ It will repeat itself in other measurements, still maintaining the
same sign, and thus will accumulate.
➢ In surveying, systematic errors occur due to instrumental factors,
natural causes, and human limitations of the observer. This type
of error will continue to persist and impose regular effects in the
performance of survey operations.
 2. Accidental Error
➢ This error is purely accidental in character. The occurrence of
such errors are matters of chance as they are likely to be
positive and negative.
➢ There is no absolute way of determining or eliminating them
since the error for an observation of a quantity is not likely to
be the same as a second observation.
➢ Are usually of minor importance in surveying operations
 Systematic vs. Accidental Error
➢ Accidental errors are usually of minor importance in
surveying operations since they are variable in sign
and are of compensating nature.
➢ Although the total error increases as the number of
measurements increases, the total error becomes
proportionally less compared with the number of
measurements, and the accuracy becomes greater
as the number of measurements increases.
Sources of Errors

1. Instrumental Error
2. Natural Error
3. Personal Error
 Sources of Errors
1. Instrumental Error
➢ This error is due to the imperfections in the instrument used,
either from faults in their construction or from proper
adjustments between the different parts before use.
❖ Measuring with a steel tape of incorrect length.
❖ Using a rod with painted graduation not perfectly spaced.
❖ Sighting on that which is warped.
❖ Improper adjustment of the plate bubbles of a transit level.
 Sources of Errors
2. Natural Error
➢ This error is caused by variations in the phenomena of
nature such as changes in temperature, humidity, wind,
refraction, and curvature of the earth.
❖ Effects of temperature variation on the length of a steel tape.
❖ Deflection of the line of sight due to the effect of the earth’s
curvature and atmospheric refraction.
❖ Errors in the measurement of a line with a tape being blown
sideways by a strong wind.
 Sources of Errors
2. Personal Error
➢ This error arises principally from limitations of the senses of
sight, touch, and hearing of the human observer which are
likely to be erroneous or inaccurate.
❖ Error in the reading on a rod that is out of plumb during a
sighting.
❖ Making an erroneous estimate of the required pull to be
applied on a steel tape during measurement.
❖ Erroneous recording of observation.
 Accuracy and Precision
Accuracy
➢ Accuracy indicates how close a given measurement is to
the absolute or true value of the quantity measured.
➢ The difference between the measured value of a
quantity and its actual value represents the total error in
the measurement.
➢ Implies the closeness between related measurements
and their expectations.
 Accuracy and Precision

Precision
➢ Precision refers to the degree of refinement and
consistency with which any physical measurement is
made.
➢ It is portrayed by the closeness to one another of a
set of repeated measurements of a quantity.
Accuracy and
Precision
Accuracy and
Precision
 Accuracy vs. Precision
Which Is More Important?
➢ Accuracy is more important when trying to hit a target. You
either hit your target or you don’t. It does no good to be
precise if you miss all your shots. (Accuracy is something you
can fix in future measurements.)
➢ Precision is more important in calculations. When using a
measured value in a calculation, you can only be as precise
as your least precise measurement. (You can improve
precision by using a better measuring tool and/or
improving your skill at using the tool.)
 Accuracy vs. Precision
Which Is More Important?

Accuracy and precision are both important to good

measurements in science. Try to make the best of both in all
your measurements. But no matter how hard you try,
measurements always deviate slightly from true values. This is
because of error.
Theory of Probability
Probability is defined as the number of times something
will probably occur over the range of possible occurrence
➢ is simply how likely something is to happen.
➢ Very much involved in games of chance (throwing dice,
tossing a coin, or in various games using cards)
Different theories of probability are not applicable o
games of chance, they are also used in scientific and
engineering measurements such as surveying.
 Theory of Probability
Assumptions
1. Small error occur more often than large ones and they are more
probable.
2. Large errors happen infrequently and are therefore less probable;
for normally distributed errors, unusually large ones may be
mistakes rather than errors.
3. Positive and negative errors of the same size happen with equal
frequency; that is, they are equally probable.
4. The mean of an infinite number of observations is the most
probable value.
 Theory of Probability
By applying the principles of probability, measurements
containing accidental errors could be adjusted. The most
probable value of a set of observations could then be
determined and inherent discrepancies are eliminated from
such measurements
➢ Results of such measurements are not the true values, but
they are the most probable values.
 Most Probable Value
Frequent but Frequent but
extremely small extremely small
negative errors positive errors

Few but Few but

extremely large extremely large
negative errors positive errors
 Most Probable Value

➢ The most probable value refers to a quantity that,

based on available data, has more chances of being
correct than any other.
➢ From the theory of probability, it is the arithmetic mean
or the average of a group of repeated measurements
made under similar conditions.
 Most Probable Value

∑𝑥
𝑀𝑃𝑉 = X̅= = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + ⋯+ 𝑥𝑛 /𝑛
𝑛
Where:
𝑀 𝑃 𝑉 Most Probable Value
𝑥 Measurements
𝛴𝑥 Sum of all Measurements
𝑛 Total Number of Measurements
 Most Probable Value
Example 1
A surveying instructor sent out six groups of students to
measure the distance between two points marked on the
ground. The students came up with the following six different
values: 250.25, 250.15, 249.90, 251.04, 250.50, and
251.22 meters. Assuming these values are equally reliable
and that variations result from accidental errors, determine
the most probable value of the distance measured.
 Solution:
∑𝑥
𝑀𝑃𝑉 = X̅= = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + ⋯+ 𝑥𝑛 /𝑛
𝑛
Given: x1-x6 = 250.25, 250.15, 249.90, 251.04, 250.50, and 251.22
n=6
= (250.25 + 250.15 + 249.90 + 251.04 + 250.50 + 251.22)/6
= (1503.06)/6
MPV= 250.51
 Most Probable Value

Example 2
The angles about a point Q have 𝜃1
the following observed values:
130°15’20”, 142°37’30”, and Q
87°07’40”. Determine the most 𝜃3 𝜃2
probable value of each angle.
 Solution:
Given: θ1 = 130°15’20” θ2 = 142°37’30”
θ3 = 87°07’40” n = 3 (number of observed angles)
a. Determine the Correction to be applied
Sum1 = θ1 + θ2 + θ3 = 130°15’20” + 142°37’30” + 87°07’40”
=360°00’30” (Sum of the angles observed about point Q)
Disc = 360°- 360°00’30”
= -30” (discrepancy in the observation)
Corr = Disc/n = -30” / 3
= -10” ( Correction to be subtracted from each observed angle)
 Solution:
b. Determining the Most Probable Values
θ’1 = θ1 ± Corr = 130°15’20” – 10” θ’1 = 130°15’10”
θ’2 = θ2 ± Corr = 142°37’30” – 10” θ’2 = 142°37’20”
θ’3 = θ3 ± Corr = 87°07’40” – 10” θ’3 = 87°07’30”
c. Solution Check:
θ’1 + θ’2 + θ’3 = 360°00’00”
130°15’10”+ 142°37’20” + 87°07’30” = 360°00’00”
360°00’00” = 360°00’00” (checks)
(Since the two quantities are equal = computation is assumed correct!)
 Most Probable Value
Example 3

The observed interior angles of a triangle are

A = 35°14’37”, B = 96°30’09”, and C =
48°15’05”. Determine the discrepancy for the
given observation and the most probable
value for each angle.
 Given: A, B, & C = Vertices of triangle ABC
Solution: n= 3 (num of observed) angles
a. Determine the Correction to be applied
Sum1 = A + B + C = 35°14’37”+ 96°30’09”+ 48°15’05”
=179°59’51” (Sum of the observed interior angles of triangle ABC)
Sum2 = (n-2) 180° = (3-2) 180°
= 180°00’00” (the correct sum for the interior angles of a 3-sided fig)
Disc = ± (Sum2 - Sum1 ) = ± (180°- 179°59’51”)
=+09” (discrepancy in the observation)
Corr = Disc/n = +9” / 3
= +3” ( Correction to be added to each observed angle)
 Solution:
b. Determining the Most Probable Values
A’ = A1 ± Corr = 35°14’37” + 3” A’ = 35°14’40”
B’ = B2 ± Corr = 96°30’09” + 3” B’ = 96°30’23”
C’ = C3 ± Corr = 48°15’05” + 3” C’ = 48°15’08”
c. Solution Check:
A’ + B’ + C’ = 180°00’00”
35°14’40” + 96°30’23” + 48°15’08” = 180°00’00”
180°00’00” = 180°00’00” (checks)
(Since the two quantities are equal = computation is assumed correct!)
 Most Probable Value

Example 4
Measurement of three horizontal angles
about a point P: APB=12°31’50”,
BPC=37°29’20”, and CPD = 47°36’30”. If
the measurement of the single angle APD
is 97°37’00”, determine the most
probable values of the angle.
 Given: α1=APB=12°31’50”, α2= BPC=37°29’20”,
α3=CPD = 47°36’30”, α4= APD =97°37’00”
Solution: n= 4 (num of observed angles)

a. Determining the Correction to be applied

Sum1 = α1 + α2 + α3 = 12°31’50”+ 37°29’20”+ 47°36’30”
= 97°37’40” (Sum of the angles observed about point P)
Disc = ± (α4 - Sum1 ) = ± (97°37’40” - 97°37’00”)
=-40” (discrepancy in the two sets of observation made)
Corr = Disc/n = -40” / 4
= -10” ( Amount of correction to be applied)
 Solution:
b. Determining the Most Probable Values
α’1 = α 1 ± Corr = 12°31’50” - 10” α’1 = 12°31’40”
α’2 = α 2 ± Corr = 37°29’20” - 10” α’2 = 37°29’10”
α’3 = α 3 ± Corr = 47°36’30” - 10” α’3 = 47°36’20”
α’4 = α4 ± Corr = 97°37’00” + 10” α’4 = 97°37’10”
c. Solution Check:
α’1 + α’2 + α’3 = α’4
12°31’40” + 37°29’10” + 47°36’20” = 97°37’10”
97°37’10” = 97°37’10”” (checks)
(Since the two quantities are equal = computation is assumed correct!)
ERROR
Residual or Deviation
Residual is defined as the difference between any measured
value of a quantity and its most probable value (MPV).

𝑣 = 𝑥 − 𝑥ҧ = 𝑥 − 𝑀𝑃𝑉
ERROR
Probable Error
Probable error is a quantity which, when added to and
subtracted from the most probable value, defines a range
within which there is a 50 percent chance that the true
value of the measured quantity lies inside the limits thus
set.
ERROR
Probable Error
Probable Error for a single measurement can be computed
using the following formula:

𝛴𝑣2
𝑃𝐸𝑠 = ±0.674489
𝑛− 1
ERROR
Probable Error
Probable Error of the mean can be computed using the
following formula:

𝛴𝑣2
𝑃𝐸 𝑚 = ±0.674489
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)
ERROR
Where:
𝑃𝐸𝑠 Probable Error of any single measurement of a
series
𝑃𝐸 Probable Error of the mean
the residual or deviation
𝑣 number of observations
𝑛
ERROR
Relative (Error) Precision
Relative Error or Relative Precision is the ratio of the
Probable Error and the Most Probable Value.

𝑃𝐸
𝑅𝑃 =
𝑀𝑃𝑉
ERROR
Summation of Errors
If several measured quantities are added, each of which is
affected by accidental errors, the probable error of the sum
is given by the squares of the separate probable errors
arising from several sources.

𝑃𝐸 𝑠𝑢𝑚 = ± 𝑃𝐸12 + 𝑃𝐸22 + ⋯+ 𝑝𝐸 2𝑛

ERROR
Product of Errors
For a measured quantity which is determined as the product
of two independently measured quantities such as Q1 and
Q2, the probable error of the product is given by

𝑃𝐸𝑠 = ± 𝑄1𝑥𝑃𝐸1 2 + 𝑄 2 × 𝑃𝐸2 2

ERROR
Example 5
The following values were determined in a series of tape
measurements of a line: 1000.58, 1000.40, 1000.38, 1000.48,
1000.40, and 1000.46 meters. Determine the following:
a. Most probable value of the measured line
b. Probable errors of single measurement and the probable
error of the mean
c. Final expression for the most probable length
d. Relative precision of the measurement.
 line: 1000.58, 1000.40, 1000.38, 1000.48, 1000.40, and 1000.46 meters

a. MPV b. Probable error of a single measurement PE & PE of

mean
n=6
V1 = X1- x̄ = 1000.58 – 1000.45 = +0.13
∑X = x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 + x6
= 1000.58 + 1000.40 + 1000.38 + 1000.48 +
V2 = X2- x̄ = 1000.40 – 1000.45 = -0.05
1000.40 + 1000.46 V3 = X3- x̄ = 1000.38 – 1000.45 = -0.07
∑ X =6000.70 m
V4 = X4- x̄ = 1000.48 – 1000.45 = +0.03
x̄ = ∑ X/ n V5 = X5- x̄ = 1000.40 – 1000.45 = -0.05
= 6000.70 m/6 V6 = X6- x̄ = 1000.46 – 1000.45 = +0.01
x̄ =1000.45 ◦ ∑V = 0.00
b. Probable error of a single measurement PE & PE b. Probable error of a single measurement PE & PE
of mean of mean
V1 2 = +0.13 2 = .0169
V2 2 = -0.05 2 = .0025
V3 2 = -0.07 2 = .0049
V4 2 = +0.03 2 = .0009
V5 2 = -0.05 2 = .0025
V6 2 = +0.01 2 = .0001

∑ V 2 = V1 2 + V2 2 + V3 2 + V4 2 + V5 2 + V6 2
◦= .0169 + . 0025 + .0049 + .0009 + 0025 +
.0001
∑ V 2 = 0.0278
ERROR
Weighted Observations
Measurements are usually done on various conditions. Such
measurements have different degrees of reliability. Thus, weight (or
reliability) are assigned to each measurement before the most probable
value is computed.
The assignment of the weight to different is usually based on (a) the
judgment of the surveyor, (b) the number of measurements taken for a
particular measurement, and (c) the assumption that weight is inversely
proportional to the square of the probable error for the said
measurement.
ERROR
Weighted Observations
σ 𝑛𝑖= 1 𝑥𝑖 ⋅ 𝑤𝑖
𝑀𝑃𝑉 MPV for repeated measurements
𝑛
=
1 Weight is inversely proportional to the
𝑤 = square of the probable error of a
𝑃𝐸 2
measurement
ERROR
Example 6
Four measurements of a distance were recorded as 284.18,
284.19, 284.22, and 284.20 meters and given weights of 1, 3, 2,
and 4 respectively. Determine the most probable value of the
distance.
ERROR
Example 8
Lines of levels to establish the elevation of a point are run over four
different routes. The observed elevations of the point with
probable values are given below. Determine the most probable
value of the elevation of the point.
219.832±0.006 m
219.930±0.012 m
219.701±0.018 m
220.021±0.024 m