SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES AND DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

COMS 101
COMMUNICATION SKILLS

DR PAULINE NASESIA NDORO

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LAIKIPIA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES AND DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

COMS 101
COMMUNICATION SKILLS

AUTHOR: DR PAULINE NASESIA NDORO, Communication, PhD UNISA

HOD Literary and Communication Studies Department

REVIEWER: Professor Felicia Yieke

EDITOR:

Published by University of Laikipia Council, P.0 1100-20300 Nyahururu—Kenya

Printed by (Name P.O.Box ???? 2013)

© University of Laikipia Council all rights reserved. No part of this Module may be reproduced
in any form or by any means without prior permission in writing from the publisher.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. General Introduction to the Module…………………………………………………………..6

II. Aim and lecture Outcomes of the Module…………………………………………………….7
LECTURE ONE: HISTORY AND ASPECTS OF COMMUNICATION
1.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………...9
1.2 Learning outcomes……………………………………………………………………………9
1.3 Meaning of communication………………………………………………………………….10
1.4 The elements of communication…………………………………………………………….10
1.5 The history of communication………………………………………………………………12
1.6 Contextual approaches to communication…………………………………………………16
1.7 Communication barriers……………………………………………………………………19
1.8 Summary…………………………………………………………………………………….22
1.9 Further reading………………………………………………………………………………23

LECTURE TWO: STUDY TECHNIQUES

2.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………24
2.2 Learning outcomes………………………………………………………………………….24
2.3 Effective study methods……………………………………………………………………..24
2.4 Time management……………………………………………………………………………30
2.5 Group/Peer work……………………………………………………………………………35
2.6 Preparing for assessment……………………………………………………………………36
2.7 Summary……………………………………………………………………………………..41
2.8 Further reading………………………………………………………………………………42
LECTURE THREE: LIBRARY USER INFORMATION
3.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………….43
3.2 Learning Outcomes…………………………………………………………………………..44
3.3 Types of libraries…………………………………………………………………………….44

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3.4 Information Sources and categories…………………………………………………………49
3.5 Organization of Information Sources……………………………………………………….58
3.6 Evaluating information sources……………………………………………………………66
3.7 Referencing techniques…………………………………………………………………… 70
3.8 Summary……………………………………………………………………………………72
3.9 Further reading……………………………………………………………………….........72
LECTURE FOUR: READING SKILLS
4.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………73
4.2 Learning Outcomes………………………………………………………………………….74
4.3The Meaning of Reading……………………………………………………………………..74
4.4 Reading Strategies…………………………………………………………………………..80
4.5 Structure and organization of a text………………………………………………………..89
4.6 Tran-coding and Interpreting Non-Linear Information……………………………………92
4.7 Summary……………………………………………………………………………………98
4.8 Further Reading…………………………………………………………………………….98
LECTURE FIVE: WRITING SKILLS
5.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………...99
5.2 Lesson Outcomes……………………………………………………………………..........99
5.3 Introduction to Writing…………………………………………………………………......99
5.4 Essay Writing…………………………………………………………………………… …101
5.5 Types of Essays…………………………………………………………………………….106
5.6 Academic Essay Writing Process…………………………………………………………..110
5.7 Summary……………………………………………………………………………………127
5.8 Further reading……………………………………………………………………………..127
REFERENCES

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GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Welcome to this module of Communication Skills (COMS 101). This is a University common
core course which is offered to all first-year students enrolling for undergraduate studies. This is
a skill- based course that will provide you with guidance and practice on how to study, read
effectively and efficiently, use the library effectively, write academically acceptable assignments
and research papers using internationally acceptable standards. The skills acquired in this course
will be applied to the other courses that you will register for.

In this course, you will be introduced to the concept of communication, where you will look at
the meaning of communication, history of communication, definition of communication,
elements of communication, context of communication and communication barriers. You will
also cover study skills which are designed to provide you with basic study skills such as effective
study methods, setting goals, time management, drawing a weekly timetable, preparing and
answering examination questions, group and peer work and networking. You will also go
through library user skills that will provide you with information and guidance on how to use
library sources. You will also go through reading skills that will offer guidance on reading
strategies to make you an effective and efficient reader. You will be guided to explore the
different types of essays and also practice the skill of writing assignments and the research paper
which will be part of your continuous assessment.

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We shall have five lecture lessons in total, each handling a different skill in communication
skills. Some of the lectures will go on for three hours whereas some longer ones will take 6-12
hours. At intervals in the lecture and also at the end of each lecture, you will have short exercises
for self assessment and also assignments for handing in for marking for your continuous
assessment. You will be able to find answers to questions to these questions in the body of the
lectures. If you encounter any difficulties in answering the questions, go through the lesson
again. You are most welcome and we hope that you enjoy yourself.
Each lecture will have an outline, an introduction, learning outcomes, activities, a summary and a
list of books for further reading.

AIM AND LECTURE OUTOMES OF THE MODULE

By the end of the module, you should be able to:

(1) Cultivate and use effective listening skills

(2) Read, think, analyze and apply knowledge to all the specific areas of study

(3) Make effective use of library resources

(4) Write academically acceptable documents and assignments

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LECTURE ONE: HISTORY AND ASPECTS OF COMMUNICATION

LECTURE OUTLINE

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Learning Outcomes

1.3 The meaning of communication

1.4 The history of communication

1.5 The elements of communication

1.6 Contextual approaches to communication

1.7 Communication barriers

1.8 Summary

1.9 Further Reading

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The lecture provides a brief history of how communication developed as an area of study and
also describes three models of communication that were used to explain the meaning of
communication. The lecture also identifies the elements that are essential in the communication
process as well as the barriers that can hinder the communication process.

1.2 LEARNING OUTCOMES

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 By the end of the lecture, you should be able to:

i. Define communication;

ii. Understand the role of communication during the classical period;

iii. Describe three communication models;

iv. Describe the essential elements of communication

v. Identify the different contexts of communication

vi. Identify the barriers of communication

We can now discuss the details of the sub-topics above in more detail.

1.3 MEANING OF COMMUNICATION

Communication has been defined in various ways. For the purposes of our study, we want to
think about communication in terms of human interaction.
We are going to look at it as a process through which people share information, ideas and
feelings. Here we find that people are connected for purposes of passing messages. For this
reason, we want to see how you can get connected with your tutors through the materials you
read, the assignments you will write and even the examinations that you will be doing to fulfill
the university requirements. This will show how much you have gained at every stage of your
study.

Communication is the process of creating meaning between two or more people through the
expression and interpretation of the messages. The communication process involves various
elements, which are discussed below.
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1.4 Elements of Communication
1.4.1 Sender- This is the person who initiates the communication by thinking of an idea to
communicate to the audience. The sender is also referred to as the source, the communicator or
the encoder. The responsibility for the success of any communication lies with the sender. As a
student at the university level, you will be expected to be both a sender and a receiver. This is
because you will be interacting with your tutors, colleagues and with your reading materials
1.4.2 Encoding – before an idea or message can be sent to the receiver, the sender needs to
encode it in an appropriate code. Encoding is the act of making an idea accessible to others of
putting an idea into a code so that it can be perceptible to the receiver. It can be a verbal code
(spoken) or a non-verbal (written) a code without words or language.

1.4.2.1 Code—a code is a set of symbols which when combined and used according to the rules
agreed upon by the users, conveys meaning. The most commonly used code is language.

1.4.3Message—the message is the meaning, content or subject-matter that is, the encoded idea
or content the sender wishes to convey. As a student you will be expected to send messages to
your tutors in the form of assignments and examinations.

1.4.4 Medium—the message must be conveyed to the receiver in a concrete form. The medium
is like a vehicle which transports the message to the audience. The medium can either be spoken
or written.

1.4.5 Audience— the audience or receiver is the person to whom the sender directs the message
and who has to understand the message. The audience has had unique life experiences and
accordingly decodes and interprets each message in a unique way.

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1.4.5.1 Decoding- it is the process of an audience receiving, interpreting and understanding an
encoded message. If the audience is unable to interpret and understand the message, there will be
no shared meaning and no communication will take place.

1.4.6 Feedback—this is the audience’s response to the message. Feedback is essential for
effective communication as it provides a two-way flow of message. The message can be adjusted
should misunderstandings occur. You will get feedback by way of the scores you will obtain and
therefore prompting you to assess your abilities.

1.4.7 Noise-- implies any interruption that affects the communication. This can occur at any
stage in the communication process. So, you will need to be aware of these noises and deal with
them when they occur during your study. An example of noise could be a student being sleepy
while reading, this may affect the way one understands a message.

1.5 The History of Communication

1.5.1 The classical view of communication

Communication as a field of study of academic study became established in the western world
during the twentieth, century. A systematic study of communication can be traced to classical
Greeks. Their focus was on the study of oratory- Which is the creation and delivery of spoken
messages, which reflected the essentially oral nature of the Greek society. Greek citizens had to
be their own lawyers and be able to present a case which would convince a jury of several
hundred persons of their innocence. Effective public speaking or oratory and the ability to use
persuasive forms of communication therefore became a priority for the majority of people.
Consequently, a group of teachers called sophists, became popular by teaching people the art of
rhetoric – which is how to prepare a persuasive speech and deliver it eloquently, in other words
how to become an effective orator.

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Plato (427-347 BCE) a scholar during this time was skeptical of the professional sophists who
earned a living by teaching people how to sway an audience. Plato maintained that the method
used by the sophist was not ethical because the orator was taught to persuade the audience
unconditionally, even if this meant manipulating the emotions of the audience by presenting a
one-sided argument which was aimed at deceiving the audience. Plato developed an alternative
to the sophistic method referred to as philosophical rhetoric. The philosophical method aimed at
persuading an audience by ethical means. Plato regarded each member of the audience as an
individual and would present, for example both sides of the discussion and give the listeners the
opportunity to consider the argument in relation to their own needs and values. Plato gave the
audience the opportunity to interpret the message within their own circumstances. Plato’s views
together with those of his pupil Aristotle contributed significantly to the body of knowledge
about communication in classical times.

Another scholar who made a significant contribution to the study of communication was called
Aristotle (385-322 BCE). Aristotle like Plato regarded communication as an art or skill that
could be taught and -as a field of academic study. Aristotle is renowned for having written
Aristotle’s Rhetoric – a set of lecture notes on public speaking which is still in use today.
Aristotle maintained that people could be taught and should practice the skilful construction of
an argument and effective delivery of a speech.

1.5.1 Aristotle’s View of Communication

Aristotle came up with the first model of communication. A model is a visual diagram of abstract
ideas. The basic purpose of a model is to capture the essential features of a real situation in a
simplified form so that it can be described, explained and understood more easily.
Communication theorists have come up with different ways of explaining what communication
is and usually reflect the view of a particular theorist. Going back to Aristotle’s model, He
described communication in terms of an orator or speaker constructing an argument to be

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presented in a speech to listener (an audience).The diagram below describes how Aristotle
explained the concept of communication.

Fig 1.1 Aristotle’s View of Communication

Speaker Argument Speech listener(s)

(Stanton: 2004)

1.5.2 LASSWELL’S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

Another model that has been used to explain the process of communication is referred to as
Lasswell’s model of communication. Harold Lasswell was an American scientist whose main
interest was in the area of propaganda. In 1948 he described a view of communication that
emphasized the effect of a message on the recipient(s). He said that the communication process
could best be explained by asking the following questions:

Fig1.2 Lasswell’s model of communication(1948)

(Stanton: 2004)

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In the model who refers to the communicator who formulates the message; what is the content
of the message; channel indicates the medium of transmission; and whom describes either an
individual recipient or the audience of mass communication. Effect is the outcome of the
message. The model focuses our attention on the individual components of the communication
process and emphasizes that the components occur in a sequence that begins with the
communicator and ends with the recipient. For both Lasswell and Aristotle, communication is a
one-way process in which the communicator influences others through the content of the
message. It therefore assumes that only the communicator is an active participant in the process,
and that the recipient plays a passive role. We will now move on and talk about the transactional
model which gives us another perspective about the communication process.

1.5.3 TRANSACTIONAL MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

Fig.1.3 Verdeber’s Transactional Model of Communication

(Stanton:2004)

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The transactional model shows that communication does not only involve the transmission of
messages from one person to another, nor is it simply an interaction between two people. The
model depicts that communication is a dynamic process in which both participants are
simultaneously involved in the negotiation of meaning. Simultaneous here means that instead of
a two-way flow, both people are constantly encoding and decoding messages. The transactional
model also highlights that the creation of meaning is negotiated between the participants. The
two circles represent the communicator and the recipient. In the center of the circle is the
message which is the thought, idea, or feeling that is communicated using verbal and nonverbal
signs. Surrounding the messages are the participant’s values, culture, background, occupation,
sex, values, interests, knowledge and attitudes which influence the meaning that is expressed and
the meaning that is interpreted. The outcome of the communication encounter is determined by
the mutual involvement of the participants in negotiating the meaning of the messages.

The bar between the circles represents the medium of communication. Rather than depicting
transmission and feedback as two separate processes, the transactional model indicates that the
messages are continually passing between participants. The area around the communicator and
the recipient represents the context or circumstances in which the process takes place. The area
around the communicator and the recipient represents the context or circumstances in which the
process takes place. While it is taking place external, internal and semantic noise may be
occurring at various places in the model. These noises may affect the ability of communicator
and recipient to share meanings. This model is different from the other two models discussed
above because it has added concepts such as feedback, the barriers and even factors that
determine what kind of communication will take place.

We will now move on to the next aspect that further explains that communication is affected by
the context in which it takes place.

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1.6 CONTEXTUAL APPROACHES TO COMMUNICATION

Communication occurs in different situations or contexts. The message could be the same but the
context in which it occurs will determine how it will be interpreted. For example, in a single day
you may talk to your lecturer, talk to your pastor, listen to radio, or watch Television and also do
a group task. Another example could be the word “I love you” said in church or in a restaurant
could mean different things to the participants. Each of these experiences occurs in different
situations and involves different means of communication, and creates different relationships.

Contexts are different types of communication situation or setting classified according to the
number of people involved in them and the degree to which they are able to interact. The settings
are intrapersonal communication, interpersonal communication, small-group communication,
organizational communication, public speaking, mass communication and intercultural
communication which we will now discuss below.

1.6.1 The intrapersonal communication context

The term ‘intra’ means ‘within’ or inside. Intrapersonal communication occurs when an
individual sends and receives messages internally: in other words, you communicate with
yourself. In intrapersonal communication, you are the communicator as well as the recipient. The
message is made up of your thoughts and feelings which your brain processes and interprets.
Intrapersonal communication is an ongoing process that is taking place even while you are
communicating in all the other settings. Intrapersonal communication is the foundation on which
interpersonal communication is based. To communicate actively with others, you first have to be
able to communicate with yourself.

1.6.2 The interpersonal communication context

The term ‘inter’ means ‘between’. Interpersonal communication occurs between people in a
face-to-face situation. They are able to see each other and observe facial expressions and other

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non-verbal behavior while they are exchanging verbal messages. The participants continually
provide feedback and or respond to each other’s messages. It is in the interpersonal context that
meaningful relationships are formed and maintained in our daily interactions with others.

1.6.3 The small-group communication context

Small group communication refers to communication within a group between three and twelve
people. The group must be small enough so that each member is able to interact with all the other
members. We all belong to a number of groups: the family, work groups, social clubs. People in
groups usually share a common purpose or goal which brings them together.

1.6.4 The organizational communication context

Organizational communication was developed as a response for organizations to become more

efficient and productive in order to serve the needs of society. Members of an organization
communicate as individuals and in groups and can be called upon to deliver oral presentations.
The interests of organizational communication include the flow of information within the
organization and society. The direction in which the message travels between a sender and an
organization is referred to as a channel. There are four channels or directions that messages can
flow; downward – where a senior member of staff speaks or writes to a junior member of staff,
upward –This is where a junior member of staff writes or speaks to a senior member of staff,
lateral (sideways)- means colleagues communicating among themselves and informal
(grapevine)- this is not an official channel, it sometimes refers to rumors but messages are sent
in all directions.

1.6.5 The public speaking context

When a group becomes too large for direct interaction between the members, we talk about the
public speaking context or an oral presentation. Public speaking is more formal than
interpersonal or small group communication. Examples of public speaking are a persuasive
political speech, a lecture to students, a speech at a wedding. The event is usually planned and
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the speaker is introduced and delivers a speech that has been prepared to meet the goals of the
particular situation. Participants are still face to face but the audience does not participate
directly until the end of the speech when questions are invited. However, they can send
nonverbal messages or feedback.

1.6.6 The mass communication context

Mass communication is communication to large masses of people who do not know each other
and who are usually not in the same place. Mass communication is distinct because information
is mediated- meaning that the message reaches you through a mechanical or electronic medium
such as print or television. When you read a book or listen to news on the radio, you are part of
the mass media. Mass media provides little or no feedback.

1.6.7 Intercultural Communication Context

‘Culture’ is defined as the lifestyle of a group of people and includes the values, beliefs, artifacts,
and ways of behaving and communicating of that group. Culture is learnt or acquired. Because
shared or commonness is essential for communication to occur successfully, people who belong
to different cultures need to establish some common ground and cultivate an open positive
attitude towards one another.

1.7 Communication barriers

A communication barrier is defined as any factor which hampers or prevents the smooth flow of
the message from the sender to the audience. Barriers can originate with both the sender and the
audience. Barriers can affect all four communication skills: writing, speaking, reading and
listening. There are five major barriers that can be identified namely; perceptual barriers,
language barriers, physical barriers and physiological barriers and psychological barriers. We
will now discuss every barrier respectively:

1.7.1 Perceptual barriers

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Perception is the process of selecting and organizing information gained through the senses in
such a way that the information makes sense. It is a way of interpreting information or give
meaning to the world around us. Perceptual backgrounds may occur because of one of the
following factors; cultural background, past experience, selection, needs and education. Let us
briefly look at these factors one at a time.

1.7.1.1 Cultural background

People of a particular culture have shared values and beliefs and a shared symbolic code such as
language. This shared knowledge binds the people together and gives them a sense of belonging.
In a social interaction they know for example, who should be greeted first, which form the
greeting should take, what topics may be discussed, whether to make eye contact or not.

Another person from another culture may have a different understanding of what is acceptable in
the same interaction. This is because no two cultures are the same in terms of their cultural
practices to a lesser or greater extent. If members of a particular cultural group recognize and
respect other people’s cultural practices, miscommunication is unlikely to happen. However,
what often happens is that people perceive others in terms of their own cultural practices. The
result is the judgment of the other people and their culture. The judgment is usually negative.
This is an ethnocentric reaction, resulting in ethnocentrism, which is the tendency of people to
view their own cultures as being supreme.

Another barrier to communication is the tendency to see members of other cultures as being
alike. This assumption is called cultural stereotyping and results from a failure to recognize the
individuality of people within a culture.

1.7.1.2 Past experience

Perception is learnt through experience; no two people have identical experiences. People will
perceive the same situation in different ways. For example, someone’s unpleasant experience

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with a dog may make him or her always perceive dogs as ferocious, unworthy creatures, while
another person thinks that dogs are friendly because they have had a pleasant experience with
dogs.

1.7.1.3 Selection

You select that which you want to attend to especially what you are familiar with or expect.

1.7.1.3 Needs

You are also influenced by your physical and psychological needs. Maslow a psychologist said
that people are motivated by human needs.

1.7.2 Language barriers

Language and the way we use it often results in barriers; this often happens in various ways as
shown below:

1.7.1.1 Meaning level

If the meaning understood by the audience differs from the meaning intended by the sender,
miscommunication results.

1.7.1.2 The use of jargon

When communicators use specialized language of a particular field or profession

miscommunication can occur especially when the audience is unfamiliar with the field.

1.7.1.3 The use of difficult words

Using words that are too complex for the intended audience causes a barrier.

1.7.1.4 The use of insensitive language

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The use of language that discriminates against others, for example, on gender or racial grounds.
For example, calling a grown-up man a “boy”. The word “boy” may be interpreted in different
ways that could be offensive.

1.7.1.4 Punctuation

Incorrect pronunciation confuses an audience who might hear a different word from
the one intended. You can also distract the audience from mispronunciation.

1.7.1.5 Incorrect grammar and spelling

Communicators’ use of incorrect grammar rules and misspelling words can confuse or distract
the audience.

1.7.1.6 Use of complex and long sentences.

Some communicators use long and complex sentences which are very difficult to decode.

1.7.2 Physical barriers

Physical barriers are factors or elements in the external environment that hamper
communication. For example, people talking in the corridor outside the classroom can interfere
with the learner’s uptake of information.

1.7.3 Physiological barriers

Physiological barriers are experienced internally in other words within the body of the sender or
the audience. For example, a bad headache can make it difficult for one to concentrate in class.

1.7.4 Psychological barriers

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Psychological barriers are experienced in the mind. For example, boredom and a bad attitude to
the message can hinder communication as does embarrassment about a subject matter. Stress and
pressure are also psychological barriers.

1.8 SUMMARY

Communication has been studied since the classical period.

Communication has different components which must be present for any communication to take
place. Communication occurs in different contexts. Communication barriers can arise from any
part of the communication process.

ACTIVITY 1.1

1. Describe Verdeber’s model of communication.

2. What is the difference between Lasswell’s model and Verdeber’s

model?

3. Name the five categories of communication barriers.

4. Why is the context in which the communication process takes place

significant?

1.9 FURTHER READING

Cleary, S. (2008). Communication: A hands on approach. Cape Town: Juta

De Vito, J. (1994). Human communication: The basic course. 6th ed. Cape Town: Juta

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LECTURE TWO

STUDY TECHNIQUES

LECTURE OUTLINE
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Learning outcomes
2.3 Effective study methods
2.4 Time management
2.5 Peer/group work
2.6 Preparation for examinations
2.7 Summary
2.8 Further Reading

2.1. INTRODUCTION
Welcome to this lecture of Study Techniques. It is designed to introduce to you the basic study
skills, which you will need to learn and practice in order to enjoy your studies at the university
level. In this lesson we shall take you through the methods you can use to achieve effective
study, how you can manage your time, the usefulness of group or peer study and what you
require to do when you are preparing for examinations.
2.2 LEARNING OUTCOMES
After you have completed this lecture you should be able to:
(a) Identify and practice effective study methods.
(b) Design ways of managing your time effectively.
(c) Establish your study group.
(d) Design effective ways of preparing for the various university
Examinations.

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The section below will discuss the effective study methods you can adopt to be an efficient
student.

2.3 EFFECTIVE STUDY METHODS

For you to succeed in higher education study, there are basic study guidelines, which you can
think about and practice in order to achieve your personal academic objectives. Before you
proceed, engage yourself in the activity below:
Activity 2.1
1. Explain the words, effective, study, and methods in your own
words. You will refer to your answer at the end of this sub-topic.
2. Do you really need to know how to study? Don’t you already
know?

We can succeed in anything that we do if we can develop certain skills. In studying, we are
expected to develop various techniques which will enable us create a good environment for
ourselves in order to succeed. We notice that the words used above will mean that we should be
able to see results of the efforts, which we put in our work as we study. The following aspects
discussed below will help you to focus on improving your study skills.
2.3.1 Setting Goals
We believe that you know what you are doing and that you know what you want in life. For this
reason, it is expected you have set a purpose for yourself and that your aim is to fulfill that
purpose as you undertake this degree course at Laikipia University. If you do not know what you
want to do in life, then you cannot succeed, because you will not have something, which you can
look up to. All of us have more energy when what we do leads us to what we want in our lives.
Those who do not have a central goal fall prey of petty worries, fears, troubles and self-pity. All
these lead to low morale.
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Therefore, if your studies are part of that overall aim, then the chances of your studies
succeeding will be very high. So, you must set goals and a purpose for your study if you have to
achieve the desired success.
However, we want to caution you here that when you are setting goals for yourself do not set
targets that are unrealistic. If the targets are too unrealistic, they become an obstacle to achieving
your success. For example, if you say ‘I must complete this module in one week’. That may be
difficult to achieve and you will end up frustrated because you may come to believe that you are
not able to meet your goals, and yet they may not be achievable.
The goals that you set should be those that you can measure. Can you see the results of what you
have set out to achieve? For example, when you set a goal like ‘I want to get grade A in
communication skills module’. The next question you ask is, how do I achieve this goal? So, you
can get a grade A goal perhaps by saying that ‘I want to create two free hours per day for my
assignments’. If your goals are set clearly and in measurable terms, you will be able to think
about each of the study tasks that you will have and pay specific attention to them. So, what you
feel about a study task is very important. You will be able to know what goal to set if the study
assignment is hard or easy.
If the material you are working with is hard, you will need to set different goals from those that
you set when the task seems very easy.

2.3.2 Positive Thinking

It does not matter how many purposes you set for yourself. They may not be fulfilled if you do
not have positive thoughts about yourself. You should be kind to yourself such that you can
judge yourself by what you deserve and your capabilities. If you think of yourself as stupid or
bad then you will actually be discouraged and end up giving up. All of us make wrong
decisions or mistakes at one stage in our lives. The attitudes about yourself should be positive in
order for you to realize your full potential through your abilities. You must develop self-
confidence to enable you complete all the tasks successfully. If you have a tendency of

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negative thoughts about any of the study modules that you will be reading, that will make it hard
for you to complete the courses on schedule. As you encounter the various modules, you might
begin to develop negative attitudes by perhaps looking at the material as difficult, boring, or too
simple, that is negative thinking and should be avoided. A positive attitude towards your abilities
will strengthen your self-confidence, which is an essential ingredient of success.

2.3.3 Networking
You may find that there are some colleagues in your geographical setting whom you should
always get in touch with. You can form study groups with these colleagues in order to make your
study tasks easier than they would be if you were alone. Besides colleagues, the teaching staff at
the university will be a useful source of information especially when you are in doubt or
have no idea of what should be done. Do not struggle on your own if you are not sure of what
you are supposed to do, especially if you have trouble understanding how to use any of the
materials provided to you for the modules that you have registered for. You are advised to:
a. Establish contacts with instructors and colleagues.
b. Identify your areas of strength, which you can build on as you relate to others.
2.3.4 Stay Healthy
It is important that after you have made the decision to study at university level, ensure that you
stay healthy psychologically and physically. You need to make sure that you are strong and
happy within yourself and that all the things, which bring about unhappiness, are avoided. But
avail time to interact with whatever makes you happy. For example, if you like listening to
music, do not sell your music set just because you are undertaking university study. Take time to
listen to the music and you will be tension free and your studies will be enjoyable. Staying
healthy can also mean that you take a break whenever you feel tired. Do not sit up for long
hours, that may not be productive. So, ensure that you get sufficient sleep so that what you study
can be transferred successfully into the long-term memory bank of the brain. All people do not
have the same concentration span. You should also eat nutritious and sufficient food. Being
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tired and hungry all the time means that you are neglecting yourself. This will then affect the
success of your studies.

2.3.5 Bad Habits

All of us have habits that may not be good in all situations. In achieving successful study, there
are some habits that will drag you behind if they are not controlled. Do you know some of your
bad habits? It is important for you to identify your bad habits, which might in fact interfere with
your study programme, so as to consciously try to get rid of them. One of the bad habits, which
you should get rid of from the start of your programme, is postponing tasks: that you find
yourself postponing tasks and therefore end up working under pressure when you could have
completed the tasks at ease and slowly. Once a task is postponed, it looks enlarged and seems
more difficult.

Forgetting your appointments is another habit that might make you not to complete your studies
within the time you have set for yourself. Keep all your appointments with your peers and your
tutors. If you fail to keep them, they will all perceive you as not being interested in your own
studies and they could stop caring about you. You should also make sure that you keep to your
schedule and be disciplined. Study material that is related to the subjects that you have registered
for so that you do not waste time. In so doing, you ensure that you have all the materials that you
need before settling down to study. This will help you to avoid that bad habit of interrupting
yourself while you are studying by continuously getting up and doing other things in between.
Do not daydream either. Ensure that all those things that might interfere with your
thought processes are attended to before you settle down to study.
After identifying your bad habits, which continually interfere with your study process, you
should plan to deal with them one by one. This is through practice. Habits do not go away
overnight.

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 Activity 2.2
Write down genuine answers to the following questions. Be as honest as
possible because these will form the beginning of your effective study
methods.
i. Why did you decide to register as a student of Laikipia University to
study the course you are undertaking now? (Write all the reasons).
ii. What do you want to do with the qualification you will obtain at the
end of your study?
iii. How long have you planned to take in completing your studies?
iv. What do you expect your whole study to provide you with?

The answers you provide to the questions in activity 2.1 above will be enable you to set your
actual purpose and achievable goals for undertaking a degree course at Laikipia University in the
area of study that you have chosen. The questions are relevant at this stage because you need to
provide practical answers to them. The better you understand why you are studying, the better
the chances that you will continue with your studies and succeed.
So, whatever your expectations may be, it is important to think about them and write them down
so that you can refer to them later. This will motivate you to complete your studies with ease.

2.3.6 Study Space

Majority of us will be undertaking our studies under demanding conditions.
However, you must think about the place you plan to study from. The environment you live in
will determine this. Despite all the variations that may exist, an ideal study place must have the
following things:
a. good lighting,
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b. comfortable place to sit and study in,
c. quiet so that you will be able to concentrate

2.4 TIME MANAGEMENT

A student’s time is very precious; you are a student now, so you must know that your time is
valuable. For this reason, you must know how to utilize valuable assets, like time in order to reap
the desired fruits from the trees of higher education! Time is a unique resource, which cannot be
saved but can only be spent wisely. All of us have equal time and once that period passes, we
cannot replace it with another set of time. To be efficient you must plan your time every day,
every week, every month and every year of your study. You need to budget time and allocate it
to each of the goals that you have set for yourself in order to achieve them.
The most crucial point to remember is that you are a distant student; with various other
responsibilities perhaps work, family and social. So, you do not have unlimited time for study.
Your study time is even more limited than that which the regular students have. This gives you
greater reason to plan your available time keenly and carefully. Prepare a timetable that caters for
all your activities and responsibilities. You should therefore plan your time so that you have
sufficient time for everything that you might be doing.
There are various modes of planning your time. You could plan weekly, monthly, bi-monthly or
even yearly, depending on the nature of the activities that you are engaged in. So, you need to
determine how much time you have, for effective planning.

How much time do you have?

Before you budget your study time, the first step is to find out how much time you have in seven
days of the week. We are going to calculate these hours here as you practically prepare your time
budget for your actual study.
Complete table 1 by responding to the instructions provided.

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After completing this schedule, you will have prepared for yourself an actual initial time plan for
your study.

Activity 2.3
Table 1: Weekly Time table
Hours Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday
5-6am
6-7am
7-8am
8-9am
9am-
10am
10am-
11am
11am-
12pm
12pm-
1pm
1pm-
2pm
2pm-
3pm

3pm-
4pm

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Total number of study hours per day
(Adopted from: UNISA, Learning skills for Theology, Access Module)
Instructions
a. What hours do you think you will not use for study purposes? (These must include such hours
as those you use for traveling to and from work, hours spent at work, doing household duties,
eating, sleeping e.tc.) Use X to cross out these hours in table 1.
b. What hours do you think that you have other commitments? (These may include, church
meetings, sports, your family and friends, leisure like watching television, listening to music or
reading). Indicate these hours by 0 and you may also write the type of commitment.
c. Now place S in the remaining hours as the hours available for your study.
4. Now, add up your study hours per day and fill in the last space of each
column in Table 1.

Activity 2.4
Table 2: Calculation of Study hours per week per module or course
Total number of Number of courses Number of study hrs
study hrs per week or modules per modules or
courses per week

5. How many modules or courses are you studying? Write the answer in

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the second row of table 2.
6. How many hours do you have per module or course per week? Find the answer by dividing
the total amount of study hours by the number of modules or courses you have registered for i.e.
Total number of study hours ÷ Number of modules/courses = Number of hours per module per
week
Once you know how many hours you have available for your study, and how many hours are
available in one university semester, then you will be able to plan your time more practically
than if you only imagined. On average you need to have about seven study hours per week.
If you find that you do not have those hours, then you will begin to negotiate with yourself in
order to cut down on the hours, which you marked with 0 in table 2. If you still do not have
sufficient study time after negotiating, then you need to look at the hours marked with X but with
lot of care because this means that you will have to make lots of sacrifices. This is because you
will have to change your routine, and that is not a simple matter especially if it will be affecting
your work and even your household.

2.4.1 Important aspects of time management

a. We have realized that there is a lot of time, which we do not usually put to effective use.
However, we cannot control time but only plan to use it effectively.
b. Planning your time is a useful activity, as a student you must think and carefully plan your
daily routine.
c. You will have to be self-disciplined and work hard. It takes a committed student to come home
after a day’s work, and sit down to study.
d. When you work hard and succeed (study and pass examinations), you will be motivated to
continue and complete the course, which you have started.
e. You will need to be flexible in your schedule, because there will be unforeseen problems and
unavoidable happenings. However when you fail to do what you plan at the time you have
planned, then you

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must plan to catch up with what you have missed. Most of all, you must organize your study
environment and ensure that there is little distraction so that you create study mood every time
you embark on your study.

If you do not have a space of your own to study at home, you will have to negotiate with the
family members on how to share the facilities that are available. Some of us might be residing
near public libraries, or have space at your work place. You negotiate with yourself to find
suitable time when you can study in that available space outside your home. You can also find
that opportunities exist at the university for the use of the study facilities there, so you need to
plan when you can use those facilities once in a while.
Besides identifying and planning for the study space, you should also identify and plan the best
period to study. Human beings are programmed in a way that there are certain learning periods.
This is the period when a person is ready to learn and understand more effectively. To some
people it is early in the morning when there is little disturbance, to others; late into the night is
preferred, when the environment is quiet. These periods are believed to produce major learning
effect. So, you need to identify your own critical learning period and put it to effective use.

2.5 GROUP/PEER WORK

Group/peer work has been considered a vital attribute to good and effective study. Before you
read on, complete
Activity 2.5.
Do you know any persons who work or live around you, who have
registered for the same course you are registered for at Laikipia
University? (Think and write down how you will go about finding them)

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We are encouraging you to find members who have registered for a similar degree as your own.
These people may live within a radius of 50 kilometers.
If you do not find any, you will have to engage your workmates and other colleagues who can
share your work with you.
2.5.1Face-to-face
After you have established the members of your course who live around you or colleagues who
are willing to work with you, you will now need to plan for the meetings with them. You must
draw a programme and establish objectives for your meetings, so that you are not meeting to
review your frustrations and end up not accomplishing any work.
When you consult with your peers and colleagues, you have a chance to ask questions and even
express your opinions and also an opportunity to discuss pressing issues with them. When you
discuss questions among your peers you will be more informed and can distinguish various
concepts with ease. You will also feel responsible for your own learning and in that case, you
will definitely be motivated. Do not however engage in unplanned for group or peer work. It will
not be productive. Ensure that you have an identifiable aim of the group whenever you sit down.
Allocate time to that activity that you wish to carry out to ensure effectiveness.
2.5.2 Correspondence
Group or peer work can be undertaken through correspondence. You need to identify colleagues
and friends whom you could share your work with by correspondence. Here you will be talking
to one another by post, e-mail, telephone, and even short messages. This will be very practical
and useful especially as you work on your assignments. You may want to seek clarification of a
task facing you, share your findings, or seek approval from the colleagues. This can make your
entire study enjoyable. Do not hide your work and keep it to yourself, you could be hiding
incorrectly completed work.
2.6 PREPARING FOR ASSESSMENT
In this section we shall highlight the general requirements for your assessment during your study
at the university. You will be required to write assignments as part of your assessment and also

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undertake examinations as specified by the university regulations. Lets us clarify what each of
two forms of assessment involves.
2.6.1 Assignments
During your study at the university, you will be expected to read through the modules from your
specific areas of discipline and complete the writing tasks that will be accompanying the
different modules. These written assignments are very important to your final grading for your
degree. You will therefore need to follow the instructions in each of the modules you will be
studying and fulfill the requirements therein.
2.6.2 Examinations
In this section, we shall highlight the salient points on how you can always remain ready for the
university examinations to enable you complete your studies successfully.
(a)The Purpose of Examinations
Examinations have been designed to fulfill certain purposes. There are specific purposes for
different types of examinations. However, the purposes of examination in academic undertakings
are meant to serve the following purposes:
(i) To measure to what extent, you have gained a certain body of knowledge.
(ii) To measure how much or how effectively you have learned or studied a particular subject.
(iii) To find out the degree to which you can apply or relate the basic
knowledge and skills, you have learned to new circumstances or situations.
(iv) To predict your future level of success in your chosen field of study or profession.
(v) To measure your general level of ability, endurance and hard work to manage examinations
at your level of education.
(vi) To select and arrange individuals for assigning duties and positions in society.
(vii) To motivate you to work hard throughout your study at the university.
(viii) To train you to have a disciplined approach to life.

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We can see that the objectives for having examinations are all very important. It requires that we
strive to pass our examinations regardless of the conditions we study in. This is why you need to
be aware and practice the techniques required for preparation for your examinations.
Activity 2.6
1. When did you ever write an essay? What was it about?
2. Write at least two things that you think will be required of you
in writing assignments.
3. When did you last face formal examinations?
4. Make a list of the activities that surrounded your examination
period that time.
5. How did every activity that you have listed affect your entire examination
period?

Respond to these questions as honestly as possible. Write your

responses down.

Assess your responses by comparing them with the following general important points to
consider the activities that surround examination preparation.
(i) Content
You should ensure that you are familiar with all the material that will be covered in the
examination. Study some of the past question papers in the area of your study (if the course you
are studying has been offered for several years). This will in fact enable you to recognize the
types of questions that are likely to be set after assessing the content.
(ii) Time Allocation
It might seem obvious, but you need to establish how many examination papers you will be
expected to sit for. In so doing, you will be able to know how much time is allocated to each
paper. Find out in advance how many questions each examination paper contains and how many
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you will be expected to answer. This helps in preparing by allocating revision time and becoming
psychologically prepared. At the same time, you will be able to know and understand the
conditions of the examination you will sit for as well as the material. This can help you score the
desired marks when the examination comes. You need to allocate sufficient time to the revision
period. The best revision is the one, which is done over a long period of time as the course
progresses.
However, intensive revision seems to be done as the examinations approach and as they
progress. Revision should be a routine, allocate some period of time in your schedule, for
revising what you have already covered. This helps you build your revision gradually and not
leave everything for concentrated revision as you approach your examination.
(iii) Practice Examination Questions
You may not always get access to past examinations in your area of study.
But if you do, ensure that you take time to answer the questions in an actual timed examination
situation to get the test of timing without referring to the notes. We want to advice you that you
must ensure that you attempt and complete all the assignments and activities in your study
guides. This is because the activities you are given could be pointers to the examination
questions.

(iv) Get Sufficient Rest

You should always build the attitude of determination. This will help you avoid unnecessary
fatigue but instead build the required energy. Get adequate sleep during the examination period.
You should remain mentally and physically healthy. Eat well and also seek medical attention if
you are ill. The materials required for your examination should be ready and available to you
whenever you need them during the examination. You can ensure that you remain mentally and
physically healthy if you also avoid anxiety and stressful situations during the examination
period. Build confidence in yourself so as to reduce the anxiety that might come about during the
examination period. This can be achieved through physical exercises if you are able. You can

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also make a point of discussing with colleagues in your peer group as we discussed in section 1.6
about peer or group discussions.
(v) In the examination Room
You have prepared yourself for the examination and finally, the day of examination comes. What
do you do with the examination paper and questions that are before you?

Activity 2.7
Make a list of all the things you will do in the first 5 minutes of
opening
a question paper. (List as many as possible)

Once well prepared, confident and relaxed, you will be ready for your examination. Read the
instructions and all the questions slowly and thoroughly. This will help you to understand what is
expected of each question. If there are instructions, which you do not understand, ask the
instructor or invigilator immediately. Once you know what each question is asking then your
thinking will be focused. Think about the questions that are before you and allot time to each
question according to what it demands. Always begin with the question that you feel you can
answer fully and sufficiently.
(vi) Interpreting the Questions
Questions usually contain key words that can help you organize the answer.
Some words will be commanding you to act in a certain way; others will be Key words thus
giving you direction. Command words usually tell you what exactly the examiner wants you to
do. These words include those that could ask you to compare; define; demonstrate; evaluate;
isolate; identify; discuss; list; point out; analyse; relate; So you must pay attention to such words,
which we can also refer to as action words. Examinations always ask for specific

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things. If for example you are asked the following question: ‘Demonstrate the process of human
communication’ what will be the key words in the question? The keywords would be process,
human and communication the command word would be demonstrate. In an examination
situation, you must pay attention to those words, understand what they require you to do before
beginning to answer the questions. All this should be processed very fast within the time
available to you during the examination. Make sure that you familiarize yourself with the
language and expressions in your specific subject areas in order to interpret the questions
accurately.
The Answer booklet
At the university, you will be provided with special examination answer booklet printed specially
for university examinations. We want to remind you that you are expected to read the
instructions on the answer booklet so that you use it correctly. Familiarize yourself with the
university’s answer booklet and what it requires before you write in it. Ensure that the
information, which you write in, is correct.

2.7 SUMMARY
In Lecture two, we have moved with you through the basic mannerism of effective study
techniques. We have seen the elements, which we must think about and practice in order to
achieve effective study methods. We have also showed you how you can plan and manage the 24
hours of the day at your disposal. This section has not forgotten an important element in your
study; the usefulness of group or peer study, which enables you to share information with other
students. Most of all we have reminded you that you must prepare for your examinations
adequately if you wish to succeed in your studies at the university. There are simple activities
provided within the discussion. These are meant to make your reading practical.
2.9 Further Reading

Du Toit, P, Heese, M & Orr, M. (1995). Practical guide to reading, thinking and writing skills.
Johannesburg: Southern book publishers.
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 Greenwall, S & Swain, M. (1986). Effective reading: Reading skills for advanced students.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Mellard ,D, Patterson, MD & Prewett, S. (2007). Reading practices among adult education
participants. In Reading Research Quartely 42(2). (April/May/June).
http://www.reading.org/publications/journals/rrq/42/12

http://www.yorku.ca/cdc/isp/readingonline/read1.htm (Note: focuses on critical reading for

academic purposes)

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LECTURE THREE
LIBRARY USER INFORMATION
LECTURE OUTLINE

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Learning Outcomes
3.3 Types of libraries
3.4 Information sources and categories
3.4 Organization of information sources
3.5 Evaluating information sources

3.6 Referencing techniques.

3.7 Summary

3.8 Further reading

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Welcome now to Library User information. Lecture three is specifically designed to help you
understand the language of the library and guide you on how you can become an effective library
user. It is important that you know how to use a library because it is an essential part of your
educational life. You should be able to develop and sustain the ability to learn even after
completing formal study like the one you are undertaking at the present. At the university level,
you are required to find and acquire the relevant information materials on your own. So if you
have knowledge of how to use the library, you will definitely be happy to go to the library
whenever a chance arises and by so doing, you will be developing love for reading and searching
for knowledge.

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3.2 LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Distinguish the types of libraries and the information sources.

2. Identify different classifications of library materials that you
encounter in different libraries.
3. Use different library catalogues effectively.
4. Evaluate sources of information that you come in contact with before
you assess their suitability to your various reading needs.
5. Refer to sources of information accurately

3.3 TYPES OF LIBRARIES

The needs of people usually determine the type of library that serves them and the type of
information sources to be stored in those libraries.
Libraries can therefore be divided into five main categories
a) National Libraries
b) Public Libraries
c) Special libraries
d) Private Libraries
e) Academic libraries
(A)National Libraries
National libraries can also be referred to as Reference libraries. Books in such libraries are for
reference only. They are usually copyright libraries since their main function is to collect and
preserve for posterity the books, periodicals and newspapers published in the country. This is
achieved through a law requiring publishers to deposit copies of all publications issued by them
and by purchasing books published in other countries. A copyright act normally has penalty
clauses to enable the act to be enforced.

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Functions of national libraries include:

(i) Publishing national bibliographies (these are all sources of materials that are written about the
country. This includes the authors of materials on different topics of national importance and the
titles, dates of publication and the publishers).
(ii) Maintaining a national bibliographical information centre – where information seekers like
you can go and ask for specific information by certain authors and publishers.
(iii) Collecting and preserving the nation’s literature – which includes all that is written about
and for a nation. Included here are books, periodicals and newspaper published in the country.
(iv) Publishing retrospective national bibliography
(B) Public Libraries
These types of libraries are provided for wholly or partly from public funds through local
authority or ministry. The use of these libraries is not restricted to any class of persons in the
community. They are freely available to all.
These types of libraries have various functions. You will find all or some of the following
functions existing in all or some of the libraries:
(i) Promoting the reading culture among all and provide reading literature in order to facilitate
continuing education.
(ii) Providing a wide-range of loan services based on systems of individual libraries. So you can
go to these libraries and borrow reading materials.
(iii) Striving to serve the whole community.
(iv) Being supplemented by travelling and mobile libraries, which serve outlying districts.
(v) Providing special facilities for the old and the disabled
(vi) Organizing the provision of services to hospitals, jails and other disadvantaged groups of
people in the community.
This therefore means that public libraries build up their collections that relate to local
communities’ interests. Public libraries generally consider their role to be more than the passive
lending of books to those who walk in. Many public libraries provide meeting rooms for use by
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community groups, they frequently sponsor lectures and forums, to show educational motion
pictures and actively participate in adult education programmes. The ideal public library should
provide access to all knowledge for all people in a country regardless of race, creed and colour.
You might ask, so who uses these libraries? The general public and even researchers seek
information from these types of libraries. You are now researchers, so you are encouraged to
make effective use of those types of libraries near your base.
(C) Special Libraries
Special libraries contain a collection of books and other materials dealing with a limited field of
knowledge, which are provided by a learned society, research organization industrial or
commercial undertaking, government department or educational institution. It may also be a
special branch of a public library serving certain interests or occupation groups. This may be a
technical library or a subject library, which meets the needs of users’ needs in a given subject
area. A special library is intended to serve the needs of specific users requiring detailed
information in a limited subject area. Users of special libraries usually require up-to-date
information promptly and their requests may be for information rather than for a book or
periodical known by the enquirer to contain the information required
Special libraries are also established to meet the highly specialized requirements of professional
or business groups. Because of this, they are usually attached to official institutions such as
government departments. A library may be special in a variety of ways. You may find a library
that is special:
(i). By type or user- these are libraries serving special categories of people e.g. prisoners, sick or
children. Materials found there will only be serving the users for who that library was
established.
(ii). By subject- these are libraries which stock resources on a particular subjects. For example in
Kenya we have Agricultural libraries like those found one in the Ministry of agriculture, the
Animal Diseases one called ILRAD. We also have a Finance and economics library like the one

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found at the Central Bank e.g. Central Bank Library found at the Kenya Monitory studies
institution.
(iii). By type of material or resources- these are special formats of resources. Such libraries
include those that store their information on Video, Braille and other formats. A good example is
the Kenya Broadcasting Corporation (KBC) library that has a wide range of audio-visual
materials.
The special libraries are mainly concerned with communicating information to specialists in
response to their requests and needs. You will find that the users include members of the
organization or institution to which those libraries are attached and also researchers. You as
students are researchers, so you may make arrangements to use special libraries if they have
special information that you may require during your study period.
(D) Private Libraries
Private libraries are the type of libraries that are owned by the individual and libraries owned by
clubs or societies to which members of the public have no right of access to. Private collections
may contain varied information depending on the interests of the individual who collects them
and this is the main reason why they do not lend themselves to a generalized treatment. The
private collector is able to collect in depth on a subject to a degree usually impossible for a
public library. For example, the late Professor Wangari Mathai who made a name in researching
on environmental issues in Kenya, had to have a private library, we would expect that her
collection would have materials that were relevant to her field of specialization as well as her
other interests. A private library can also be a kind of big carton box or the small bookshelf
with mixed up books, which you keep in your sitting or bedroom!
(E) Academic Libraries
These are the types of libraries that are associated with educational institutions. These include
universities, colleges, polytechnics and school libraries. These libraries are established to serve
the needs of those in those institutions. Let us describe their operations.

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(i) University/college libraries
These types of libraries are established, maintained and administered by the particular
university/College to meet the needs of its students and members of the academic staff.
(ii) School Libraries:
These are organized collections of books placed in schools for use by students and teachers. The
objectives of any good educational systems are to equip students to be able to play their role in
the society effectively. School libraries aim at fulfilling these objectives. A modern school
library is expected to serve as a resource centre where besides books and periodicals, there are
other documents in audio-visuals forms that can be used as teaching aids, unlike the traditional
school library, which consist mainly of books.
Library and Internet
You might have come across individuals who speak about things to do with ONLINE library
services. Do not be mesmerized! You can also be an on-line library user, but only if you are
computer literate. You need to know how to use a computer to enable you understand the
language and techniques of accessing material through the Internet that can be found in the cyber
cafés that you use to send and read your email!
Some libraries have established Internet network such that you only need to know what is called
a website of a certain library in order to for you to access the sources of information that are
stored on the ‘Internet shelves’ from anywhere in the world. Depending on the readership profile
of the various libraries and the resources available, it is possible to have online library services
by all the types of the libraries discussed above. Here you can access varied materials using
similar means that we shall be discussing in the catalogue section.

Activity 3.1
1. Identify and list the types of libraries, which you can access.
2. List down the types of libraries that you use and the kind of

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 information you find in them.

3.4 INFORMATION SOURCES

Information sources are materials used as the resources of information in the library. They are
mainly meant for research, reference, study and recreation.
They are information containers selected to meet the needs of users of individual libraries.

3.4.1 TYPES OF INFORMATION SOURCES

In library science, information means an assemblage of data in a comprehensible form,
recorded in print or non-print format and capable of communication. A source therefore
means, a book document, or a person serving as authority for information. Remember we have
already said that we have different types of libraries. This means that you always expect to get
varied sources within a library, to provide you with information, which library science refers to
as data.
Information Sources are therefore any materials, print or non-print from which one can consult
for the purpose of acquiring specific information.
Information Resources will therefore refer to any sources in a library including the building,
equipment, furniture, and all that relates to information. Sources of information are divided into
print and non-print as described below.

3.4.1.1 PRINTED INFORMATION SOURCES

Print materials are library materials that come within the definition of a book, periodical, or
pamphlet and each can be read to acquire the necessary information. The print materials are
divided into four commonly used categories in the library. They include materials, which in
library science are divided into:
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a. Reference sources
b. Periodicals
c. Textbooks
d. Recreational books
Let us further discuss these divisions and their uses.
(A) Reference Sources
Reference books are designed by their arrangement and treatment to be consulted for definite
information and are not to be read consecutively for detailed information. They are meant to be
referred to rather than being read as texts. According to librarians’ glossary, the “books, which
are kept for reference only and are not allowed to be used outside the library building”. This
collection includes such books as dictionaries, encyclopedias, gazettes, yearbooks, directories,
concordances, indexes, bibliographies, atlases and government publications. The reference
section in any library department is of great importance to you as a reader because the collection
is made up of many books of different types, quality and format. The formats and types however
vary according to
individual library types. In academic and research libraries for instance, it does not matter what
format the material takes because what matters is the information found in them.
Reference books are divided into two main categories:
(i) General reference books
(ii) Quick reference books
General Reference books
These are the books, which include research reports, official publications, theses (dissertations)
bibliographies, indexes, and abstracts etc. Let us explain briefly what we mean by these terms.
(i). Research reports: They are very useful in any library, particularly in academic and research
libraries. These reports contain the findings that have been researched and recorded by
previous researchers. These are materials, which you use mainly for background information and
comparison of notes.

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(ii). Official publications: These are government publications (for example development plans,
estimates, recurrent expenditure, economic surveys, statistical reports, departmental reports,
session papers, parliamentary reports, for example the Kenya gazette). These publications
contain information relating to government working system and other related aspects: they may
spell out structures of the civil service and related bureaucracy. They can be instructional,
descriptive or historical in nature and are usually published by the government publishing
department like Kenya’s government printers (GP). Official publications include parliamentary
publications placed on sale to the general public through government publishers. The
information found in them can include bills, debates, votes and general acts.
Those printed for the government departments include such titles as Development plans and
estimates. These are usually voluminous, but you will find them very important in the
reference collection.
iii. Theses or Dissertations: Theses are works by people involved in academic activities and can
be likened to research reports.
They are project works written by university students in the course of their final years of studies.
They are usually recorded research works.
iv. Bibliographies: In general reference, this term is used to mean the history of books. It is the
listing of publications arranged in some logical order giving such information as: the author, title,
date of publication, place of publication, the publisher, edition, the pages the series and the
subject contents. When you visit the university library you will find such titles as: Bibliography
of Africa, Bibliography of Sub-Saharan Africa and Agro-forestry
Literature.
v. Index: This is a library reference collection, which is systematically arranged in form of a list
of items carrying some information. The list gives information about the each item and how it
can be traced by means of a page or other code showing its position in some kind of a sequence.
This guide and leads you to documents that are contained in, the concepts that are included in a
particular collection.

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When you get a chance to visit our Laikipia University library, you will find such documents as:
Quarterly Index to Periodical
Literature, Eastern and Southern Africa. This is an example of an index in the general reference
section of the library sources. You will find that these concepts or items are arranged in a known
or stated order, like chronologically, numerically or alphabetically. It will be useful for you to
ask about this section of the reference when you visit the library, so that you can find out how
you can make use of the information sources in the section.
(vi). Abstracts: These are materials that are current and have been compiled by way of
summarizing the main arguments in the articles or the books being presented. They are usually
accompanied by complete bibliographical description so that you can trace the actual publication
if you want to read the whole article or book. They are usually organized by topic, by class or by
subject. Abstracts are useful for you especially if you are searching for reading materials that you
are not sure where you will obtain them. The abstracts can provide you with such information.
Today you can use the Internet to search for reading materials by subject and topic. We want to
encourage you to learn how to use the Internet using search engines such as
http://www.google.com, http://www.Infoseek.com, or http://www.yahoo.com so that whenever
you get access to it, you can also undertake useful reading.
Quick Reference
These books are those that will provide you with materials that have direct and factual
information. They provide the basic and background information to a given topic and are
designed for consultation when you are in urgent need of a piece of information or fact. These
sources usually provide you with information in shortened form. Specialists in specific fields of
knowledge or profession usually write these short articles.
The most commonly used quick reference sources include the ones described here below:
Dictionaries: You must know what a dictionary is because you have used it many times. It is
that book that contains alphabetically arranged list of words explaining their meanings, spelling,

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abbreviations, pronunciations, synonyms and antonyms, usage and even the history of those
words. We have two types of dictionaries:

(i) The general language dictionary is one that gives the general meaning of words from a
general language perspective. These are the types of dictionaries, which you will find in
bookshops, the ones we usually ask students to buy, and they can be shortened depending on the
level of the intended user or they may not be. Dictionaries are written and published by different
authors, although the basic meanings of the words are usually the same. Common examples of
such dictionaries are: Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary, Advanced Learners Dictionary of
Current English.

(ii) Special or Subject Dictionaries are those whose words are restricted in a field of knowledge
and it usually gives only the meaning of the words as used in that particular discipline. There are
various types of special dictionaries. You will have to ensure that you find the types that exist in
your area of study so that you can make use of them. For example, there are dictionaries like: A
Dictionary of Communication; A new dictionary of Chemistry; A Dictionary of Environmental
terms; Illustrated Bible Dictionary and International Dictionary of Education. These are some of
the dictionaries that you can find in the Laikipia University Library.

Encyclopedias are similar to the dictionaries. Most of them are in a number of volumes and are
arranged alphabetically by terms or subject. Most of them cover all types of subjects although we
have some that are special. Some encyclopedias are in a single volume. If they are in a single
volume, they are very brief, but when they are in various volumes, they will be detailed in the
information that they provide. When you need to use an encyclopedia, you should check the
order of arrangement. Some encyclopedias are arranged by numbers or alphabetically. This will
help you find the words or concepts that you are looking for fast without wasting time in the

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library. The common types of encyclopedias that you can find in many libraries are referred to as
Encyclopedia Britannica and Encyclopedia Americana.

Year Books are very useful books in a library. They are published every year. They are
supposed to be interestingly informative because they contain facts and figures within every
reader’s range of knowledge and experience. They are usually published after events of every
year, so they can serve as historical materials. They can contain a variety of information,
including: statistical information, political reports, economic reports, sports, social
developments, biographical information and personalities. Some of the yearbooks will contain
general information while others can be specific. The specific ones will cover materials that are
special to a specific field. Some of the widely used Yearbooks include: The Europa Yearbook;
Guinness book of Records; Year Book of World Affairs. There are other quick reference books,
which include, handbooks, directories (like the postal address) and geographical sources (like the
atlases, charts, the globe). All the reference sources are usually used in the library; they cannot
be borrowed because of their nature. You are expected to refer to them and retrieve the
information you need and leave for other users to utilize them
too.

Periodicals
The second type of printed information sources is referred to as periodicals.
These are publications that have a distinctive title, which appears at stated or regular intervals
without prior decision as to when the last issue will be appear and contains articles or other
writings by several contributors. They are referred to as periodicals because they are published at
regular intervals like a period of two weeks, one month, or one year.
Some of the most common periodicals include:

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Journals: A society or an institution or a professional body normally prepares these types of
publications and they contain news, proceedings, transactions and even reports of work carried in
a particular field of study like Mathematics, Physics, Biology or Language.

Newspapers: They are publications issued periodically. They could be daily, like The East
African Standard, Daily Nation, The People Daily, or could be weekly like The People on
Sunday, Sunday Standard, Sunday Nation. They usually contain the most recent news. They
have news, features and advertisements, which can be a good source of information to you as
reader.
Magazines: They are those periodicals that contain varied information like articles on the
different issues and written by several contributors. They deal with general topics and are
therefore non-professional and non-technical. These are publications like, Parents, Eve and
Readers Digest.
Text Books
This is the third type of printed information source. A textbook is a book
written specifically for use by those studying for examination in a particular system. It usually
discusses subject area in details. Majority of the materials found in academic libraries are in
textbook form. Different authors can write about the same subject or topic. The different authors
may give the same subject different approaches according to the needs of the intended users.
Let us see an example of English Language textbooks that have been used in Secondary schools
to demonstrate how different authors can write on the same subject.
Bukenya, A., Curtis, A. and Park, J. (1989). The Skills of English: An Integrated Course of
Language and Literature-Form 3. Nairobi: Oxford University Press.
Kenya Institute of Education (KIE). (1989). Integrated English: A course for the Kenya
Secondary schools Students’ Book 3. Nairobi: Jomo Kenyatta Foundation.
Mohindra, H. (1971). Modern Method English. Book Three. Nairobi: Thomas Nelson and Sons
Ltd.

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Many English language teachers in secondary schools in Kenya have used these three books.
You may have used one of them or all as a teacher or a student depending on when you
graduated from secondary school. Let us select a topic that the three books discuss.
The selected topic is DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH. All the three books are expected to be
used in Form three.
Illustration:
The KIE textbook begins discussing this topic by referring the students to Book 2. It therefore
focuses on the verb rule when converting direct speech to indirect. It gives examples of
conversion and three practice exercises.
The textbook by Mohindra has introduced this topic as a follow-up to a reading passage in an
earlier section, which is a telephone conversation. It focuses on the tense signals and changes
and provides one Exercise.
The text by Bukenya, Curtis and Park, has divided this topic into two sections 1 and 2. Section 1
has focused on all the aspects that are affected when converting direct speech to indirect speech
– verbs, adverbs,
pronouns, commands and exclamations. It ends with one exercise. Section 2 is found in a
different lesson and is dedicated to giving the student a chance to convert a long passage from
direct to indirect speech.

3.4.2 CATEGORIES OF INFORMATION SOURCES

All the types of the information sources that we have summarized earlier can be divided into
three main categories. Do not confuse categories of information with sources. Categories mean
the group of information you obtain regardless of what source you have obtained it from. The
print and non-print information can be categorized together depending on the type of
information.
Let us now briefly describe the three common categories of information.
Primary Sources

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These are usually original reports of researchers, which have been conducted by individuals,
institutions or organizations. They are compiled from scientific reports and results of researches
undertaken. Researches can only be complete when the results are availed to the public. So
primary sources always present new knowledge or at least new interpretations of old
knowledge and should constitute the latest available information. When you are looking for such
information, you need to search for materials like the periodicals, research reports, conference
proceedings, reports of scientific expeditions, official publications, theses and dissertations.
Besides those published works, some primary materials to be consulted can include: laboratory
notebooks, diaries, memoranda, minutes and personal files. You should apply your selection
skills because primary information is usually wide spread, disconnected and unorganized. These
primary sources are usually hard to locate and apply to your needs.
Secondary Sources
These are materials that are compiled from primary sources and are usually arranged according
to some plan to enable you as a user to access them with ease. Here, the primary information can
be arranged in a friendly manner for you to read. These are more readily available than the
primary sources and they are usually more self-sufficient. The materials, which fall under this
category, include some types of periodicals, indexes and abstracts, reference books like
dictionaries, handbooks and also textbooks. You can easily find these categories in most of the
types of libraries we have described earlier in this topic. This includes the Laikipia University
library. You can easily access these with the help of library staff when you visit a library.
Tertiary Sources
The word tertiary usually means third in rank. Information in this category does not usually carry
subject knowledge. They are only used to guide you on how to find and use the primary and
secondary sources. These will include: Dictionaries and Bibliographies. Bibliographies usually
give lists of books, location of periodicals, lists of indexes and abstracts, literature guides and all
other guides.

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 Activity 3.2
From your knowledge of what information sources are, what
information sources do you think you are most likely to find access to
during your study at Laikipia University? If you think that you will not
find access to those sources, how do you plan to complete your studies
as an independent information seeker?

3.5 ORGANIZATION OF INFORMATION SOURCES

Up to this point you must be asking yourself several questions which include
how you will be able to get to the library shelves and find the information that you are looking
for in the shortest time possible. For you to do this, you will need to learn something about how
the library information is organized to enable you find the materials with ease. You need to know
how to find the materials you need from a library as fast as possible in order for you to become
an effective library user. Library information resources are organized in two ways:
Classification and Cataloguing. We shall briefly talk about the ways in which the resources are
classified and also catalogued. We shall talk about it as it relates to you as a library sources user.
3.5.1 CLASSIFICATION
This is the arrangement of documents in a certain logical order according to their degree of
likeness by either subject or form. This process assigns documents to their proper places in a
scheme of classification. This will enable you as the user to be able to locate the material in the
library and retrieve them for your use. The classification is also the system that enables the

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librarians to place the materials on the various shelves, by subject, topics and related areas. There
are various classification schemes in library science. In Kenya, there are two common
classifications, which are used by most libraries. Let us see if you can recognize these
classifications from your interaction with various libraries.
3.5.1.1 The Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC)
Melvi Dewey, who used numbers to create divisions between the main subject areas and the
topics, invented this classification system. The main class is denoted by numbers ranging from 1-
999. The subdivisions are denoted by numerals (numbers) 1-999, which are separated from the
main denotation by a period (.). For example, you may come across a book from a library that
has these numbers: 658.45 and other details. If you have a chance to visit the British Council
Library in Nairobi, Kisumu or Mombasa, you will see that they use this system.
3.5.1.2 Library of Congress Classification (LCC)
The Library of Congress Classification Scheme was created by the Library of Congress based in
America. Laikipia University and most academic libraries in Kenya use this classification
scheme. This type of scheme uses mixed notation. This means that it uses letters of the alphabet
(A-Z) and numerals (numbers) 1-999.999. These are used to show the subject and the topic area.
All the subject areas are covered by the use of the alphabetical numbers. The numbers are used to
show the subdivisions. Let us summarize these classes here so that you can have an idea of what
we mean by the LCC classification. Most academic libraries in Kenya use this classification
system. The capital letters represent different disciplines or areas of study as shown below:
A General Work
B-BJ Philosophy and Psychology
BL-BX Religion
C Auxiliary Sciences of History
D Universal and Old-World History (and Topography)
E-F American History
G Geography, Anthropology, Folklore, Manners and Customs,

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Sports and Games
H Social Sciences, Economics, Sociology
J Political Science
K Law
L Education
M Music
N Fine Arts
P Languages and Literature
Q Science
R Medicine
S Agriculture
T Technology
U Military Science
V Naval

Z Bibliography and Library Science

These are general categories within which the library of congress classifies information. They are
usually subdivided further to show specific topic areas. So, when a book is classified it is
assigned a CALL number, which assists you to locate the particular material in the library.
Let us see an example of a call number from a Laikipia University library book:
Class Number H
310
Book Number. B3
Year of Publication 2011
Copy Number c.1

We can interpret the above number as follows:

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H The main subject area is Library Science
310 The subdivision of the subject is User Education
B3 That it is the third book that the author, whose Surname begins with B has written
2011 This is the year in which the book was published
C.1 Means that this is copy number one, there could be more copies in the library.

The symbols assigned to every book during classification make up what is known as a call
number. This is very important to know because it is the one that enables you to locate materials
in the library. You can see that it is important for you to have a good idea on how library
materials are classified so that when you visit any library, you will understand the language of
the library and also the arrangement of the materials. Let us now move onto cataloguing which is
related to classification
3.5.2 CATALOGUING
This is a process in which all the materials owned by a library are listed in a certain order. This
list is usually descriptive because it describes the type of material fully. For this reason, the
catalogues will give you information
about what is contained in that library. The information will show who the author is, what
subject it is and the title of that material. The catalogue will also show you where on the shelves
you will find the materials by using the call number and it also gives you a short history of the
material. There are different types of catalogues that can be used to retrieve information in the
library as discussed below.

3.6.2.1 Types of Catalogues

There are several types of catalogues. Different libraries choose to use types that they find
convenient and depending on the resources and the personnel that they have in their library. We
shall not discuss all the library catalogue types. We shall only illustrate the types that you will
find commonly used in our Kenyan academic libraries.

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(a). Author Catalogue
In the author type of catalogue, lists of library items are arranged alphabetically according to the
surname of the author. All the publications of one author are placed in one place even if the
subject matter is different. You will however find information about what books the library has
and the authors of those materials and where you can locate them in the library.

(b). The Title Catalogue

Lists of items in this type of catalogue are arranged alphabetically according to the titles of the
items. In this arrangement, articles that precede the titles like ‘a’ ‘an’ and ‘the’, are not included,
they are ignored. When you use this type of catalogue it means that you will be informed about a
particular title, (which you may have in mind) is stocked in that library.

(c). Subject Catalogue

This type of catalogue lists the items in an alphabetical order according to the subject headings.
When you visit the library, you will find this type of catalogues and the headings are usually
focused on the subject area such as:
Communication, Calculus, Entrepreneurship and Electronics.
An illustration of how entries of these three of catalogues are made is shown in the section that
shows how to use card catalogues.
It is important for you to know that the Laikipia university library uses two types of catalogues.
The Subject Catalogue and the Author/Title catalogue.
When you are in the Laikipia University library you will find that the Author and Title are
combined to form one type of catalogue. But this does not mean that there is something wrong. It
is only proving a point, which we mentioned earlier that individual libraries organize their
materials according to the resources, which they have and the personnel available.
3.5.2.2 Catalogue Formats

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The materials in the catalogues can be kept in different formats. You need to know what formats
are commonly used in most academic libraries. There are about five formats. The type of format
selected by a particular library again depends on the type of users and the resources available.
(a). Card Catalogue
The catalogues here are done on cards, whose standard size is 7½ cm by 12½ cm. Each card
contains only one entry and they are arranged alphabetically and paced in movable card drawers.
This is the format that is in use at Laikipia and indeed in many public universities in Kenya.
(b). Computer Catalogue
This is a format, which requires that the entries be programmed and then the information fed into
the computer in readiness for use by the readers. This is a very popular catalogue format because
it is easy to use and it gives answers to the user within a very short period. This however requires
that all the users should be computer literate and responsible.
The computer type of catalogue format can be found in private universities like United States
International University (USIU) in Nairobi and The British Council Library in Nairobi.
Let us just mention the other catalogue formats that exist that you might come across in your
reading experience.

Book-bound catalogue which are made on paper or on sheets of paper and then are bound
together in volumes.
Sheaf catalogue are entries made on slips of papers, which are then fastened together into a
sheaf-binder and they are also called loose- leaf catalogue.
Micro-form catalogue are entries made on what is called microfiche sheets which are filled in a
fiche album. All these types of catalogues mentioned above are not used in the Laikipia
University Library, but if you come across them in another library you will have to ask the
library staff there to assist you in order to use them effectively.

3.5.2.3 Using the card catalogue

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As a library user then you need to know how to use a library catalogue to locate reading
materials in the shortest time possible. To achieve this, you need to know the surname of the
author and title of the material you want to look for. With this information, you will go straight
to the Author/Title Catalogue. However, if you know the subject you want and do not know the
titles or the authors, then, you will go straight to the Subject catalogue. The location of the
material that you have identified in the catalogue is shown by the CALL number. Do you
remember the call number? The call number is indicated on the top left corner of each catalogue
card. The call number actually directs you to the specific shelve in the library where that material
is located. Here are some diagrammatic samples of catalogue cards with complete information of
actual reading material found in the Laikipia University library. These are represented by an
actual source that can be accessed in the Laikipia University main library. Try to find it when
you visit it.
AUTHOR CARD ENTRY
HD Baines, Paul
31 Marketing. /by Paul Baines
.B3 New York: Oxford University Press. 2011
2011
C.1
756p
1. Marketing
I. Title

TITLE CARD ENTRY

HD Marketing
31 Baines, Paul
.B3 Marketing/by Paul Baines
2011 New York: Oxford University Press

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C.1
756p
1. Marketing
I. Author

SUBJECT CARD ENTRY

HD Marketing
31 Baines, Paul
.B3 Marketing/by Paul Baines
C.1 New York: Oxford University Press
756p
I. Marketing
II. Title

.
If you have information about the author, the subject or even the title of the material you want to
read, it becomes very easy and enjoyable for you to use the library because you will not be
frustrated. Since you have very limited time to visit any library, you would not want to waste all
of it searching for reading material in the library.
Activity 3.3
I. Describe the complete process you would go through to enable
you to locate a reading material like a book, which you are
looking, for when you reach a library.

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3.6 EVALUATING INFORMATION SOURCES
To evaluate information sources involves various activities. You will come across many sources
of information in the library and even outside the library. You should not waste a lot of time
reading material that is not relevant to your purpose at any one given time. You need to know the
various parts that make a book so that selecting the books will be an easier task where
3.6.1 Parts of a Book
Activity 3.4
Before you proceed with your reading, ensure that you have
some reading materials with you. These can include any kinds
of textbooks. As you read the sections that follow, use those
reading materials to identify the parts of the book as they are
described in this section.

To carry out effective evaluation you will need to remind yourself about the important parts of a
book which you will use to assess the relevance of a reading material that you will retrieve from
the library or even a bookshop.
The parts of the book, which can be used to assess the usefulness of reading materials are briefly
described as follows:
a.The book cover: The book cover is made to protect the book. It has three parts: the front, the
spine and the back. But it usually contains the author’s name on the front part.
b.The title page: This part shows full title of the book, full name/s of the author/s, qualifications,
editor/s, edition, volume, the publisher, place of publication, illustrator and translator.
c.Verso of title Page: This gives information about the history of the work.
Such information includes the previous editions, changes and revisions. It is usually in the
reverse of the full title page.

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d.Preface or forward: The purpose of the material is usually revealed on this part of the book.
e. Table of contents: The arrangement of the information in the document you intend to read is
shown in this part of the book. It gives the titles of topics and the chapters and the pages where
the chapters are covered in the book.
f. Introduction: The introduction is written by someone who is specialized in the field, which
the book deals with. It is usually a general survey of the subject dealt with in the book and
therefore prepares you for the details in that material.
g. Glossary: This is a list of technical or special terms used in the text and their definitions.
h. Appendix: These are usually notes that may be too long to be included in the footnotes. They
may include tables of statistics or other items for which there is no room in the main text. They
are placed at the end of the main text as ‘appendices’.
i. Index: These are systematically arranged lists of items which show information for each of the
item, and how it can be traced by means of page number. They appear at the end of the main
text.
j.The blurb: The publishers sometimes describe the book and make recommendations about it.
This is usually on the back part of the cover.
So, when you have access to various reading material, you will be required to assess it before
embarking on reading it, you will need to assess it to see if it is the right material for you at that
moment. You will have to assess the material by using the parts of the book described above.
Did you have any reading material with you as you read the just ended section? Please read the
section again and ensure that you understand all the parts of the book described above, using the
actual materials that you have.
3.6.2 Choosing the Right Book
Using the parts of the book described above, you can now assess the quality of the books you
retrieve before you embark on reading them. The purpose of being able to assess is to enable you
select the most relevant material in the subject area relevant to what you want to read at that
particular moment.

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Remember that you should always have a purpose for any reading activity you undertake as a
student. The qualities you can use to assess your reading material are briefly described here.
a. Relevance
The relevance of the reading material depends on the needs that you have established. The book
you choose must be relevant to the purpose of your reading. Generally, you can determine the
relevance of the book by referring to title page, table of contents, the preface, the introduction or
the index. The specific aspects, which you can consider, are described as follows:
(i) Getting a rough idea of the subject content. This you can do by looking at the title of the text.
However, the title can be misleading.
So you have other parts, which you can look at, these are the table of contents and even the
index, if the book has these parts.
(ii)You can also assess the relevance of the book that you have obtained by looking at what we
shall call the level. What is your level of understanding? Is the material you have selected
suitable for you at
the level you are in your academic ladder? A material will be irrelevant to you if it is not meant
for your level (it should not be too high or too low). The preface or the forward can indicate the
level of a particular book.
(iii) Considering the scope of the materials covered in that book can also help you to assess the
relevance of your reading material. The book you choose should cover all the aspects that you
are interested in at that particular time. The aspects should be covered to the expected depth.
The material should not be too shallow or too detailed for your level or what you require. It will
not serve your purpose.
b. Up-to-datedness/Currency
You must ask yourself how current the material, which you are about to read, is. Some material
were written a long ago and may be, there is new information in more recent books. So you must
assess this so that you do not depend on outdated information. This is because as information
changes, new books are published. For example, an old book published in the early 1970s on

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Channels of Communication, will not include e-mail and mobile phone. To assess this, you can
look at the year of publication and the edition of that material you have.
c. Authoritativeness/Credibility
You should not read any material that you find. In academic work, you need to read material that
is written by credible authors and published by well-known publishing firms. The author should
be a person who is authoritative enough in that area you are reading. You need to assess the
qualifications of the author, the status and the experience in that subject area. Determining the
reputation of the publisher can help assess the reliability and credibility of the material. The
information about the authors and the publishers is found on the title page and also on the back
cover, which usually gives you the authors’ autobiography indicating their qualifications. Read
this information because it always gives an idea of who the publishers are and what
qualifications the author has.
d. Presentation
The manner in which the author presents materials in the text is very important in determining
the suitability of that material. Presentation in turn determines effectiveness of that material. You
can assess the presentation by looking at how the materials have been introduced to you as a
reader, the way the whole text is organized and the relevance and usefulness of illustrations in
that material. You should also assess the language used in the text in order to determine its
suitability. The language should be clear to you so that you may understand the concepts more
easily. Otherwise, it will not be useful material for you.
e. Popularity
A good book eventually becomes popular. A popular book will have certain characteristics. You
will find that the book always has many users and therefore always in high demand. Such books
are usually printed over and over again. When you visit the library and the book is shown to be
available in the catalogue, and yet unavailable whenever you need it, that will be an indication
that the book is popular. A book that is always on the shelf, whenever you visit the library,
should keenly be assessed for its usefulness.

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You must therefore assess the usefulness of any reading materials by using the elements that
have been highlighted above. This will help you save time by avoiding irrelevant reading.

3.7 REFERENCING TECHNIQUES

This section on referencing will also be useful when you study the section on reading and
writing. We are including it in the library topic because you are really going to the library-the
store of information – for purposes of reading and writing. So when you embark on reading and
writing, remember to apply the knowledge you acquire in this section. So, when you have read
the retrieved materials, which you have sourced from the library or even those of your own, it is
essential that you keep a record of those sources, just in case you may want to read them another
time or use the information as a reference for your assignment or research paper. It will make
your retrieval the next time you require them easier. You also need to keep a record of all the
sources that you read because it is
academic morality to show which sources you have used when your turn, for others to read what
you have written, comes. This will be a common requirement for all your academic work at the
university.

In this section we shall briefly mention what acknowledging sources of your information means.
To acknowledge sources means that you are recording the details of the source of your material
after you have read when you engage in an academic writing activity. There are various ways in
which you can show the sources of your information. These include what you will from now
generally refer to as CITATION. To cite a source is therefore to indicate the author of the
material, the date of publication, the title of the material, the place of publication and the
publisher. There are two ways of making citations within the text which you are writing and are
referred to as in-text citations.

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In-text citation is the means through which you will be required to indicate the sources of your
information briefly as you write your assignment or research paper. It is done within the text as
shown in the example below.

(a) Distant learning in adulthood is the most effective mode of career mobility ( Kimana, 2011).
This means that the idea, which is presented here is originally not yours but you have read it
from a source that was written by Kimana, in 2011.
(b) “Distant learning in adulthood is the most effective mode of career Mobility ( Kimana, 2011:
56). This will now mean that you have written down the exact words as you read them from the
book written by Kimana in 2011 and the material is found on page 56 of that book.
More details regarding citations will be discussed in the writing section of this set of lectures.
ACTIVITY 3.5
Generate a set of activities which you will undertake, from the time you
enter a library door to the time you complete reading a piece of material
which you will have found in that library, regardless of the size of material. It
could be a page, a chapter, a section or just a topic.

NOTE: Use specific illustrations of at least one actual material you have
read in your discipline area. This requires you to actually visit a library.

3.8 SUMMARY
Lecture three has taken you through the process of identifying reading materials from a library.
This has been done by showing you that there are different types of libraries where you will find
varied information sources. We have also seen that materials in a library are classified by subject

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to make accessibility friendly to you as a user. This therefore means that you need to assess
materials before you read them in order to read relevant materials only.

3.9 FURTHER READING

Henning, E, Gravett, S &Van Rensburg, W. 2005. Finding your way in academic writing.2nd
edn. Pretoria:Van Schaik Publishers.
Oliver, P. 1996. Writing essays and reports. London: Hodder & Stoughton.
Mckenzie, M., Kiplagat, J. (1999).A university course in library skills. Njoro, Kenya: Egerton
University Press.
Cleary,S. 2008. Communication: A hands on approach. Cape Town: Juta.

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LECTURE FOUR
READING SKILLS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Learning outcomes
4.3 The meaning of reading
4.4 Reading strategies
4.5 Structure and organization of a text
4.6 Trans-coding and interpreting non-linear or graphic information
4.7 Summary
4.8 Further reading

4.1 INTRODUCTION
This topic will take you through the basic requirements in achieving
effective study reading. This is the business that you will be engaged in most
of your life at the university for the next four years or so. You already know
how to organize your study time and also how to find reading material. So
your next concern is how do you go about with the activity of reading?

4.2 LEARNING OUTCOMES

After you have studied this lecture, you should be able to:
(a) Describe the activity of reading
(b) Apply study reading skills to materials that require intensive reading
(c) Choose the appropriate reading strategy for a given task.

4.3 THE MEANING OF READING

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In recent years, a lot of time has been devoted to understanding what is involved in the reading
process. The term and the activity of reading, has been described generally as ‘the process of
understanding written language’.
This process of understanding is not an ‘all or nothing term’ because it is often a struggle for
understanding, and particularly when we are reading in a foreign or second language.
Controversy surrounds the definition of reading especially among specialists, but the following
are some of the important characteristics of the activity of reading:
a) It involves an interpretation of written (or printed) symbols (This is also called decoding).
b) It is both a physical and mental activity, this means that your body and your brain are involved
actively.
c) It requires attention and thought.
d) It involves the participant (that is the reader) emotionally and intellectually: this means that it
is an interaction between the language of the text and the background knowledge of the reader
(that means: what do you already know?)

An appropriate and useful definition for you as a university student to adopt would be that:
‘Reading is thinking under the stimulus of the printed word’
This means that, when reading as a university student you should think as you ‘look’ at the
words written. So reading becomes an active interrogation of the text, because it is believed
that the writer expects the reader to feel, think and act as a result of having read.
4.3.1 Why Read?
Before you proceed reading this section complete the following activity.
Activity 4.1
Make a list of the different things you read, when you read them and
reasons for reading each of them.

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The following are some of the general reasons for reading. Check your list in Activity 4.1 to see
if some of the reasons you listed are similar to these ones summarized here below:
a) We can read for entertainment or to relax: this kind of reading provides good company and it
is less demanding than a friend. It is a good pastime activity.
b) We usually read for acquiring knowledge and information: a widely read man knows more
than anyone can learn through direct experience in his lifetime. We learn the latest ideas in our
area of specialization and in other branches by reading.
c) We read also to prepare for success in life: we notice that progress in your profession depends
on how widely read you are. And also, the ability to pass college/university examinations or
professional ones taken after graduation will depend on how you know the subject. We also
count to be more successful than others if we have an increased quality of certificates and this
has a relationship with upward mobility.
(d) We also read so that we can improve the quality of our lives. As the saying goes, ‘If
education is expensive, try ignorance’, people cope better with everyday frustrations of life if
they understand their environment – this understanding is usually gained from knowledge gotten
from reading.

Our reading can be improved by getting to know and getting rid of bad habits which are
discussed below.

4.3.2 Get Rid of Bad Habits!

Here are some bad habits that you need to get rid of in order to improve your reading efficiency.
a) Head movement: Your eyes move at the speed of light, which is faster than any other part of
your body. Your reading is therefore slowed down if you move your head from the beginning of
a line to its end.
b) Lip movement (vocalization)
Time taken to say the word aloud slows your reading.

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c) Throat movement (sub-vocalization)
This is a more difficult weakness to detect than you might imagine because you will appear to be
reading silently. These sub-vocal movements hamper our reading speed.
d) Back-skipping and Regression
i) Back–skipping is the unconsciously going back over what you have already read.
ii) Regression is the deliberate going back over what you have already read because you have
realized you have not understood.
These two habits can slow down your reading speed and affect your comprehension because you
will be repeating lines, which you will have read.
e) Poor comprehension
When you fail to comprehend what you read, it means that your reading habits need to be
checked. This may be caused by:
i) Paying too much attention to details at the expense of overall comprehension.
ii) Paying too little attention to detail-thus causing misinterpretation.
iii) Using too much of one’s imagination or experiences in interpreting texts.
iv) An over wordy, repetitive style of the writer
v) Lack of a wide vocabulary by you as a reader.
By eliminating the above habits and by learning to focus on key words in a sentence you will be
able to increase your reading speed. Cleary (2008) suggests that reading is improved by more
reading and he offers the following guidelines to assist you in improving your reading ability.
(a) Find texts or articles that interest you, whether sports, current affairs, fashion or short
stories, and read regularly
(b) Ensure the reading material is accessible to you. There should not be more than five
difficult words otherwise understanding and reading will slow you down.
(c) Make reading a habit. Try to read the sports page everyday or read a novel and read daily.
(d) Interact with the text. Be aware of what you already know about the topic before you read
and anticipate what you expect to learn or read about (Cleary 2008:57).

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Effective reading is about being flexible and purposeful and this is discussed here below.
4.3.3 DEVELOPING A PURPOSE
Before you decide on the speed required, you need to establish a purpose for reading. The
general purposes for a university student reader include:
(i)To obtain an overall understanding of the main ideas presented in the material.
(ii)To find very specific information such as a name or place.
(iii)To obtain such understanding of the material that it can be recalled in the order originally
presented.
(iv)To evaluate and criticize.
This, in essence means that different speeds are applied to each of the purposes summarized
above.
Other important aspects that you need to consider when planning to read a text are determining
the level of difficulty of a text and determining the level of familiarity of a text which are
discussed below.

4.3.4 Determining level of difficulty

The level of difficulty dictates how you should read your material. All the materials you will
access will not have the same levels of difficulty. There is a way you can determine the level of
difficulty of the material you have.

4.3.5 Characteristics of text difficulty

You can determine the level of difficulty of a text, which you are faced with, by assessing:
(a) The familiarity of the topic – Is it or is it not familiar. The less familiar the more difficult.
(b)The length and complexity of the sentences – the longer and complex the sentences, the more
difficult the text becomes.
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(c) The number of multi-syllable words – such words present difficulty in comprehension, for
example, institutionalization, compartmentalization, promulgation. If you encounter three words
of this kind in a sentence, reading becomes more difficult.
(d)The number of unfamiliar words – If they are many and your vocabulary is limited, then your
speed slows down and comprehension is affected.
(e) The organization of the material. If the material is poorly organized, it will be more difficult
to comprehend than if it is well organized.
(f) The expression of ideas: If the thoughts and ideas are poorly and awkwardly expressed, you
will have more difficulty in reading the material than if the thoughts are clearly expressed.
(g)The difficulty of the concepts – for instance the concept ‘hardware’ in the use of computers is
not familiar to all readers, this can present difficulties, especially because it may have varied
meanings to different readers.
4.3.5 Determining Familiarity with Material
You will read with ease and desired efficiency depending on how much you already know about
the subject you are reading. To determine the level of familiarity you should skim the material to
see what it is about: read the title, author, source, summary, and introduction. Familiarity will
also determine the purpose for reading. You will therefore have no reason to read material
that is not familiar to you.
The following is the index you can use to judge the level of familiarity of any given text:
a) High degree of familiarity: the subject matter is your field of study.
You have read about it and you are involved with such ideas almost daily.
b) Slightly above average familiarity: you have studied the subject a bit but you are not really
interested in it.
c) Average degree of familiarity: You have heard about the subject and know some of the
generalities about it, and it is interesting to you.
d) Slightly below average familiarity: You have heard of the subject you know a little about it
and have no interest in it.

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e) No knowledge: you have no knowledge of the subject at all.

Activity 4.2
Read the following texts and assess how familiar or unfamiliar and how
difficult or easy they are to you.

TEXT 1
Divorce is a resultant of a failed interpersonal (intimate) relationship. It has been known to be a
complete dissolution of a marriage. All the factors, which have been known to cause divorce, are
human. These causes could be socio-cultural or economic.
Among the various factors generally recognized and providing adequate reason for divorce in
the Kenyan laws is infidelity for either the man or the woman.
TEXT 2
The most common function of mood in Latin and Greek and other languages is its use in
subordinate clauses. In Latin for instance, the subjunctive is used for ‘indirect commands’, for
purpose (‘in order to…’), for clauses within reported speech e.t.c., while in Spanish there is a
very complex system using subjunctive for the conditional clauses (those with ‘if…’).
TEXT 3
There are two kinds of diatonic scales. Major and Minor; each consists of seven different notes,
each note being placed in or on different space or line. If the scale is continued beyond the
seventh note, the eighth note will be a repetition of the first note at a different pitch, the ninth
note a repetition of the second and so on.
TEXT 4
Tithonia (Tithonia diversifolia) popularly known as Mexican sunflower, wild sunflower or
bitter flower, which belongs to the family composite, is a perennial shrub that

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proliferates around farms. Green and leaf biomass of tithonia has high contents of nitrogen
(4%), phosphorous (0.7%) and potassium (4.1%) on dry matter basis.

4.4 SOME READING STRATEGIES

4.4.1 General Reading Strategies
Before starting to read, you need to know why you want to read. This is what is referred to as
PURPOSE. This is crucial strategy in the reading activity. Once you know why you are reading
something, you can adopt the most appropriate approach to the reading. There are various
general modes of reading, which you can use while reading:
i) Skimming, involves the rapid reading of a text or an article or a book to determine what it’s
about or to get a general idea of its content. You also try to identify how the material has been
organized and also get the tone and intention of the writer. There are various aspects that you
assess
when you are skimming different reading materials. For example, if you are skimming a book,
use table of content, first and last paragraphs of each chapter plus introduction and conclusion.
These can provide you with a fair assessment of what that text is about. This is referred to as
previewing.
When you are trying to understand the overall framework the material you need to study
carefully, you may read the headings and sub-headings, introduction and summaries, the year of
publication, author, introduction, first and last sentence of each paragraph and conclusion are
useful. This is referred to as surveying. Skimming is also used when you are reviewing, for
example when you are revising work that you have already studied, your main focus is on
remembering the main points and testing whether you can fill the details from there. Skimming is
therefore meant for finding the gist of the matter in that text which you intend to read.
ii) Scanning is the fastest reading technique. It is used when one you are looking for specific
information within a text. It is done by having a clear idea of the information needed, then letting

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your eyes glance quickly over the text. Scanning is used to look for a specific name, key word, or
a number, for example when looking for the definition of a given technical term, you simply run
your eyes through the other irrelevant information until you come to the information you are
looking for. This is the mode which you will usually use to read dictionaries, encyclopedias,
glossaries and indexes. To scan effectively, Cleary (2008) suggests a few tips that can be used:
(a) Note numerical and alphabetical clues
(b) Hold an image of the item you are looking for in your mind
(c) Use your finger to guide you
(d) Take note contrasts in the visual material such as capital letters in the middle of a
sentence or numbers that stand out in a written text.
iii) Receptive reading (also known as wider reading) involves
reading for general information/knowledge or simply reading for pleasure. The speed at which
you read is determined by the kind of material you are reading. This therefore means that the
speed with which you read a novel is different from the one you will use while reading a study
text.
4.4.2 Study (interactive or Critical) Reading Strategy
Study reading is also referred to as interactive reading or even critical reading. This type of
reading involves slow, careful reading where you need to ponder on what the writer is saying.
The slow speed is necessary because it will enable you to understand, to remember and to be
critical. Most of what you will study at the university level tends to require interactive reading.
This type of reading therefore uses a formula that we shall refer to as SQ3R.
4.4.3 The Meaning of SQ3R Formula
1) “S” stands for ‘survey’
Before starting to read or study, you should look through the whole material to be read with
better understanding and also determine the purpose, which will in turn determine the speed at
which you will read. When surveying reading material, you will usually be expected to read

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quickly what is contained in the following parts of the book. Remember we described the parts
of a book in Library skills section.
Surveying a Book, you can look at:
(i)Title
(ii) Preface/forward/author’s remarks/introduction

(iii)Table of content
Surveying a chapter you can use:
(i)First and last paragraph
(ii)Summaries and conclusions
(iii)Headings
2) ‘Q’ stands for Question.
As you survey reading material, you need to formulate questions. The questions may be very
general. These can also be the questions that you would want to answer after reading. The
question can be as simple as:
‘How much can I rely on this material if it was published twenty years ago?’
Or the question can be specific, which relates to the heading or subheadings of the material
Formulating questions will help you by:
(i) Providing you with an idea of how to treat the material
(ii) Giving you a sense of purpose
(iii) Stimulating and involving you in the reading and making you an
active rather than passive reader.
3) 3R stands for: R1= Read, R2= Recall R3= Review

R1 = Read: You are expected to read thoroughly in order to find out where answers to your
questions are, you can make notes, sketch one or two diagrams from your text or do calculations
to ensure that you understand what you are reading. Read means that you should read carefully,
actively applying the techniques that allow you to read units of thought with increased eye span.

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Reading once is not enough and is not sufficient. Re-reading however means that you will do
selective reading with a specific purpose in mind for example:
(i)To clarify confusing or difficult points.
(ii)To learn formulas, new words or technical terms
(iii)To underline main ideas and important details
(iv)To outline supporting ideas
(v)To summarize
(vi)To ask questions on what you read
(vii)To take notes
Avoid taking notes on the first reading it slows down your reading speed and can
distract your overall understanding.

R2=Recall:
Here you need to try and answer all the questions you raised in the Question Section without
looking at the book or your notes. Testing, organizing, relating concepts and facts, mastering
technical terms and formulas, outlining and summarizing, all these call for use of mental
faculties. This means that you have to think while you read. It can be achieved by taking time to
remember what you have read. This enables you to discover what you have understood and what
you have not. This actually asks you: Can you answer all your questions without looking at the
notes?
R3=Review:
In reviewing, you will require to return to the book/article to ensure that the answers to the
questions you raised are right. Go over things you have got wrong or couldn’t answer. This will
involve surveying the whole material once again ascertaining the structure and organization of
the material. It involves re-identifying the major ideas and important details, re-reading
sections that have not been noted or underlined recalling material in
sequence and reviewing notes. In fact the review should be a repetition of all the previous steps
in the SQ3R strategy.
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This formula will help you become an efficient study reader. You can only become an efficient
reader if you strive to achieve the reading speed required of a university student of 600 words per
minute!
The reading speed selected depends on the purpose of the selected material.
The difficulty level also determines the mental effort and reading time you will require.
4.4.4 What does Critical Reading Entail?
As we look at some of the specific aspects of critical reading, we shall only be referring to texts
that are not fiction in nature. The following are important aspects that you can put into
consideration, if you have to achieve effective and useful critical reading.
4.4.4.1 Facts and Interpretation
A non-critical reader only looks for facts in the texts they read and they simply gain knowledge
by memorizing the statements within a text. But to the critical reader, any single text provides
but one portrayal of the facts, and one individual’s “take” on the subject matter. Critical readers
thus recognize not only what a text says, but also how that text portrays the subject matter. They
recognize the various ways in which each and every text is the unique creation of a unique
author.

A non-critical reader might read a history book to learn the facts of the situation or to discover an
accepted interpretation of those events. A critical reader might read the same work to appreciate
how a particular perspective on the events and a particular selection of facts can lead to particular
understanding.
4.4.4.2 What a Text Says, Does, and Means: Reaching for an Interpretation
Non-critical reading is satisfied with recognizing what a text says and restating the key remarks.
But critical reading goes two steps further.
Having recognized what a text says , it reflects on what the text does by asking such questions
as:
Is it offering examples?

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Is it arguing?
Is it appealing for sympathy?
Is it making a contrast to clarify a point?

Finally, critical readers then infer what the text, as a whole means based on the earlier analysis.
These three steps or modes of analysis can be summarized as:
(i)What a text says – restatement – talks about the same topic as the original text.
(ii)What a text does – description -discusses aspects of the discussion itself
(iii)What a text means – interpretation -analyzes the text and asserts a meaning for the text as a
whole
4.4.4.3 Goals of Critical Reading
When you are engaged in critical reading, you are expected:
i. to recognize an author’s purpose and this involves inferring a basis for choices of content
and language.
ii. to understand tone and persuasive elements which involves
a. classifying the nature of language choices

iii. to recognize bias which involves classifying the nature of patterns of choice of content
and language
You can notice that none of these goals actually refers to something on the page. Each one
requires inferences from evidence within the text. This is basically because critical reading is not
simply close and careful reading but actively recognizing and analyzing evidence on the page.
4.4.4.4 Analysis and Inference
These are the main tools of Critical Reading. Analysis is what to look for and how to think about
what you find is inference.
The first part —what to look for— involves recognizing those aspects of a discussion that
control the meaning.

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The second part —how to think about what you find— involves the processes of inference, the
interpretation of data from within the text.
Recall that critical reading assumes that each author offers a portrayal of the topic. Critical
reading thus relies on an examination of those choices that any and all authors must make when
framing a presentation: choices of content, language, and structure. Readers examine each of the
three areas of choice, and consider their effect on the meaning.
Inference actually expects you to read ideas as well as words. Ideally, speakers mean what they
say and say what they mean. Spoken communication is not that simple. Much of what we
understand—whether when listening or reading—we understand indirectly, by inference.
Listening involves a complex combination of hearing words, analyzing sentence structure, and
attempting to find meaning within the context of the given situation. The situation with the
written word is the same. A text does not contain a meaning. You are expected to construct
meaning by what you take the words to mean and how you process sentences to find meaning.
You should usually draw on your knowledge of the language and of conventions of social
communication. You also draw on other factors, such as knowledge of the author, the occasion,
or the audience. So, you make sense of remarks by recognizing implications and drawing
conclusions.
Readers read ideas more than words, and infer, rather than find, meaning.
Inferring Meaning
Consider the following statement:
The Army officer admitted owning the gun that killed her husband.
On the face of it, we have a simple statement about what someone said. Our understanding,
however, includes much that is not stated. We find meaning embedded in the words and phrases.
Unpacking that meaning, we can see that the army officer was married and her husband is now
dead—although this is not actually stated in the text. (In fact, the sentence is about an admission
of gun ownership). It is as though the single sentence contains a number of assertions:
(i)There is an army officer.

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(ii) She owns a gun.
(iii)She is married.
(iv) Her husband is dead.
(v)That a gun caused his death.
(vi)The army officer admitted owning that gun.
Clearly, the original sentence is a clearer and simpler way of conveying all of this information.
But we should take care not to go beyond the sentence when inferring. Inferences tend to reflect
prior knowledge and experience as well as personal beliefs and assumptions.
Analyzing Texts
What are the parts of a text? The simplest answer is that texts are composed of words, which
form sentences, which form paragraphs, which form larger sections of the text as a whole. Texts
can also be analyzed in terms of elements or themes occurring throughout the discussion.
Denotation in inference
Words, it has been observed, are sneaky—they change meaning when you put them somewhere
else. Consider the term "ate" in the following examples:
1. The girl ate the apple in the pie (took in solid food as nourishment).
2. The acid ate the metal (caused to rust or disintegrate).
3. His guilt ate into her (produced worry or anxiety).
4. The stapler ate staples (used up)
We can see that the word ate means different things in each of these sentences as indicated. The
same sequence of letters— ate —denotes more than one concept. Whether we think of these
various meanings of "ate" as different meanings of the same word or as the meanings of four
different words, we still have to recognize the appropriate meaning in any given context. As we
read, our brain calls up possible meanings. With barely a pause, we infer an appropriate meaning
in each of the remarks.
Ambiguity

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The fact that common words tend to have multiple meanings can lead to ambiguity. This is a
situation in which two or more equally legitimate readings exist. In many instances, any
potential ambiguity is easily resolved. A simple example would be:
The school had many poor students on scholarships.
Are the students on scholarship "not rich" or "not good students"? The sentence is ambiguous.
Readers draw on prior knowledge and past experience to infer the appropriate meaning. They at
once "read" both the language and their knowledge of the world. Some of the most striking
examples of ambiguity of word meaning can be seen in headlines of newspapers.
1. ‘Kamau surprise guest at political meeting’
2. ‘Achebe showed unscientific bias’
Can you identify how many meanings come to your mind as you read each
sentence more than once?
Readers infer word meanings consistent with the surrounding discussion. They infer meaning
from contextual clues, whether on the page or, in the two cases above, from our prior knowledge
and the news of the day. Examples such as this make clear that we do not simply read words so
much as interpret them. In many, if not most, instances, one meaning is obviously the intended
meaning within the given context, the other meaning a somewhat funny alternative meaning.
The meanings depend on how you analyze the sentence. The following headlines provide further
examples of ambiguity.
Maina Gets Nine Months in Cocaine Case
Iraqi Head Seeks Arms
Prostitutes Appeal to Mayor
Can you identify which word in each sentence has multiple meanings?
From the experience you have had with the critical reading activities above, you can see that
your study reading will require you be greatly critical. And just remember the word critical in
our discussion does not mean criticize in the sense of looking for fault in an item, it does not
mean crisis either it is used to refer to forming your opinions in the process of reading a piece of

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writing.
4.5 Structure and organization of text
In order to be able to understand the totality of any text there is need to understand ideas within
it, their relation to each other and to the whole. You should understand the structure of the whole
so that you recognize the significance of the many parts:
1) Subject matter: what exactly is the author writing about?
2) Theme: or main idea or attitude. what precisely is the author saying about? the subject?
3) Thought structure: how is each idea developed? Where are the dividing lines between any two
ideas?
4) Skeleton outline: what does each main division of thought say about the main idea.
5) Organization of the main divisions of thought: how is each paragraph within a thought
division related to the main idea expressed by that division OR how is each sentence within a
thought paragraph related to the main idea
6) Intention: you need to ask and answer the question, ‘why did the
author structure the passage in that way?’
It is important for you to understand the structure of a text because it will
make understanding of the concepts therein easier.

Activity 4.3
(a) Read the text provided to practice your reading skills which we have
just completed describing above.
(b) Write answers to the questions which follow the text.

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READING TEXT
This paper holds the view that a disciplined child is better able to fit in his immediate
environment and in the society at large. The discipline does not come easily. The presence of an
adult in the child’s environment is crucial in instilling a sense of responsibility in the child. The
African society initially had structures required the man to be away from home. The mother
stayed at home. Today, this same society has changed. The mother works away from home; she
goes to work in order to supplement the family’s resources. Assumption of responsibility is
crucial in the development of discipline and by extension in the development of the child. The
paper exclaims the virtues of responsibility with a view of establishing the effects of their
absence on the development of the child. Peck (1990) cites a case where a brilliant and creative
student in the field of computer grew up not trusting anybody. His services were in high demand
in Industries but he had never been able to keep a job for more than a year. Occasionally being
fined and quitting after disputes with his supervisors whom he described as liars and cheats. His
most frequent expression “you can’t trust a goddamn soul.” What happened to this man was that
when he was a young child, he suffered painful disappointment after painful disappointment
through the mother’s lack of caring. Gradually, he came to the agonizing realization in mid
childhood that he could not trust his mother. His mother was always absent when he needed her
most. To a child, his or her parents are everything. They represent the world. If to a child a
mother figure represents a personality that is more nurturing than the father, a mother therefore
represents a personality who possesses greater sensibility than any other person within the
child’s environment. The child assumes that the way the mother does things is the way things are
done. For this particular child, the reality he came to was, “ I can’t trust my mother, and I can’t
trust people either. Not trusting people therefore became the map with which he entered
adolescence and adulthood. With this map and with an abundant resentment, resulting from his
many disappointments, it was inevitable that he came into conflict after conflict with people in
authority – police, employers. And the conflicts only served to reinforce his feeling that people
who had anything to give him in the world could not be trusted. The mother was not there for

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him when he needed her most. The absence of the mother to this child affected him greatly in
later years. Developing trust and having a person who has greater sensibility around you
contributes to a disciplined manpower. To be disciplined means, one develops a sense of
responsibility. The assumption of responsibility by a child is a pillar for efficiency at work in any
field. The brilliant and creative computer student lacked discipline. This is why he changed jobs
and spent most of his productive time solving disputes with those in authority. This was a
consequence of a mother who was always away despite assurance that she would be with him all
the time.
Again, Peck (1990) cites a case of a career sergeant in the army in Okinawa who was in serious
trouble because of excessive drinking. When he was asked about his drinking habits, he denied
that he was an alcoholic or even that his use of alcohol was his problem. In later years, his
drinking continued and he was relieved of his job in the services in mid career. There is much
that parents can do (especially mothers) in the maturation process of their children. Opportunities
present themselves thousands of times while children are growing up when parents can confront
their tendency to avoid or escape responsibility for their own action or reassure them that certain
situations are not their fault. To seize these opportunities requires the mothers’ sensitivity to their
children’s needs and the willingness to take the time and make the often-uncomfortable effort to
meet these needs. And this requires love and the willingness to assume appropriate responsibility
for enhancement of the children’s growth, which is essential in their careers. If the sergeant had
received the kind of sensitivity he required in early childhood, perhaps he would not have been
separated from the service in mid career.
Questions
1. What is the main idea of the text? Explain what guided you to arrive at the main idea.
2. Provide the minor ideas of the text that support your main ideas. Show how you have
identified these ideas.
3.What is the organizational structure of the text?

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4.6 TRANS-CODING AND INTERPRETING NON-LINEAR OR
GRAPHIC INFORMATION
Information can be presented in many other ways besides the linear or prose Form or style. Texts
can depend on diagrams to explain facts in various disciplines (like science, social sciences,
education, research). It is therefore important to study the different modes and styles of
information gathering, presentation and interpretation. Incorporating various techniques of
presenting information into the otherwise dry explanation, persuasive and literary conventions of
discourse livens up academic reading and writing.
Graphic information is also referred to as visual or non-linear information.
This is information, which is presented in forms of:
(i)Diagrams
(ii) Tables

(iii) Charts-pie, flow, hierarchical, structures

(iv)Graphs-line, bar
(v) Photographs
(vii) Maps
(iv)Cartoons
As a reader, using these diagrammatic forms will help you develop the capacity to:
(i)Think critically and analytically.
(ii)Recognize and distinguish between details and underlying concepts.
(iii)Trace significant relationships as the students read extensively.
As a study reader, you should be able to interpret graphic information in order to save time when
reading texts that have graphically presented information
4.6.1 Why Use Graphical Information Presentation?
Writers usually present their texts graphically for various reasons. As a reader, you need to
understand that this is done because the writer wishes:

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(a) To communicate specific information as accurately as possible
(b) To represent information as clearly as possible, highlighting major points
(c) To supplement and augment discussions in order to show synthesis of thought
(d) To make an immediate impact on the reader, by focusing on major points
(e) To present sequences or processes
(f) Graphic information is always presented with reference to prose texts
(g) To compliment the information presented in the passage, and to summarize details.
Because of these reasons, it requires that the diagrams used in a reading text must:
(i)Have clear- bold line shading; the colours used should stand out.
(ii)Have appropriate and clear headings.
(iii)Have a key, which can be easily be referred to.

4.6.2 Information Retrieval

This is the process of getting specific information from a table, a graph, a chart and writing it out
or summarizing a prose or linear passage into tabular form. Tables are sometimes used to present
data in columns, to list figures for information and to compare corresponding numbers.
For example:
Table1: Percentage distribution of job satisfaction in Breston College
Importance rating
Attributes Critical Very Somewhat Not very unimportant
Important important Important
Salary 70.0 20.0 10.0 5.0 5.0
Allowances 50.0 20.0 20.0 5.0 5.0
Independence 10.0 50.0 20.0 10.0 10.0
Recognition 20.0 60.0 10.0 5.0 5.0
Rewards 45.0 30.0 15.0 5.0 5.0
Promotions 50.0 20.0 20.0 5.0 5.0

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 Activity 4.4
Write the information represented in Table 1 in prose form. Be as precise
as you can

4.6.3 Comparing Data

Writers sometimes compare two sets of graphically represented information in order to show
variation or similarities and to also put together information from a variety of sources. This can
be done through the use of a graph rather than a table.
The following diagrams show how information can be presented in a variety of ways using
various diagrams:
Using a Table showing rainfall distribution of Laikipia University
month 2012 2013

jan 12 5
feb 18 13
mar 37 28
apr 35 12
may 25 23
jun 22 24
jul 44 37
aug 12 22
sept 22 34
oct 34 30
nov 37 34
dec 23 26
Total 321 288
Figure 1 Rainfall distribution of Laikipia University

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Using a pie chart to show the same distribution

Figure 1.1 Rainfall distribution of Laikipia

Pie graphs are used to show simple comparisons and are usually out of 100%

Using a Bar graph to show the rainfall distribution

Figure 1.2 Rainfall distribution in Laikipia

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Bar graphs are used to compare quantities.

Using a Histogram to show the same rainfall distribution

Figure 1.3 Rainfall distribution of Laikipia

Histograms are used to show distribution in terms of amounts or frequencies over equal intervals

Using Pictographs to show the rainfall distribution

Month Rainfall 2012-2013
Jan ffffffffffff
Feb fffffffffffffff
ffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
Mar fffff
fffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
ffff
Apr
May fffffffffffffffffffffffff
Jun ffffffffffffffffffffff
ffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
Jul ffffffffffff
Aug ffffffffffff
Sept ffffffffffffffffffffff
ffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
Oct ff

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 fffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
Nov fffff
Dec fffffffffffffffffffffff
Figure 1.4 Rainfall distribution Laikipia University
Pictographs are used to show numerical relationships and to appeal to the eye.

Using a Photograph to show a rain gauge

Figure 1.4 a rain gauge

Photographs are attractive to the eyes and give a real picture

4.6.4 Appropriate Referencing Structures

It is important to use appropriate referencing phrases and expressions in a text so as to make
reading comfortable and straightforward.
Some of the expressions used are:
(i)As shown in the figure 2
(ii) As can be seen in Table 1
(iii) See figure 2
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(iv) The first column or row of a particular note.
(v)The figure above or below or on the left or on the right

4.7 SUMMARY
In this lecture we have learned various things about the activity of reading. We have seen that to
be an effective reader, especially as a university student you must first and foremost make a habit
of having a purpose for any reading that you undertake. We have also learned that reading is an
activity that you must undertake strategically in order to get value of your time spent, otherwise,
haphazard reading may yield poor fruits and hence a waste of your time. Most importantly, this
topic has shown how you can use different reading strategies fulfill different purposes. This
lecture also discussed other alternatives that can be used to present information in a more
interesting way such as the use of graphic information.

4.8 FURTHER READING

Cleary, S. 2008. Communication: A hands on approach. Cape Town: Juta
Greenall, S & Swain, M. 1986. Effective reading: Reading skills for advanced students.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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LECTURE FIVE
WRITING SKILLS
(i) Introduction to writing
(ii) Lesson Outcomes
(iii) Essay writing
(iv)Types of essays
(v) The process of writing an academic paper
(vi) Summary
(vii) Further reading

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Welcome to this lesson, this is the climax of an effective academic communicator. Your success
at the university will be determined by your ability to write good clear academic papers. Almost
every course that you study at the university requires writing of some kind; essays, summaries,
reports critiques, essays and term papers or research papers. Your lecturers will require you to
write clear and well-organized prose papers. They require you to have the ability to develop
an idea in a logical and convincing way without losing the reader in the paper. They also expect
your writing to be sincere, interesting, coherent, correct and accurate.
5.2 LESSON OUTCOMES
By the time you complete this lecture you should be able to:
(a). Identify the different types of writing required of you as a university student.
(b). Use the essay writing process to prepare your academic essays.
(c). Write effective academic essays in the courses that you will be studying.
(d). Reference material using the APA documentation style.

5.3 INTRODUCTION TO WRITING

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Writing communicates your thoughts and feelings to others; it also tells you something about
yourself. It helps you to know who you are, what you believe and what your purposes in the
writing are. By expressing your thoughts, feelings and beliefs, you discover and learn more of
yourself.
As you write you may have discovered that there is a difference between writing and speaking.
Let us look at the difference between these two aspects of expression. As you speak your
listeners or audience are in front of you, as a result you can rely heavily on gestures, facial
expressions and even body language to convey your meaning and to detect the reaction of your
listener. You can even take shortcuts like using incomplete sentences, single words and
omissions without losing or confusing the listener. Depending on your audience you can use
specialized language, dialect, slang and so on. You can even repeat a word or an entire sentence
if it is not understood or you can pause, whisper or shout to convey a particular impression or
point. You also don’t have to rewrite or edit your words as you speak and as a result your speech
is usually more direct and simpler than your writing.

You have few of these advantages when you write. Your writing must be more organized than
your speech. In speech you can change the subject, repeat yourself, wander off to a different
topic and then finally return to the original idea. Instead of a gesture or an emphasis with your
voice, you have to use punctuation, word choice and sentence structure to convey shades of
meaning. To avoid confusing your reader, you have to select your words carefully and arrange
them in sentences that follow each other in a particular order. Instead of using slang or terms
only known to a certain group, you have to use words that are understood by most people.
Instead of bits and pieces of information one must use complete sentences.
(a) Let us now find out what good writing is:
(i). Good writing like a good song or a good film is not boring; it keeps your interest by what it
says and how it says it.

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(ii). Good writing needs careful planning, if it is an essay it sticks to one main idea which is
supported or developed by enough facts and details.
(iii) Good writing presents ideas that are fresh, original or newly interpreted, “not hand me
downs” tired ideas borrowed from someone else.
(iv). Good writing uses language that is right for the job. You can use formal language or
informal language where appropriate.
(v). Good writing is free of serious mistakes in grammar, spelling and punctuation because those
errors get in the way of the writer’s ideas and distract the reader.

5.4 ESSAY WRITING

(a) What is an essay?
We need to ask ourselves what an essay is. This is because different scholars have defined it in
different ways:
Some people say that an essay is a composition and that a composition ‘involves putting things
together to make one whole entity and that the product of a composition is referred to as an
essay’. Some also say that an
essay is a serious piece of writing or speech that uses specific language
according to:
(i). To the medium employed (whether written or spoken).
(ii). To the topic, subject, or discipline, around which the language activity is centered (it may be
economics, mathematics, history or any other).
(iii). To formal or informal (serious verses jokes)
These are the elements that will make an essay different from other types of writing.
(b) Parts of an essay
An ideal essay is usually divided into three sections: the introduction, the body and the
conclusion. Let us now look at each of these sections individually.
Introduction

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The introduction prepares your reader for the main body of the essay. You can do this in various
ways:
(i). By making clear the scope of the essay e.g. defining important terms, or stating the subject of
your essay. In the introduction, state what you are writing about.
(ii). By outlining your method: these are the main parts of your description or steps by which you
argue your case.
(iii ). By identifying the issue – with some topics it is helpful to identify the main issue or point
of discussion.
(iv). By stating the main school of thought or way of looking at the issue. It may be helpful to
indicate the main opinions, which the world holds on what is at issue.
(v). By indicating problems or difficulties posed by the topic. If it entails taking sides, which side
you are on.
(vi). By briefly mentioning the conclusion.
The introduction also includes important aspects such as the thesis statement (statement of
intent) and the essay map, which will be discussed later in this topic. Introductions also vary in
length depending on the length of the essay. For a brief essay of 300-500 words, a paragraph will
probably be enough. Longer essays sometimes contain introductions of two or more paragraphs.
The introduction usually tells your reader about the whole essay.
Your reader will also have an idea of your intention by reading the introduction.
The main body
The body is the longest part of the essay. It usually consists of several paragraphs and its purpose
is to develop and expand upon the thesis statement. Topic markers usually divide up the topics
and show the relationship of the first topic and the other topics. Examples of topic markers
are words like firstly, secondly, thirdly and other similar expressions. They are important
because they will show your readers how your thoughts are developing and enable them follow
those thoughts, much more easily. So this means that you must write in correct language in order
to enable your readers follow your arguments.

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Let us look at some of these aspects as explained below.
(c) Transition words and phrases
Some paragraphs may require transition words to help you move smoothly from one thought to
the next so that your ideas do not appear clumsy. Here is a list of common transition words and
phrases that you can use when writing to help you move from one idea to the next and to show
similarity of ideas and also how they differ.

(i). Giving examples---for example, for instance, specifically, in particular, namely.

(ii). Restatement--- in other words, in simpler terms, that is.
(iii ). Comparison--- similarly, not only…but also, in comparison.
(iv). Concession---granted, it is true, of course, to be sure.
(v). Contrast---although, but, while, in contrast, however, though, on the other hand, on the
contrary.
(vi). Sequence--- first…second…third and finally, moreover, also, in addition,
next, then, after, furthermore.
(vii). Results---therefore, thus, consequently, as a result.
(viii). Time/place---above, afterward, at the same time formerly, here.
Here is an example of a short paragraph that uses transition markers. The transition markers have
been underlined.
Example 1
Working in a neighborhood supermarket, as a cashier was one of the worst holiday jobs I have
ever had. In the first place, I had to wear an ugly uniform. My schedule of working hours was
another inconvenience; because my hours changed every week. In addition, the lack of space
bothered me.
Except for a half-hour lunch break, I was restricted to three square feet of room behind the
counter and consequently felt as if I was no more than a cog in the cash register (Wyrick,
1987:54).

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Repetition of key words can be used to emphasize important words or phrases (and their
synonyms may be repeated throughout a paragraph to connect the thoughts into a coherent
statement. The following are examples drawn from Wyrick (1987:54).
Example 2
One of the most common, and yet puzzling, phobias is the fear of snakes.
It’s only natural of course, to be afraid of a poisonous snake, but many people are just frightened
by harmless varieties. For such people a tiny green snake, is as terrifying as a cobra. Some
researchers say this unreasonable fear of any and all snakes is a legacy left to us by our tree
dwelling ancestors, for whom these reptiles were a real and constant danger.
Pronouns substituted for key nouns--- A pronoun is a word that stands for a noun. In a
paragraph you may use a key noun in one sentence and then use a pronoun in its place.
Identify the pronoun used in the following paragraph:
Example 3
The great white shark is perhaps the best equipped of all the ocean’s predators. It can grow up
twenty-one feet and weigh three tons with two-inch teeth that can replace themselves every
twenty-four hours when damaged. The shark’s sense of smell is so acute it can detect an ounce of
fish blood in a million ounces of water, in addition it can sense vibrations from six
hundred feet away.
Sentences two, three, four, are tied to the topic sentence by the use of the pronoun “it”

Parallelism--- in a paragraph means using the same grammatical structures in several sentences
to establish coherence. The repeated use of similar phrasing helps tie the ideas and sentences
together. The parallel structures are underlined below from an example drawn from Wyrick
(1987:55).
Example 4
The weather of Texas offers something for everyone. If you are the kind who likes to see snow
drifting onto mountain peaks, a visit to Big Bend area will satisfy your eye. If, on the other hand,

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hand you demand a bright sun to bake your skin to golden brown, stop in the southern part of the
state. And for hardier souls, who ask from nature a show of force, the skies of the Panhandle
regularly release ferocious springtime tornadoes. Finally, if you are the fickle type, by all means
come to central Texas, where the sun at any time may shine unashamed throughout the most
torrential rainstorms.
The parallel structures of sentences 2,3 and 5 (If you + verb) keep the paragraph flowing
smoothly from one idea to the next.
Activity 5.1
Identify the transition devices and explain their function in the following
paragraph drawn from Wyrick (1987:55).

Transitions are the glue that holds a paragraph together. These devices lead the reader from
sentence to sentence, smoothing over the gaps between by indicating the relationship between
the sentences. If this glue is missing, the paragraph will almost inevitably sound choppy or
childish, even if every sentence in it responds to a single topic’s commitment. However,
transitions are not substituting for topic unity: like most glue they are most effective
when joining similar objects, or, in this case, similar ideas for example in a paragraph describing
a chicken egg, no transition can bridge the gap created by inclusion of a sentence concerned with
naval losses in the civil war. In other words, transitions can call attention to the topic
relationships between sentences but they cannot create those relationships.
The Conclusion
The conclusion of the essay is usually stated in the last paragraph although it may consume
several paragraphs in a long essay. The conclusion is a signal that the essay is coming to an end.
The conclusion reminds your reader of the major points, restates the thesis or urges the reader to
take action. It may also state your own views as a writer and future

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plans of the same or likely areas that should be studied or pursued.

5.5 TYPES OF ESSAYS

Different types of essays fulfill different purposes, as we shall see below.
Essays may be written to describe a phenomenon and therefore a descriptive type of essay would
be appropriate. If you want to explain a concept you will write an expository type of essay. If
you also want to hold a discussion about a certain issue you will write an argumentative type of
essay. If you want to tell a story you will write a narrative.
Lets us now briefly describe the different types of essays in more detail.
5.5.1 Exposition
To expose means to put to the open, make clear or simply reveal.
An exposition sets out to explain something. The purpose of an exposition is therefore to enable
your reader to understand something. You may want a reader to understand any of the following:
(i)What something is, like a rugby pitch
(ii) How something works like a iPod
(iii)The relationship between one thing and another like the browsing and the Internet.
(iv)How the different parts of one thing are related, like the nose, ear and throat
(v)Why something happened the way it did, like the Laico corruption scandal.
(vi)Why you think a given thing is likely or not likely to happen, like the survival of a political
party from one general election to another.
You can use different techniques to write an exposition.
(i). You can define words by using a dictionary, which helps in the understanding of the meaning
of words.
(ii). You may also analyze: meaning that you can break a concept into pieces or parts so as to
understand the properties of a given idea or concept. For example, to explain how a car engine
works, one has to explain the function of the engine parts such as the carburetor, gear shafts,
clutch etc.

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It is like tearing it apart bit by bit in a bid to understand the function of each part.
(iii) You may compare and contrast something so as to explain especially if you want to explain
classes or categories of things.
(iv) Illustration or exemplification can also facilitate your explanation.
Illustration means providing pictures and diagrams to make an idea more real or concrete. Giving
real life experiences can also serve as an illustration. If you are writing about the work of a chef,
you must describe the kind of work s/he does in the food industry. You must have a vivid
picture.
(v)You may also show cause and effect relationships so as to explain Something; it explains the
relationship between two or more elements. When you discuss the condition of producing
something, you are analyzing cause; when you are discuss the result produced by something you
are analyzing effect, Cause asks:
Why did ‘X’ happen?
Or why does ‘X’ happen?
Or why will ‘X’ Happen?

Effect on the other hand, asks?

What did ‘Y’ produce?
Or what does ‘Y’ produce?
Or what will ‘Y’ produce?
(vi) Definition – we define for several reasons:
(a) To provide an interpretation of a vague, controversial or misunderstood term such as
corruption, abortion etc.
(b) To explain an abstract term or concept such as
justice, love etc.
(c) To define a new term or unusual term e.g. new
media, E-learning, distance learning etc.

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(vii). The use of description can also enhance your explanation.
It is possible to combine a number of techniques as you write your expository type of essay.

5.5.2 Description
The purpose of a description is to make the reader (hearer) get an impression, visual or
otherwise. The descriptive type of writing appeals to our basic senses, which are sight, hearing,
touch, taste, and smell. The focus in a description is our ability to visualize an event, object or
situation, so the target is our faculty of perception. One may understand what is going on, but
you should be able to see, smell, touch, taste, hear and this facilitates understanding.

(i) Important considerations in the writing of a description

When you are writing a descriptive essay you need to consider the following:
a. There is writer’s selectiveness in description writing
b. The writer’s point of view (e.g. ‘looking at from afar’)
c. What is your intended impression
d. There is need to decide whether to be subjective or objective in your description.
e. Language of description, which depends on the subject that you are writing about e.g. a
scientific subject will require one to distance themselves from the observations they make.
5.5.3 Argumentation
To argue simply means to give a point of view and stand by it by way of supporting your point
of view with relevant facts or opinions.
The function of this type of essay is to convince others of the correctness of a given view. It is
the process of reasoning methodically. The product of an argumentation is an argument (for or
against a certain idea). The word argument is also used for a discussion, debate, and even a
quarrel in which the participants have opposing views. Meaningful arguments tend to be over
matters such as morality, policy, theory, interpretation of issues.
A good argument is therefore expected to have some or all of the following properties:

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(i)A good argument should be reasonable. The reasons used to support a given position should be
relevant and adequate. The argument for or against should not be biased.
(ii)There should be some logic in the argument, that is, your conclusion should follow from the
preceding assumptions or statements irrespective of whether those statements are true or false.
(iii) Consistency should be evident such that points that are raised to prove a certain idea support
one another without creating any internal contradictions.
(iv) Defining key concepts in your argument not only saves you from being misunderstood; it
also prevents the rather frequent situation in which two or more people disagree on a point
simply because each of them is using a key concept in a different sense.
(v) Clarity is important: clearly state your position in the controversy (what you want to prove or
disprove) and be consistent, do not change your stand in the middle of your essay.
There are many types of evidence that you can use to support or oppose a certain view in your
argumentation. These are as follows:
1. Testimony as a type evidence. A witness or one who has experienced something that is
relevant to the subject of the debate. For example, if you are writing about the 1998 bomb blast
in Kenya, you can get evidence from someone who was at the scene of action to tell you what
happened.
2. Authority as type of evidence, this is where you will rely on someone else’s views. This is
somebody who, by training or experience is generally believed to be capable of giving a reliable
opinion on the matter. For example, if you want to explain the significance of Kenya celebrating
the jubilee you can ask a historian to explain what happened since independence to the present.
3. Statistical evidence gives us the figures, hopefully reliable ones that can help us prove a point
whose validation requires knowledge of how many items are involved. For Example, if you say
that the population of Kenya has increased then you need to quote from an official document
such as the latest census report.
4. Empirical evidence refers to what we can observe in the world outside our minds. For
example, in a laboratory setting, if a certain acid is said to smell

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like a rotten egg, this should be demonstrated and observed.
5. Logical evidence is a statement of what must follow after accepting some preceding facts or
statement. For example, the example of an illogical statement that all men who have only
attained class eight education make poor husbands.
5.5.4 Narration
This is the skill of telling a story. In the process of narration, we present the reported events in a
sequential order. Most narratives constitute an exposition and a description. The purpose of a
narration is to produce a story. This type of essay is not relevant for our course. So, we shall not
discuss it because it is basically for creative writers.
5.6 ACADEMIC ESSAY WRITING PROCESS
We will now move to the next stage where we will need to write an academic paper since most
of your units /modules will require you to write academic papers when writing assignments and
also answering examination questions. In academic essay writing one includes, facts, ideas,
opinions, definitions, quotations and quantitative data. Writing an academic paper is a process
that requires one to follow certain steps. We will now look at these steps and we will begin with
step one up and move down to step seven respectively as represented in the diagram below.
5.6.1 The steps that one needs to follow to write an academic paper
The academic writing process follows the following steps that will be discussed in the rest of this
lecture.
Step 1: Choosing and limiting a topic
Step 2: Writing a thesis statement
Step3: Organizing and outlining your essay
Step 4: Writing the first rough draft
Step 5: Revising and editing your essay
Step 6: Preparing the final copy (Crews, Schor & Hennessay 1993:5).
5.6.2 Choosing and limiting a topic
In college when you are given an assignment make sure that you know

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exactly what the subject or question demands. If you are choosing your own topic, one of the
best sources for an essay topic is your own experience. Use the pre-writing techniques of free
writing, brainstorming or clustering.

Let us briefly look at these techniques. Explanations of these techniques will be

explained respectively.
Free-writing
Free writing is a technique of looking for possible topics that you can write on. The trick is to
write nonstop without worrying about logic or grammar letting each sentence lead on to another.
Write nonstop while looking for ideas and do not mind about grammar or spelling and let each
sentence lead you to the next sentence. Let us look at the following paragraph:
Stuck-staring at a blank page with nothing to say so, I will try some free-writing. Keep the pencil
moving, keep the pencil gliding across the page-words words words. I can’t stop till I fill up this
page. The page looks like a sheet of ice and my pencil is an ice skater gliding across it. My hand
guides the pencil and my brain guides my hand. Blank page-words words words. Watching my
hand. Does the old saying ‘I know it like the back of my hand’ make sense? Hands do tell that
about a person. I always notice my dad’s hands rough, worn, battered from working outside all
day. My hands are smooth and soft except where I have a bump from holding this pencil. Our
hands are a sign of how different our lives are. He grew up working on a farm and never went to
college, I got to go away to college and probably won’t ever have rough hands. I’m glad I am
free to follow this path, but something is lost in the shift between the generations. I’m removed
from the life I grew up in. Like a plant pulled out by the roots and moved to a different spot. May
be I could write about that – idea that important things (emotional security? Traditions?) get lost
when sons follow different paths from fathers. Does anything make up for what gets lost?
With its ungrammatical structures and misspellings, this passage obviously lacks the polish of
finished prose, but in writing the student found a topic that he could choose and write on.

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 Activity 5.2
Pick a topic that interests you and put down as many points as you can
using the free-writing technique.

Brainstorming
To brainstorm is to toss out suggestions without regard for their connections, letting assorted
notions accumulate quickly on the page. Here is an example of a student who has raised the issue
of father-son relationships:
Mothers/sons
Emotional bonds
Breaking away –leaving home, independence, new identity/values
Homecoming celebration!
Prodigal son – or daughter
Double standard? – ok for sons to have more freedom , daughters different rules?
Fathers/daughters – closer bonds
Hamlet – father/son theme
Orphelia – daughter/father
You can brainstorm by yourself, listing random words and phrases as they occur to you,
scribbling on a note pad, or you can work in a group either with friends or colleagues. The
resulting list can move you toward a topic or help you modify one that you already had in mind.

Activity 5.3
Pick a topic like free Secondary education in Kenya and come up with as
many related ideas to the topic as you can get.

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Clustering
Clustering combines the continuity of free writing with the discontinuity of brain-storming. The
idea is to write a word or phrase in the center of a sheet of paper circle it, and then map out
‘clusters’ of information triggered by the original concept. From a topic like education you can
come up with the following list of possible topics.
Pre-school
Secondary
Education
Primary Education
Tertiary Education
HELB
Issues
Free primary education
New Syllabus
Montessori type of learning

The following are guidelines you could use when choosing a topic:
(i) Choose a topic that interests you and which you can get or acquire information easily.
(ii) Choose a topic, which is small enough to handle in the usual 500-700 words. Broad
topics like love, war, happiness would have to be narrowed down.
(iii) Choose a topic that will be intellectually challenging and involving to your reader. Avoid
topics like population, which are already saturated.
After choosing a topic, your next job is to trim it to manageable proportions.
Topics like Education, Agronomy, Automobiles, Corruption, HIV/AIDS, are too broad. Such
topics can be trimmed as shown below:

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Topic Narrowed topic
Agronomy Diseases found in Maize variety (511)
Education Who says that everyone should study
computers?
Automobiles The Toyota vehicles are very popular in
Kenya.

Corruption The police force is said to be one of the most

corrupt government departments.
HIV/AIDS HIV/AIDS Stigma is rampant in local health
dispensaries in Kenya

Determining your purpose and audience

The best way to avoid confusion during the writing process is to formulate a statement of
purpose (statement of intent) before writing. This is the sentence that states your purpose in
relation to your audience and your subject. It helps you to keep in mind the central idea and the
response you want from your reader. For example: My purpose is to help the reader understand
the difference between analog and digital computers.
There are three major purposes of writing:
(i) To entertain or give pleasure by making the subject enjoyable.
(ii) To inform or instruct or explain the meaning of certain information.
(iii) To persuade the reader by convincing him or her to follow a certain course of action.
Gathering material

You need to gather ideas, facts, examples and details for your essay once you have identified the
topic that interests you. You may ask the following “six” questions: Who, what, when, why,
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where and how. This is like using the journalistic method of questioning and thereafter
collecting information from the sources. The library, as mentioned in the library skills topic, is
the most relevant and useful source of information.
5.6.3 Writing the thesis statement
After looking over your list of ideas of the subject you think you can research on and write
adequately, you may ask yourself what you want to say about them. What are you really trying to
tell your reader about the topic?
The answer to this question is expressed in the thesis statement which is a sentence containing
the main idea and the purpose of the essay. It has been described as containing two parts: the
topic and your assertion or view of the topic. For example if Jogging is the topic. The thesis
statement could be, many people who jog are healthy, where the opinion about jogging is stated.
Another topic could be African heroes and the thesis statement could be Africans choose their
heroes on the basis of accomplishment, fame and wealth or African heroes are self-made.
A well stated thesis gives your paper a sense of purpose and direction. It answers the reader’s
question “what is the point?” The thesis statement is a commitment or promise to the reader. It
tells the reader what to expect and it offers a hint of the overall plan of the paper. Many writers
place the thesis statement at the end of the first paragraph in a short essay before proceeding
to develop and support it in the following paragraphs that follow (Wyrick, 1987). The thesis
statement is like the heart of a human being. No human being can exist without a heart. It is the
same with the thesis statement in an essay.

Characteristics of a good thesis statement

(a). A good thesis states the writer’s clearly defined opinion on the subject; present your issue or
opinion precisely and specifically.
(b).A good thesis asserts one main idea; do not have many different issues in one essay.
Let us look at one poor example: Khat is a harmless drug and besides, the
laws against it are unfair. These are two assertions that require two different

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kinds of supporting evidence. You can therefore have two thesis statements; Khat causes no
physical damage to its users. Or, The law concerning penalties for possession of less than one
kilogram of Khat in Kenya is unjust.
There are several characteristics of a good thesis statement. The following are some these
characteristics:
(i)It should have something worthwhile to say.
(ii) It should be limited to fit the objectives.
(iii) It should be clearly stated in specific terms.
(iv) It needs to be clearly located, usually in the first paragraph.
For Example:
Worldwide, HIV/AIDS has created an enormous challenge to public health(1) with regard to the
diversity in methods of prevention, transmission, and management.(2).
Part 1 contains the thesis statement and Part 2 contains the essay map.

Once you have stated your thesis statement, the other important statement that you want to make
that is related to your thesis, is the essay map. The essay map has been described as a brief
statement in the introductory paragraph introducing the major points to be discussed in the
essay (Wyrick 1987). The essay map is equivalent to a geographical drawing that shows
locations. It allows the reader to know in advance where you are as a writer, in terms of the
discussion of ideas in the essay. With an essay map, the reader has a brief but specific idea of
where the essay is going and how it will be developed.
For Example:
Thesis statement: Malindi beach is a worthwhile place to spend a holiday.
Essay map: The beautiful beaches, the tropical climate, and the inexpensive entertainment
attract visitors from as far away as Uganda, United States of America and Australia.
The essay map above shows that the essay will consider beaches, climate and entertainment.
These will provide content boundary or what is called

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scope. The essay map is often inserted after the thesis statement and becomes part of the
introduction. In addition to suggesting the main points of the essay, the map provides two other
benefits; it provides a set of guidelines for organizing the essay and it also saves the writer from
wondering off into areas that are not related to the thesis. A clear thesis statement and essay map
provides a rough outline of the sequence of paragraphs in the essay. Each paragraph of the essay
is then devoted to each main point mentioned in the map (Wyrick, 1987).
Example of a thesis Statement:
The Laikipia University Study skills centre is a resourceful place for first years to receive help
with basic courses.
Example of Essay map for the above thesis statement

The centre’s numerous free services, well trained tutors, and a variety of supplementary learning
materials can often make the difference between academic success and failure for many students

5.6.4 Organizing and outlining your essay

This section will first talk about how one creates an outline for their essay and how one can use
different patterns to develop their essay.
(a) Outlines
The essay map gives you a rough idea of the major and minor points that you will include in
your essay outline. Outlines help you plan your writing so that it is systematic and orderly.
There are two types of outlines that you can use.
(i) Topic outlines
Topic outlines consist of short phrases that are listed to show a sequence of ideas in the order of
their relative importance. Topic outlines provide order and establish the relationship of ideas to
one another. They may be used to structure topics and sub-topics e.g. listing major and minor
points.
Below is an Illustration of how one should write the outline of their essay using the topic outline
format:
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Topic of essay: EUTHANASIA
I Introduction
B. Problems posed by medical advances
B. Definitions of euthanasia
II Legal Questions
A. Ambiguity of laws and court practices
B. Hippocratic oath
III Religious Questions

A. Objection
1. Traditional Judeo-Christian view
2. ‘Sanctity of life’ and other objections
B. Recent changes in attitude
IV Principles of euthanasia movement
A. Dignity of life versus value of life
B. Physician’s responsibility
C. Rights to be at liberty
D. Equity of treatment
V Conclusion
(Adopted from Crews, Schor & Hennessay 1993)
The outline differentiates between the major and the minor points of your essay. You can see
here that the major ideas to be discussed have been summarized in point form. So, we
expect that your essay will follow that order provided.

(ii) Sentence outlines

The second type of outlining is referred to as sentence or organizational outline. Here, you will
summarize each idea in a single complete sentence that is usually written in point form. This

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complete sentence becomes a topic sentence and could be the first opening sentence for each
new paragraph in the rough draft. It carries the main idea or statement that establishes the
subject.

Illustration:
1. There are many problems about euthanasia posed by medical advances.
2. Legal questions pose a major problem to the practice of euthanasia.
3. Different religious beliefs advocate opposing views.
4. There are ideal principles that guide the practice of euthanasia

To outline effectively you have to establish major and minor points. You need to start with the
most important points and then move on to the least important ones. They are then properly
arranged in the proper order and then numbered.

There are two main ways of numbering the outline. The two systems are referred to as the mixed
notation system and the Arabic system of notation. Let us now look at the mixed notation
system illustrated below:
Mixed notation system of numbering
I ……………………………………….
A………………………………. Main topic
1. or (i)………………………. Subtopic
2. or (ii)……………………….
B …………………………………….
1. or (i)……………………….
2. or (ii)……………………….
II ……………………………………………
A …………………………………….

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1. or (i)………………………….
2. or (ii)…………………………
The notations selected should reflect the importance of the points, which are highlighted.
The second system of numbering the outline is also illustrated below:
Arabic notation system
1.0…………………………..Main topic
1.1………………………….Subtopic
1.1.1………………………Sub-subtopic
2.0………………………………………….
2.1………………………………………….
2.2……………………………………………
2.2.1………………………………………..
2.2.3…………………………………………..
3.0……………………………………………………
The key to numbering your points is that you have to choose one system of
numbering and use it consistently.
Activity: 5.4
Generate an outline for your intended essay. You can either use the
topic outline or the sentence outline format. Use either one of the
notation systems that have been discussed above.

(b) Organizing the essay

There are six patterns of developing the paragraphs of your essay. These
Patterns are described below:
(i) Comparison and contrast;
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(ii) Exemplification;
(iii) Cause and effect;
(iv) Classification and division;
(v) Process and analysis Definition
The pattern you use will depend on your purpose and your thesis statement.
Methods can be combined although there should be one dominant one. Let us look at some
examples:
Example 1
Thesis: The public behavior of some sports figures is a poor example for our youth.
Questions: Why do you say that? What is your evidence? Give examples to prove your point.
Method: Exemplification
Example 2
Thesis: My city is actually comprised of distinct communities

Questions: What are the various groups or categories that make up your city?
Method: Division and classification
Example 3
Thesis: Radio carbon dating is a very accurate way to date organic objects up to 80,000 years old
Questions: How is this done? What are the steps?
Method: Process and analysis
Example 4
Thesis: The music that my generation dances to, is different from that of my parents.
Question: What was their music like? What is your music like and how are the two different?
How are the two different?
Method: Comparison and contrast.
Example 5
Thesis: Feminism is a modern concept that affects the male-female
relationships in many African countries
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Questions: What is Feminism? What is it not? What are its characteristics?
What are the origins of the term?
Method: Definition

Example 6
Thesis: Many college athletes graduate as functional illiterates.
Questions: Why are they allowed to graduate? Who is to blame? Who’s putting pressure on the
colleges to graduate them? How successful will they be in life?
Method: cause and effect

5.6.5 Writing the first rough draft

This requires that you choose the most suitable mode or pattern for developing your essay as
shown above. Use the material that you got from the sources of information. Your readers
normally want to know that your thesis rests on sound evidence, that is, you have ample
supporting examples, facts, reasons and testimony. As you draft your essay, you should back up
its central idea and you can also use the following tips:
(i) Use examples to ‘flesh’ up your general points
(ii) Remember the heart of analysis and argument consists of supporting general points with
specific examples; Even when your ideas are not controversial you need to back them up with
examples, details and facts.
(iii) Always cite facts and figures from trustworthy sources. When people think of evidence, they
call to mind facts and figures that are reliable, well established information and numerical data.
(iv) Always use quotations sparingly and pointedly. A brief anecdote (a short relevant story) can
be used; you can use quoted speech to give readers a sense of being right on the scene;
quotations also lend credibility to any claim you make; quotations can wrap up an essay’s central
point.
(v) Often cite authorities that share your point; cite reliable, trustworthy authorities.
(vi) It is prudent to use reasoning to reach well-founded conclusions.
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Ensure that the essay has the most important parts, that is, the introduction, the body and the
conclusion.
A good essay should have a satisfying conclusion, one that gives the reader a sense of
completion on the subject. The conclusion is your last chance to convince the reader. There are
various ways of ending your essay; you could summarize some of the earlier points or you could
clearly qualify your position.

5.6.7 Revising Your Draft

James Thurber a renowned writer says; ‘there is no good writing, only rewriting’.
Write your first draft and keep it aside for a while then go back to it and read it for purpose and
organization only. Have you fulfilled the purpose of the assignment? Do major parts of the body
paragraphs support the thesis? Does your essay begin appropriately and end appropriately?
A second draft is inevitable. In this draft evaluate the essay in terms of the content and
development. Check the ideas and evidence, are your comments clear, logical, sincere and
persuasive? Check on clarity, conciseness and vividness. Re-write the final copy and check on
errors of spelling, grammar and punctuation. Proofread twice and save your drafts in case your
final copy is lost. Make sure that your essay has a good title, which should interest and attract the
reader’s interest and make them want to investigate the essay. An informative essay should have
a more formal title that suggests its content as clearly and as specifically as possible.
5.6.8 Referencing
Referencing is a standardized method of acknowledging printed or electronic sources of
information and ideas that you have used in your essay or assignment in a way that identifies
their source. Direct quotations, ideas and theories from both published and unpublished works
must be referenced.

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Whenever you need to do an assignment or write a research paper, you need to consult several
sources of information to get the content of your paper. References are used for several reasons
as discussed by Cleary (2008) below:
(i) To demonstrate that you have read widely and have a broad appreciation of the subject
matter (for example, to name leading theorists in a field like economics).
(ii) To document the sequential development of knowledge and understanding in a particular
field (for example, the progress of a particular theory).
(iii)To provide illustrative examples of a particular theme (for example in a discussion on
different type of leadership).
(iv) To introduce a discussion within your essay (for example, an interesting quotation which
summarizes a point of view).
(v) To substantiate your essay arguments which is the most common reason for references
(for example, a research study that supports your findings)

When you quote an author, you should acknowledge him or her. Acknowledging means that the
author gave you the ideas that you are using in your paper. You could also summarize an
author’s ideas but the ideas belong to that author and you therefore need to acknowledge
him/her. Even if you paraphrase (express an author’s ideas using your own words) an author’s
ideas you still need to acknowledge the author. If you do not acknowledge the ideas of others,
you will be accused of plagiarism which is an academic crime. Plagiarism is the use of another
person’s ideas and expressions in your writing without acknowledging the source. The word
plagiarism comes from a Latin word ‘plagiarius’ which means (kidnapper). Alexander Lindsey
defines it as “the false assumption of authorship: The wonderful act of taking the product of
another’s mind and presenting it as one’s own”. Plagiarism is to give the impression that you
have written or thought out something that you have in fact borrowed from someone else; it is a
violation of professional responsibility

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Since plagiarism is a serious crime, let us now look at how you can acknowledge using a style
called The American Psychological Association (APA) publication Style. It is important to
mention here that there are many other publication styles but we will use the APA because it has
been accepted in both scientific and non-scientific fields as a standard format for writing
scholarly papers both locally and internationally.

The APA style uses the author-date method of citation. That is, the surname of the author and the
year of publication are inserted in the text at the appropriate point. For example, in-text citation
means the quotes, summaries and paraphrases in the academic paper as shown below:
One way of acknowledging is shown here below:
EXAMPLE 1
During our childhood, we form attitudes that last a lifetime. Undoubtedly, it would be easier to
acquire a positive attitude during our formative years (Khera, 2012).

Another way of citing information within the text is shown below:

EXAMPLE 2
Khera (2012) observes that during our childhood, we form attitudes that last a lifetime.
Undoubtedly, it would be easier to acquire a positive attitude during our formative years.
EXAMPLE 3
If you have more than two authors:
Kamau and Ochola (2006) demonstrate that attitude formation is critical during the formation
years through studies they have done over the years.
The above citations are done within the text of your assignment or research paper and are
presented in short form. The full details of the information that you used within the text is found

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on a separate page on the last page of your assignment or research paper. The reference list is
discussed below.

5.6.8 Reference List format and order

The reference list at the end of the academic paper provides the information necessary to identify
and retrieve each source. Researchers must include only the sources that have been used in the
preparation of the academic paper. The reference list format should provide the author’s last
name and initials, the year of publication, the title, the city, and publisher in that sequence.
The entries in the reference list format should be arranged in alphabetical order by the surname
of the first author using the APA publication manual (2010).
For example:
Alego, O. (2010, October 12). Computer groups plan standards. The Daily Nation, p.D4
Bundu, D. (2004). Technology Innovation and Competitiveness. Nairobi: Longhorn.
Chora, F. & Mothe, P. (2011). Technology and Challenges. (ed). Delhi: MacMillan.
Dessler, G. (2001). Human Resource Management. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Hussey, D. (2006). The Innovation Challenge. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Leenan, B.(2004). Customer Satisfaction Surveys Miss the Mark. [Online] Available
:http://www.findarticles.com
Spinner, M.P. (1990). Elements of Project Management: Plan, Schedule and Control.
Englewood Cliff, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Utta, M., Kim,R. & Lammiman, J. (2004). Managing Live Innovation. Oxford: butterworth-
Heineman.
Zahra,S.A.,& Ali, A.J.(1997). The Impact of Innovation and Technology in the Global
Marketplace. New York: International Business Press.

5.6.9 Handing in Your Essay

Your essay should have a cover page that has the following details:

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 1. The name of the department which is offering the course;

2. The name and code of the course;

3. The title of the essay;
4. The name and registration number of the writer;
5. The date when this paper is presented; and
6. The name of the person to whom this essay is presented to for marking.

Activity 5.5
Following the practice of the above skills, you are now in a position to
write an academic paper of your choice of not more than 10 typed
pages. The essay topic should be FOCUSED, have a THESIS
statement, an ESSAY MAP, detailed outline using the topic format, in-
text citations and a reference list and all the essential aspects of an
academic essay. This essay should be handed in at end of this topic as
part of your continuous assessment test.

SUMMARY
This topic has taken you through the process of writing. The process
is meant to enable you develop skills in writing academic papers,
which play an integral part in your study at the university. We have
seen how you can prepare to write and the tools that can help you
write effectively.
We hope you have enjoyed studying this module. Do not throw it
away after the first completion because you will still rely on it for the
rest or your study period at Laikipia University.

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 FURTHER READING
American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association (6th ed). Washington, DC: Author.
Babbie, E. (2007). The practice of social research (11thed.). Belmont CA:
Wadsworth.
Cleary, S. (Ed.). 2008. Communication: A hands on approach. Cape Town, South
Africa: Juta.
Leedy, P.D., & Omrod, J. E. (2006). Practical research. Upper Saddle River NJ:
Prentice Hall.
K’aol, G. (2008). APA Style for Projects and Term Papers. (Lecture notes) USIU.

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REFERENCES
Afolayan, A. & Newson, H.E. (1983). The Use of English Communicative Skills for University

Students. London: Longman.

Baddock, B. (2009). Professional Writing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Bukenya, A., Curtis, A. & Park, J. (1989). The Skills of English: An Integrated Course of

Language and Literature-Form 3. Nairobi: Oxford University Press.

Cleary,S. (2008).Communication: A hands on approach. Cape town: Juta

Crews, Schor & Hennessay. (1993). The Borzoi Handbook for Writers. New York: McGraw-Hill

Kenya Institute of Education (KIE). (1989). Integrated English: A course for the Kenya

Secondary schools Students’ Book 3. Nairobi: Jomo Kenyatta Foundation

Makenzi and Kiplagat, J. (1999). A University Course in Library Skills. Njoro: Egerton

University.

MCDough, J. (1978). Listening to Lectures. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Mohindra, H. (1971). Modern Method English. Book Three. Nairobi: Thomas Nelson and Sons

Ltd.

Muchiri, .N. (1993). Communication Skills: A self Study Course for Universities and Colleges.

Mutua, L.W. (1992). Study and Communication Skills. Nairobi: Macmillan Ltd.

Pauley, S.E. and Riordan, D.G. (2000). Technical Report Writing Today. A.I.T.B. Houghton

Miffin Company

Sheal, P. and Omujuwa, R. (1985). Advanced English Course for College and University in

Africa. London: Longman.

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Stanton, N. (2004). Mastering Communication. (4th ed). New York: Palgrave- Macmillan.

Wyrick, J. (1987). Steps to Writing Well. New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston.

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