EXPLAINING THE PSYCHOLOGICAL

THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION

1st Semester AY 2023-2024

RUBEN M. NARRAZID JR. MSCJ

Instructor III

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 PSYCHOLOGICAL TRAIT THEORIES

Psychological theories of crime have a long history. In The English Convict,

Charles Goring (1870-1919) studied the mental characteristics of 3,000 English
convicts. He found little difference in the physical characteristics of criminals and
noncriminals, but he uncovered a significant relationship between crime and a
condition he referred to as defective intelligence, which involves such traits as
feeblemindedness, epilepsy, insanity, and defective social instinct. Goring believed
criminal behavior was inherited and could, therefore, be controlled by regulating the
reproduction of families who produced mentally defective’ children.
Gabriel Tarde (1843-1904) is the forerunner of modern-day learning theorists.
Tarde believed people learn from one another through a process of imitation. Tarde’s
ideas are quite similar to modern society are theorists who believe that both
interpersonal observed behavior, such as a movie or television, can influence
criminality.
Since the pioneering work of people like Tarde and Goring, psychologists,
psychiatrists, and other mental health professionals have long played an active role
in formulating criminological theory. In their quest to understand and treat all
varieties of abnormal mental conditions, psychologists have encountered clients
whose behavior falls within categories society has labeled as criminal, deviant,
violent, and antisocial.
This section is organized along the lines of the pre-dominant psychological
views most closely associated with the causes of criminal behaviour. Some
psychologists view antisocial behaviour from a psychoanalytic or
psychodynamic perspective: their focus is on early childhood experience and its
effect on personality. In contrast, behaviourists stress so social learning and
behaviour modelling as the keys to criminality. Cognitive theorists analyse human
perception and how it affects behaviour.

A. LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of the lesson, you can:
1. differentiate the Psychodynamic, Behavioural, and Cognitive theories;
2. discuss how attachment theory could contribute to juvenile delinquency;
3. explain and give examples on how the High IQ and Low IQ can commit crimes.
4. differentiate the concept of nature and nurture theory
5. decide on the case of “Heinz Steals the Drug”

B. TIME ALLOTMENT: 6 HOURS

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C. DISCUSSION

What is Psychology?
Psychology is about people and focuses on the study of the human mind and
behaviour.

What is Psychological Criminology?

It encompasses science of behavior and mental processes of a criminal. Here,
the focus is “individual's criminal behavior how it is acquired, evoked, maintained or
modified.” It considers both the social and personality factors and how these are
mediated by mental processes.

Difference between Criminal Psychology and Criminal Psychiatry

Criminal Psychology is also referred to as Criminological Psychology which
is the study of the wills, thoughts, intentions, and reactions of criminals and all that
partake in the criminal behaviour. An important aspect of forensic psychology is the
ability to testify in court as an expert witness, reformulating psychological findings
into the legal language of the courtroom, providing information to legal personnel in
a way that can be understood while Criminal Psychiatry, also called Forensic
Psychiatry, is the application of psychiatric knowledge to offender populations with
respect to the juxtaposition between mental disorder and Criminal behavior and
provides a helpful explanation of mens rea and actus reus. One of the roles of
forensic psychiatrists is to inform the court whether the accused is mentally
disordered. Forensic Psychiatry is a sub-specialty of psychiatry and is related to
criminology. It encompasses the interface between law and psychiatry. A forensic
psychiatrist provides services such as determination of competency to stand trial to a
court of law to facilitate the adjudicative process and provide treatment like
medications and psychotherapy to criminals.

Who is a Criminal Psychologist? Also known as a Forensic Psychologist is a

mental health professional who works within the justice system. A criminal
psychologist creates suspect profiles for law enforcement agencies; diagnoses
offenders who might be criminally insane, oversees jury selections, testifies in legal
cases, and even evaluates children in custody hearings. Psychiatrists and
psychologists are licensed professionals that can assess both mental and physical
states. Profilers look for patterns in behavior to typify the individual(s) behind a
crime. A group effort attempts to answer the most common psychological questions:
If there is a risk of a sexual predator re-offending if put back in society; if an offender
is competent to stand trial; whether or not an offender was sane/insane at the time of
the offense.

PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE
Psychodynamic or psychoanalytic psychology was originated by Viennese
psychiatrist Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) and has since remained a prominent

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segment of psychological theory. Freud believed that we all carry with us residue of
the most significant emotional attachments of our childhood, which then guide
future interpersonal relationships.
The psychodynamic theory holds that the human personality contains a three-part
structure.
The ID is the primitive part of an individual's mental makeup present at birth.
It represents unconscious biological drives for sex, food, and other life-sustaining
necessities. The id follows the pleasure principle: it requires instant gratification
without concern for the rights of others. The ego develops early in life when a child
begins to learn that his or her wishes cannot be instantly gratified.

The EGO is that part of the personality that compensates for the demands of
the id by helping the individual guide his or her actions to remain within the
boundaries of social convention. The ego is guided by the reality principle: it takes
into account what is practical and conventional by societal standards.

The SUPEREGO develops as a result of incorporating within the personality

the moral standards and values of parents, community, and significant others. It is
the moral aspect of an individual's personality; it passes judgments on behavior. The
superego is divided into two parts: conscience and ego ideal. Conscience tells
what is right and wrong. It forces the ego to control the id and directs the individual
into morally acceptable and responsible behaviors, which may not be pleasurable.

In sum, psychodynamic theory suggests that criminal offenders are frustrated

and aggravated. They are constantly drawn to past events that occurred in their early
childhood. Because of a negligent, unhappy, or miserable childhood, which is most
often characterized by a lack of love and/or nurturing, a criminal offender has a weak
(or absent) ego. Most important, research suggests that having a weak ego is linked
with poor or absence of social etiquette, immaturity, and dependence on others.
Research further suggests that individuals with weak egos may be more likely to
engage in drug abuse.
Freud’s Model of the Personality Structure

Personality Structure Guiding Principle Description

ID Pleasure Principle Unconscious biological drives.

Requires instant gratification.
EGO Reality principle Helps the personality refine the
demands of ID. Helps person adapt to
conventions.
SUPEREGO The conscience The moral aspect of personality.

Freud's Model of Personality Development (Psychosexual Stages)

a. Oral Stage (0-18 Months). This is the first psychosexual stage in which the
infant’s source of id gratification is the mouth. The infant gets pleasure from sucking

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and swallowing. Later when he has teeth, the infant enjoys the aggressive pleasure of
biting and chewing. A child who is frustrated at this stage may develop an adult
personality that is characterized by pessimism, envy, and suspicion. The
overindulged child may develop to be optimistic, gullible, and full of admiration for
others.

b. Anal Stage (18 Months-3 Years). When parents decide to toilet train their
children during the anal stage, the children learn how much control they can exert
over others with anal sphincter muscles. Children can have the immediate pleasure
of expelling feces, but that may cause their parents to punish them.
This represents the conflict between the id, which derives pleasure from the
expulsion of bodily wastes, and the super-ego which represents external pressure to
control bodily functions. If the parents are too lenient in this conflict, it will result in
the formation of an anal expulsive character of the child who is disorganized,
reckless, and defiant. Conversely, a child may opt to retain faces, thereby spiting his
parents, and may develop an anal-retentive character that is neat, stingy, and
obstinate.

c. Phallic Stage (3-6 years). Genitals become the primary source of pleasure at
this stage. The child’s erotic pleasure focuses on ‘masturbation, that is, on self-
manipulation of the genitals. He develops a sexual attraction to the -parent of the
opposite sex; boys develop unconscious desires for their mother and become rivals
with their father for her affection. This reminiscent of Little Hans’s case study. So,
the boys develop a fear that their father will punish them for these feelings
(castration anxiety), so decide to identify with him rather than fight him, As a result,
the boy develops masculine characteristics and represses his Sexual feelings towards
his mother. This is known as:
1. Oedipus Complex. This refers to an instance where boys build up a warm
and loving relationship with mothers (mommy’s boy).
2. Electra Complex. This refers to an occasion where girls experience an
intense emotional attachment for their fathers (daddy’s girl).

Note: The Oedipus Complex is named for the king of Thebes who killed his
father and married his mother.

d. Latency Stage (6-11 Years). Sexual interest is relatively inactive in this stage.
Sexual energy is going through the process of sublimation and is being converted into
an interest in schoolwork, riding bicycles, playing house, and sports.
e. Genital Stage (11 Years on). This refers to the start of puberty and the genital
stage; there is renewed interest in obtaining sexual pleasure through the genitals.
Masturbation often becomes frequent and leads to orgasm for the first time. Sexual
and romantic interests in others also become a central motive.

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 Interest now turns to heterosexual relationships. The lesser fixation the child
has in earlier stages, the more chances of developing a “normal” personality and thus
developing healthy meaningful relationships with those of the opposite sex.

Psychological Theories and Studies on Crime and Delinquency in

Relations to Freud’s Theory.

a. August Aichorn. The work of Aichorn entitled Wayward Youth in 1935 was
perhaps most closely associated with the study of criminality compared to Sigmund
Freud. Aichorn felt that exposure to stressful social environments did not
automatically produce crime or violence, after all, most people are exposed to
extreme stress and do not engage in serious forms of criminality. Aichorn felt that
stress only produced crime in those who had a particular mental state known as
latent delinquency. According to Aichorn, latent delinquency results from
inadequate childhood socialization and manifests itself in the need for immediate
gratification (impulsivity), a lack of empathy for others, and the inability to feel guilt.
Since Aichorn’s early work, psychoanalysts have come to view violent criminals as
“id-dominated” individuals who are unable to control their impulsive, pleasure-
seeking drives. Because of childhood neglect or abuse, violence-prone individuals
often suffer from weak or damaged “egos” that render them unable to deal with
stressful circumstances within conventional society. It is also argued that youth with
weak egos are immature and easily led into crime and violence by deviant peers. In
their most extreme form, underdeveloped egos (or superegos) can lead to “psychosis”
and the inability to feel sympathy for the victims of crime. In sum, psychodynamic
theories depict the violent offender as an impulsive, easily frustrated person
dominated by events or issues in early childhood.

Aichorn identified two further categories of criminal:

1. Those with fully developed consciences but identified with their criminal parents,
and
2. Those who had been allowed to do whatever they like by overindulgent parents.

b. David Abrahamsen. Abrahamsen maintained that criminal behavior is a

symptom of a more complex personality distortions; there is a conflict between ego
and super ego, as well as the inability to control impulsive and pleasure-seeking
drives, because these influences are rooted in early childhood and later reinforced
through reactions to familial and social stresses.
c. Cyril Burt. The study of Burt Young Delinquent published in 1925 gives the
General Emotionality Theory. According to him, ‘many offenses can be traced to
either an excess or a deficiency of a particular. the instinct which accounts for the
tendency of many criminals to be weak-willed or easily led. Fear and absconding may
be due to the impulse of fear. The callous type of offenders may be due to the
deficiency in the primitive emotion of love and an excuse of the instinct of hate.

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d. William Healy. Healy in his Delinquency study published in 1915 claimed that
crime is an expression of the mental content of the individual. The frustration of the
individual causes emotional discomfort; personality demands removal of pain, and
pain is eliminated by substitute behavior, that is, crime delinquency of the individual.
Healy and Bonner (1936) conducted a study of 105 pairs of brothers where one
was a persistent offender and the other a non-offender. It was found that only 19 of
the offenders and 30 of the non-offenders had experienced good quality family
conditions. These findings suggested that circumstances within a household may be
favorable for one child but not the sibling. It then proposed that the latter had not
made an emotional attachment to a “good parent”, hence impeding the development
of the superego.

e. Walter Bromberg. Bromberg in his study on Crime and the Mind, published in
1948 noted that criminality is the result of emotional immaturity. A person is
emotionally matured if he has learned to control his emotion effectively and who
lives at peace with himself and harmony with the standards of conduct which are
acceptable to society. An emotionally immature person rebels against rules and
regulations, engage in usual activities, and experiences a feeling of guilt due to an
inferiority complex.

3. John Bowlby’s Attachment Theory. Bowlby (1969), influenced by Freud’s

Psychoanalytic Theory, hypothesized that both infants and mothers have evolved a
biological need to stay in contact with each other. He believed that attachment
behaviors (such as ‘proximity seeking) are instinctive and will be activated by any
conditions that seem to threaten the achievement of proximity, such as separation,
insecurity, and fear. Bowlby said that the relationship between the infant and its
mother during the first five years of life was most crucial to socialization. The
disruption of this primary relationship could lead to a higher: incidence of juvenile
delinquency, emotional difficulties, and antisocial behavior.

Concepts of Attachment Theory

a. A child has an innate (i.e./ inborn) need to attach to one main attachment figure
(usually, the child’s mother or parents).
b. A child should receive the continuous care of this single most important
attachment figure for approximately the first two years of life.
c. The long-term consequences of maternal deprivation might include the following:
1. delinquency,
2. reduced intelligence,
3. increased aggression,
4, depression, and
5. affectionless psychopathy

What is Affectionless Psychopathy? According to Bowlby, it refers to the

inability to show affection or concern for others; a condition that involves lack of

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emotional development, lack of guilt, and inability to form meaningful and lasting
relationships. Such individuals act on impulse with little regard for the consequences
of their actions. For example, showing no guilt for antisocial behavior.

d. Robertson and Bowlby (1952) believed that short-term separation from an

attachment figure leads to distress (i.e., the PDD model). The three progressive
stages of distress. under PDD model are:

1. Protest. The child cries, screams, and protests angrily when the
parent leaves. They will try to cling on to the parent to stop them from leaving.

2. Despair. The child’s protesting begins to stop, and they appear to

be calmer although still upset. The child refuses others’ attempts for comfort
and often seems withdrawn and uninterested in anything.

3. Detachment. If the separation continues the child will start to

engage with other people again. They will reject the caregiver on their return
and show strong signs of anger.

e. The child’s attachment relationship with their primary caregiver leads to the
development of an internal working model.

44 Thieves Study of Bowlby in 1944: Findings

1. More than half of the juvenile thieves had been separated from their mothers for
longer than six months during their first five years and only two had had such a
separation.

2. He also found 14 of the young thieves (32%) showed ‘‘affectionless psychopathy”

(they were not able to care about or feel affection for others).

3. He also found that 86% of the “affectionless psychopaths” in the group of thieves
had experienced a long period of maternal separation beforethe age of 5 years (they
had spent most of their early years in residential homes or hospitals and were not
often visited by their families).
4. Only 17% of the thieves were not diagnosed as affectionless psychopaths had
experienced maternal separation. Only 2 of the control group had experienced a
prolonged separation in their first 5 years.

44 Thieves Study of Bowlby: Conclusions

1. Bowlby concluded that maternal separation/deprivation in the child's early life
caused permanent emotional damage.

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2. He diagnosed maternal separation/deprivation as a condition and called it
Affectionless Psychopathy.

Evaluation of Bowlby’s Theory

Bifulco, Harris, and Brown (1992) supported the maternal
separation/deprivation hypothesis. They studied 250 women who had lost mothers,
through separation or death, before they were 17. They found out that the loss of
their mother through separation or death doubles the risk of depressive and anxiety
disorders in adult women. The rate of depression was the highest in women whose
mothers had died before the child reached the age of 6.

4. Sheldon Glueck’s Physique and Delinquency Study.

Glueck’s study in 1956 of 500 delinquents and 500 non-delinquents

extensively analyzed social background, home-life, physical characteristics,
intellectual ability, psychiatric states, emotion and temperament of the respondents,
and identified socio-cultural, biological, and psychological factors in delinquency. '
He concluded that while a host of different factors shows associations with
delinquency, the major causes of delinquency are “problems in the home” (parental
separation, parental drunkenness, physical or mental ailments, poor home
management, lack of child supervision, little show of affection), and so forth.

5. Erik Erikson.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of Development led to the emergence of the

term identity crisis and he believed that it was one of the most important conflicts
people face in development. Erikson said that an. identity crisis refers to a time of
intensive analysis and exploration of different ways of looking at oneself.

The theory of Erickson focuses on eight Stages; each stage plays a major role
in the development of personality and psychological ‘skills. Erikson said there are
eight stages, coinciding with infancy to late adulthood, in which a person experiences
different ‘challenges’. Each stage requires the successful completion of the prior stage
to move onto the next, otherwise incomplete stages may reappear in the future and
pose potential problems. However, absolute perfection or mastery of a stage is not
necessary.

Erickson’s Psychosocial Theory of Development simply says that people who

develop mistrust, shame or doubt, guilt, inferiority, role confusion, isolation,
stagnation, and despair may exhibit inappropriate, abnormal, aggressive, unlawful,
or criminal behavior.

While Freud’s theory had focused on the psychosexual stages or psychosexual

theory [5 stages] aspects of development, Erikson modified it by adding other

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influences that helped broaden [8 stages} and expand psychoanalytic theory. He also
contributed to our understanding of personality as it is developed and shaped
throughout the lifespan.

Erik Erikson’s 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development

Stage Basic Important Outcome
Conflict events
Infancy Trust vs. feeding Children develop a sense of trust
(0-18 Mistrust when caregivers provide reliability.
months care and affection. A lack of this will
lead to mistrust.
Early Autonomy Toilet Children need to develop a sense of
childhood vs. Shame training personal control over physical skills
(2 to 3 yrs and Doubt and a sense of independence. Success
old) leads to a feeling of autonomy, and
failure results in feelings of shame
and doubt.
Preschool (3 Initiative Exploration Children need to begin asserting
to 5 yrs old) vs. control and power over the
Inferiority environment. Success in this stage
leads to a sense of purpose. Children
who try to exert too much power
experience disapproval, resulting in a
sense of guilt.
School Age Industry School Children need to cope with new social
(6 to 11 yrs vs. and academic demands. Success leads
old) Inferiority to a sense of competence, while
failure results in feelings of
inferiority.
Adolescence Identity vs. Social Teens need to develop a sense of self
(12 to 18 Role Relationships and personal identity. Success leads
yrs) Confusion to an ability to stay true to yourself.
while failure leads to role confusion
and a weak sense of self.
Young Intimacy Relationships Young adults need to form intimate
Adults (19 vs. loving relationships with other
to 40 yrs Isolation people. Success leads to strong
old) relationships, while failure results in
loneliness and isolation.
Middle Generativit Work and adults need to create or nurture
Adulthood y vs. Parenthood things that will outlast them, often by
(40 to 65 Stagnation having children or creating a positive
yrs old) change that benefits other people.
Success leads to feelings of usefulness
and accomplishment, while failure
results in shallow involvement in the
world.

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 Maturity Ego Reflection on Older adults need to look back on life
(65 yrs old Identity vs. life and feel a sense of fulfillment. Success
to death ) Despair at this stage leads to a feeling of
wisdom, while failure results in
regret, bitterness, and despair.

BEHAVIORAL THEORIES
Behavior theory maintains that human actions are developed through learning
experiences. Rather than focusing on unconscious personality traits or cognitive
development patterns produced early in childhood, behavior theorists are concerned
with the actual behaviors people engage in during their daily lives. The major
premise of behavior theory is that people alter their behavior according to the
reactions it receives from others. Behavior is supported by rewards and extinguished
by negative reactions or punishments. The behaviorist theory is quite complex with
many different subareas. Concerning criminal activity, the behaviorist views crimes,
especially violent acts, as learned responses to life situations that do not necessarily
represent abnormal or morally immature responses.

Behavior theory is originally created by John B. Watson (1878-1958) and

popularized by Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904-1990) or as B.F Skinner.

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Social learning is the branch of behavioral theory most relevant to
criminology. It was created by Albert S. Bandura (1973), a Canadian psychologist
who argued that people are not born with the ability to act violently but that they
learn to be aggressive through their life experiences. The experiences include
personally observing others acting aggressively to achieve some goal or watching
people being rewarded for violent acts on television or in the movies. Bandura
claimed that people learn to act aggressively when, as children, they model their
behavior after the violent acts of adults. For example, a boy who sees his father
repeatedly striking his mother with impunity is the one most likely to grow up to
become a battering parent and husband (Siegel, 2004).
Social Learning and Violence
Bandura (1973) believed that violence as something learned through a process called
behavior modeling. Aggressive acts are usually modeled after 3 principal sources:

1. Family members. Bandura reports that children from families where

parents show aggressive behaviors inside their homes would likely show similar
behaviors when dealing with others.

2. Environmental experiences. People who reside in areas where violence

is a daily occurrence are more likely to act violently than.those who dwell in low-
crime areas which norm stresses or shows conventional behavior.

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 3. Mass media. Films and television shows, which are accessible to people of
all ages and ‘social status, commonly depict violence graphically. Moreover, in mass
media, violence is often portrayed as acceptable behavior, especially for heroes who
never have to face legal consequences for their actions (Siegel, 2004).

COGNITIVE THEORY
Cognitive theory is a branch of psychology that studies the perception of
reality and the mental process required to understand the world we live in. It focuses
on mental processes the way people perceive and mentally represent the world
around them. Adolescents who use information properly, who are better conditioned
to make reasoned judgments, and who can make quick and reasoned decisions when
facing emotion-laden are the ones that can avoid antisocial behavior choices. The
cognitive perspective contains several subgroups such as the moral and intellectual
development branch, which is concerned with how people morally represent and
reason about the world.
Jean William Fritz Piaget (1896-1980), a Swiss psychologist, was the first to
make a systematic study of the acquisition of understanding in children based on his
cognitive development theory. He hypothesized that a child's reasoning processes
develop in an orderly manner from birth onwards, and it has 4 stages (Siegel et al.,
2007).
Stage Age Range Description
Sensorimotor 0-2 years Coordination of senses with motor response, sensory
curiosity about the world. Language used for
demands and cataloguing. Object performance
developed.
Preoperational 2-7 years Symbolic thinking, use of proper syntax and
grammar to express full concepts: Imagination and
intuition are strong, but complex abstract-thought
still difficult. Conservation developed.
Concrete 7-11 years Concepts attached to concrete situations. Time,
Operational space, and quantity are understood and can be
applied, but not as independent concepts.
Formal 11+ Theoretical, hypothetical, and counterfactual
Operational thinking. Abstract logic and reasoning. Strategy and
planning become possible. Concepts leamed in one
context can be applied to another.

MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY

Lawrence A. Kohlberg (1927-1987) expanded Piaget's theory of cognitive
development and applied the concept of development stages to issues in criminology.
His theory of moral development (1973) was dependent on the thinking of the former
(Piaget) and the American philosopher John Dewey. He suggested that people travel
through stages of moral development and that it is possible that serious offenders
have a moral orientation that differs from those law-abiding citizens. He and his
associates found out that criminals were found to be lower in their moral judgment

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development than non-criminals of the same social background. Moral development
theory suggests that people who obey the law simply to avoid punishment or who
have outlooks mainly characterized by self-interest are more likely to commit crimes
than those who view the law as something that benefit all of society and who honor
the rights of others. (Siegel et al, 2007). Kohlberg's stages of development are as
follows:
Level/Stage Age Range Description

I: Obedience/ Infancy No difference between doing the right thing and

Punishment avoiding punishment.

I: Self-Interest Pre-school Interest shifts to rewards rather than punishment-

effort is made to secure greatest benefit for oneself.

II: Conformity School-age The “good boy/girl” level. Effort is made to secure
and approval and maintain friendly relations with others.
interpersonal
accord

II: authority School-age Orientation toward fixed rules. The purpose of

and social morality is maintaining the social order.
order Interpersonal accord is expanded to include the
entire society.

III: social Teens Mutual benefit, reciprocity. Morally right and legally
contract right are not always the same. Utilitarian rules that
make life better for everyone.

III: Universal Adulthood Morality is based on principles that transcend

Principles mutual benefit.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

Many parents have noticed that their children do not pay attention to them-
they run around and do things in their own way. Sometimes this inattention is a
function of age; in other instances, it is a symptom of attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), in which a child shows a developmentally
inappropriate lack of attention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity. The various
symptoms of ADHD are described in Table below.
About 3 percent of U.S. children, most often boys, are believed to suffer from
this disorder, and it is the most common reason children are referred to mental
health clinics. The condition has been associated with poor school performance,
grade retention, placement in special needs classes, bullying, stubbornness, and lack
of response to discipline.

Symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Lack of Attention
-Frequently fails to finish projects

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-Does not seem to pay attention
-Does not sustain interest in play activities
-Cannot sustain concentration on schoolwork or related tasks
-is easily distracted

Impulsivity
-Frequently acts without thinking
-Often “cails out” in class
-Does not want to wait his or her turn in lines or games
-Shifts from activity to activity
-Cannot organize tasks or work
-Requires constant supervision

Hyperactivity
-Constantly runs around and climbs on things
-Shows excessive motor activity while asleep
-Cannot sit still; is constantly fidgeting
-Does not remain in his or her seat in class
-Is constantly on the go like a “motor”

PERSONALITY AND CRIME

Personality can be defined as something that makes us what we are and also
that which makes us different from others (Clark, Boccaccini, Caillouet, & Chaplin,
2007). Ideally, personality is stable over time. Examinations of the relationship
between personality and crime have often yielded inconsistent results. One of the
most well-known theories of personality used to examine this relationship is the Big
Five model of personality. This model provides a vigorous structure in which most
personality characteristics can be categorized. This model suggests that five domains
account for individual personality differences: (1) Neuroticism, (2) Extraversion, (3)
Openness, (4) Agreeableness, and (5) Conscientiousness (Clark et al., 2007).

Neuroticism involves emotional stability. Individuals who score high on this

domain often demonstrate anger and sadness and have irrational ideas,
uncontrollable impulses, and anxiety. In contrast, persons who score low on
Neuroticism are often described by others as even-tempered, calm, and relaxed.

The second domain, Extraversion, is characterized by sociability,

excitement, and stimulation. Individuals who score high on Extraversion (extraverts)
are often very active, talkative, and assertive. They also are more optimistic about the
future. In contrast, introverts are often characterized by being reserved, independent,
and shy (Clark et al., 2007).

The third domain is Openness, referring to individuals who have an active

imagination, find pleasure in beauty, are attentive to their inner feelings, have a

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preference for variety, and are intellectually curious. Individuals who score high on
Openness are willing to entertain unique or novel ideas, maintain unconventional
values, and experience positive and negative emotions more so than closed-minded
individuals. In contrast, persons who score low in Openness often prefer the familiar,
behave in conventional manners, and have a conservative viewpoint (Clark et al.,
2007).

The fourth domain is Agreeableness. This domain is related to

interpersonal tendencies. Individuals who score high on this domain are considered
warm, altruistic, soft-hearted, forgiving, sympathetic, and trusting. In contrast, those
who are not agreeable are described as hard-hearted, intolerant, impatient, and
argumentative.

The fifth domain Conscientiousness focuses on a person’s ability to control

impulses and exercise self-control. Individuals who score high on Conscientiousness
are described as organized, thorough, efficient, determined, and strong-willed. Also,
those who are conscientious are more likely to achieve high academic and
occupational desires. In contrast, people who score low on this domain are thought
to be careless, lazy, and more likely to assign fault to others than to accept blame
themselves (Clark et al., 2007).

Some psychological studies have examined the relationship between

personality and criminality. In the investigation of the differences of personality
between criminals and non-criminals carried out in prisons, it showed that inmates
are typically more impulsive, hostile, self-centered, and immature than non-
criminals. In another study, psychiatrist-psychologists concluded that criminals
share abnormal thinking patterns that lead to decisions to commit crimes. They
argued that criminals are “angry” people who feel a sense of superiority, expect not to
be held accountable for their acts, and have a highly inflated self-image. Any
perceived attack on their glorified self-image elicits a strong reaction, often a violent
one.

In general, studies on criminals’ personality characteristics have revealed

some relationships. However, most data did not reveal any significant differences
between criminal and noncriminal psychology. Personality testing has not
differentiated criminals from non-criminals.

Mental Disturbances and Crimes

Criminal behavior is also linked to some mental disturbances. These
disturbances or disorders come in many forms as follows:

1. Mental Deficiency- This is a condition of arrested or incomplete development of

the mind existing | before the age of eighteen, whether arising from inherent causes
or induced by disease or injury. Mentally deficient persons are prone to commit

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malicious damage to property and unnatural sex offenses. They may commit violent
crimes but not crimes involving the use of mentality.
Classes of Mental Deficiency:
a. Idiots- persons with a mental defect to a degree that they are unable to
guard themselves against common physical dangers. Their mentality is comparable
to that of a two; year old child.

b. Imbeciles -persons with a mental defect, which though not amounting to

idiocy, is yet so pronounced that they are incapable of managing themselves or their
affairs.
c. Feeble-minded - persons with a mental defect, which though not
amounting to imbecility, is yet so pronounced that they require care, supervision
and control for their own or protection of others, or in the case of children, they
appear to be permanently incapable of receiving proper benefit from instruction in
ordinary schools.

d. Morally defective- persons with strong vicious or criminal propensities.

They require care and supervision and control for their own or the protection of
others.

2. Psychosis -This is a common category of mental disorder among youthful

offenders and habitual criminals. Psychosis can be functional or organic. It is
characterized by an infantile level of response, lack of conscience, lack of affection to
others, and aggression to ‘environment and other people. Psychotic people lose
contact with reality and have difficulty distinguishing reality from fantasy. Most of
the time they have severe breakdowns in their ability to communicate and they
become isolated from others.

The most common types of psychoses are the following:

a. Schizophrenia -This is manifested by delusions or hallucinations or a
clear-cut thought disorder. This is also known as dementia praecox. Sometimes
schizophrenics are not logical in their thoughts, as shown by their language. Their
appearance is dilapidated, and they are liable to impulsive acts and may commit
suicide.

b. Paranoia - It is a psychotic delusion characterized by incorrect or

unreasonable ideas which can be seen as truth by people suffering from this disorder.
Paranoia is a Greek term that means ‘a mind beside itself.” Paranoid people are
suspicious and have that feeling of being persecuted by others, referred to as
psychotic delusion, In the paranoid’s mind the delusion system is firm and is
accompanied by clear and orderly thinking because he or she can give rational,
distinct, and clear reasons for his or her thoughts.

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3. Neurosis -This is another common type of mental disorder linked to criminal
behavior. Neurotic behaviors are those that do not grossly violate social norms or
represent severely disorganized ersonalities. Most neurotics are aware of their
problems and may not seek professional help. They do not require hospitalization
but are guilty, unhappy, anxious people.

The most common neuroses with their respective symptoms are the following:
a. Neurasthenia -This is a condition of weakened nerves that manifests in
fatigue and nervousness and sometimes in physical symptoms such as pain.

b. Anxiety -It is also known as “anxiety state” or “anxiety reaction,” with the
person -feeling anxious, fearful or apprehensive. The person may also be irritable
and restless and has chronic tension, poor concentration and overreaction to noise.

c. Obsessive-compulsive neurosis- This is the uncontrollable or

irresistible impulse to do something. There may be an active desire to resist this
irrational behavior; but the person is prevented by his unconscious motives to act out
his difficulty or to suffer miserably in his fear. This neurosis may be any of the
following forms:
1). Kleptomania - the compulsive desire to steal.
2) Dipsomania -the compulsive desire to drink alcohol
3) Pyromania -the compulsive desire to set fire.
4) Homicidal compulsion the irresistible urge to kill somebody

d. Hysteria -This refers to an unhealthy or senseless emotional outburst

coupled with violent emotional outbreaks.

e. Phobia -It is generally called exaggerated fears of things that normal

people fear to some degree, and fears of things that ordinary people do not
fear.
Name of Phobia Object of fear
Agoraphobia Open, crowded places
Sociophobia People or social situations
Acrophobia Heights
Claustrophobia Enclosed spaces
Homophobia Blood
Autophobia Being alone
Scotophobia/ achluophobia darkness
Pyrophobia fire
Xenophobia Strangers, foreigners or aliens

f. Depression -People who suffer from depressive neurosis generally have

feelings of pain, hurt, unpleasantness, sadness, rejection, self-pity,
helplessness, despair, boredom, pessimism, and rejection. When these

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 feelings become pervasive and affect all aspects of a person’s life, depression is
said to occur,

4. Epilepsy -This is a condition characterized by compulsive seizures and a

tendency to mental deterioration. The disease is characterized by reduced emotional
control, stubbornness and irresistibility, impulsiveness, inconsistency in : feeling,
irritability manifested either by sudden outbursts of anger and vicious conduct. Just
before the convulsion, the epileptic may have mental confusion, hallucination, or
delusion, and may commit violent crimes without provocation. After the attack, he
may be in a state of altered consciousness and may wander from one place to another
and inflict bodily harm. In the course of the mild attack, he may unconsciously
perform indecent acts, breach of the peace, and varying degrees of crime of violence.

INTELLIGENCE AND CRIME

Many early criminologists maintained that many delinquents and criminals
have a below-average intelligence quotient and that low IQ is a cause of their
criminality. Criminals were believed to have inherently substandard intelligence, and
thus, they seemed naturally inclined to commit more crimes than more intelligent
persons. Furthermore, it was thought that if authorities could determine which
individuals had low IQs, they might identify potential criminals before they
committed socially harmful acts. Social scientists had a captive group of subjects in
juvenile training schools and penal institutions, and they began to measure the
correlation between IQ and crime by testing adjudicated offenders. Thus, inmates of
penal institutions were used as a test group around which numerous theories about
intelligence were built, leading ultimately to the nature-versus-nurture controversy
that is still going on today.

Nature theory
Nature theory argues that intelligence is largely determined genetically, that
ancestry determines IQ, and that low intelligence, as demonstrated by low IQ, is
linked to criminal behaviors When the newly developed IQ tests were administered
to inmates of prisons and juvenile training schools in the first decades of the century,
the natural position gained support because a very large proportion of the inmates
scored low on the tests.-During his studies in 1920, Henry Goddard found that many
institutionalized persons were what he considered “feebleminded”; he concluded that
at least half of all juvenile delinquents were mental defectives. In 1926, William
Healy and Augusta Bronner tested groups of delinquent boys in Chicago and Boston
and found that 37 percent were subnormal in intelligence. They concluded that
delinquents were 5 to 10 times more likely to be mentally deficient than normal boys.
These and other early studies were embraced as proof that low IQ scores indicated
potentially delinquent children and that a correlation existed between innate low
intelligence and deviant behavior. IQ tests were believed to measure the inborn
genetic makeup of individuals, and many criminologists accepted the idea that

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individuals with substandard IQs were predisposed toward delinquency and adult
criminality.

Nurture theory
The rise of culturally sensitive explanations of human behavior in the 1930s
led to the nurture school of intelligence. The nurture theory states that intelligence
must be viewed as partly biological but primarily sociological because intelligence is
not inherited, low-IQ parents do not necessarily produce low-IQ children. Nurture
theorists discredited the notion that persons commit crime because they have low
IQs. Instead, they postulated that environmental stimulation from parents, relatives,
social contacts, schools, peer groups, and innumerable others creates a child’s IQ
level and that low IQs result from an environment that also encourages delinquent
and criminal behavior. Thus, if low IQ scores are recorded among criminals, these
scores may reflect criminals’ cultural backgrounds, not their mental ability.
Studies challenging the assumption that people automatically committed
criminal acts because they had below-average IQs began to appear as early as the
1920s. John Slawson studied 1,543 delinquent boys in New York institutions and
compared them with a control group of New York City boys in 1926. Slawson found
that although 80 percent of the delinquents achieved lower scores in abstract verbal
intelligence, delinquents were about normal in mechanical aptitude and nonverbal
intelligence. These results indicated the possibility of cultural bias in portions of the
IQ tests. He also found that there was no relationship between the number of arrests,
the types of offenses, and IQ.
In 1931, Edwin Sutherland evaluated IQ studies of criminals and delinquents
and noted significant variation in the findings, which disproved Goddard's notion
‘that criminals were “feebleminded.” Goddard attributed discrepancies to testing and
scoring methods rather than to differences in the mental ability of criminals.
However, Sutherland's research all but put an end to the belief that time was caused
by “feeblemindedness”; the IQ-crime link was all but forgotten in the criminological
literature.

Intelligence Quotient Emotional Intelligence and Mental Disorder

Research Studies
A. Intelligence Quotient (IQ).
The concept of IQ was developed by either the German psychologist and philosopher
Wilhelm Stern in 1912. However, In 1904 psychologist Alfred Binet was
commissioned by the French government to create a testing system to differentiate
intellectually normal children from those who were inferior. From Binet's work the
IQ scale called the "Binet Scale," (and later the "Simon-Binet Scale") was developed.
Lewis M. Terman revised the Simon-Binet IQ Scale, and in 1916 published the
Stanford Revision of the Binet-Simon Scale of Intelligence (also known as the
Stanford-Binet). The following scale resulted in classifying IQ scores:

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Intelligence Quotient Scale
1. Over 140 -Genius or almost genius
2. 120-140 -Very superior intelligence
3. 110-119 -Superior intelligence.
4. 90-109 -Average or normal intelligence
5. 80-89 -Below average
6. 70-79 -Borderline deficiency in intelligence
7. Under 70 -Feeble-mindedness

Scott Menard and Barbara Morse in 1984 studied 257 high ‘school students in
San Diego, California, measuring both IQ and self-reported delinquency. IQ was
correlated with nonserious crime-such as petty theft, liquor violations, vandalism,
truancy, and running away. IQ was correlated with serious crime-such as gang fights,
auto theft, grand theft, and robbery.

Two Groups of Intelligence Quotient,

1. High IQ and Genius.IQ. Genius or near-genius IQ is considered to start around
140 to-145. Less than 1/4 of 1 percent fall into this category. Here are some common
designations on the IQ scale:
a. 180-200 Highest genius
b. 165-179 -High genius.
c. 145-164 Genius
d. 135-144 Very gifted
e. 125 134 Gifted
f. 115-124 Above average

2. Low IQ and Mental Retardation. An IQ under 70 is considered as "mental

retardation" or limited mental ability. 2.27% of the population falls below 70 on IQ
tests. The severity of the mental retardation is commonly broken into 4 levels:
a. 50-70. Mild mental retardation
b. 35-50 Moderate mental retardation
c. 20-35 Severe mental retardation
d. 1Q<20 Profound mental retardation

Low IQ Studies on Criminality and Delinquency

A body of research has also demonstrated that individuals with lower IQ levels
are more likely to commit more severe (and violent) offences or clear links between
lower intelligence and criminal behaviour. This may be because of deficits in the
“executive functions: of the brain, which are thought to be associated with abstract
reasoning and concept formation, as well as sustaining attention and concentration.
Additionally, evidence exists which demonstrates that criminal offenders have lower
IQ’s than non-offenders.
Hirschi and Hindelang in 1997 found out that low IQ correlates more strongly
with arrests and imprisonment than with self-reported crime, which has been taken

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as evidence for the detection hypothesis-that low-IQ criminals get caught more
easily. Similarly, they concluded that there is a causal explanation that links IQ to the
crime through school performance. Less intelligent students do less well in school,
which results in academic frustration. This frustration, in turn, weakens their
attachment and commitment to schooling, and a weakened bond to school, as per
social control theory, allows for more criminal behavior. Alternatively, it may be
expected that individuals with lower intelligence are more vulnerable to engage in
reactive-based offenses, as they have a reduced capacity to comprehend as well as
communicate effectively, particularly to possible interpersonal threats. In sum,
studies have found out that low-IQ offenders are more likely to be involved in crime
over their life course, that they are more likely to be involved in chronic property
crime, and that they are more likely to commit acts of violence.

High IQ Studies on Criminality and Delinquency

The aforesaid researches which revealed that people with low IQ are
associated with criminality do not mean that those with moderate to high IQ do not
commit crimes and do not exhibit any criminal behavior. It is worth to note that
among the notorious killers throughout history who could be mentioned here are
Charles Manson, Jack Unterweger, Ted Bundy, Albert DeSalvo, Rodney Alcala,
Charlene Gallego, Mark Hoffman, Nathan ' Leopold, Richard Loeb, and so forth
possessed an above-average intelligence, with the highest IQ of 210 being scored by
Nathan Leopold.

The presumption here is that those of higher IQs tend to commit crimes that
they can conceal or are harder to detect for a host of reasons while those of lower IQs
are easily detected and arrested.

This shows that being a criminal does not depend on the IQ (low or high) of a
person. However, the level of IQ may somehow define or establish the kind of crime a
person may commit; such that a White Crime is usually committed by a person with
high IQ and simple bag snatching is usually committed by a person with low IQ.

B. Emotional Intelligence (EI). EI is also known as Emotional Leadership

(EL), Emotional Quotient (EQ): and Emotional Intelligence Quotient
(EIQ), is the capability of individuals to recognize their own emotions and those of
others, discern between different feelings and label them appropriately, use
emotional information to guide thinking and behavior, and manage and/or adjust
emotions to adapt to environments or achieve one's goal(s). It is the ability to
perceive emotion, integrate emotion to facilitate thought, understand emotions, and
to regulate emotions to promote personal growth.

Low EI Studies on Criminality and Delinquency

Garcia-Sancho, Salguero, Fernandez-Berrocal in 2014 found out that

emotional intelligence is deeply related to aggression and offending. Also, the study
of Henley in 1999 revealed that individuals with low EI levels are more prone to risky

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behavior. They also have a hard time understanding situations from the perspective
of others and, therefore, tend to be less empathetic. Similarly, a study by Om
Prakash, Sengar, Chaudhury, and Singh in 2015 showed that the offender's group
had significantly lower EI in comparison to the normal group. The offender's group
was found to be impaired in dealing with the emotions, whether they deal with their
own emotions or dealing with other's emotions.

High EI Studies on Criminality and Delinquency

The study of Henley in 1999 showed that persons with high EI levels are more
able to moderate their emotions and are less impulsive. Also, research on Abraham
in 1999 revealed that individuals with higher EI levels have a better ability to
empathize, generally leading to their ability to conform better to organizational
requirements. A reduced capacity to regulate emotions could maintain an offending
pattern of behavior in criminals. Also, a reduced capacity to regulate emotions in
young people with offending difficulties could result in what is referred to as
emotions exerting their full “motivational force.” Similarly, a reduced capacity to
regulate anger, desire, and sexual arousal may result in an assault, theft, and sexual
assault, respectively. Some recent studies, consistently report El deficits in criminals.
In addition, some studies indicate that offenders are deficient in subcomponents of
EI such as social problem-solving, empathy, social competency, flexibility, impulse
control, and self-regard. Offenders also tend to generate fewer means for solving
problems, adopt aggressive problem-solving strategies, and precede impulsivity in
problem-solving. Interestingly, higher impulsivity relates to poorer social problem-
solving skills and the latter relates to greater aggression.

THREE TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE:

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
Emotional Quotient (EQ)
Social Quotient (SQ)

1. Intelligence Quotient (IQ):

This measures your comprehension, ability to solve math problems, retain
information, and recall subject matter.

2. Emotional Quotient (EQ):

this is the measure of your ability to maintain or be at peace with others; be
responsible; be honest; respect boundaries; be humble, genuine, and considerate.

3. Social Quotient (SQ):

this is the measure of your ability to build a network of friends and maintain it over a
long period of time.

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People who have higher EQ and SQ tend to do better in life than those with high IQ
but with low EQ and SQ. Most schools capitalize on improving IQ levels while EQ
and SQ are played down. A man of high IQ can end up being employed by a man of
high EQ and SQ, even though the latter has an average IQ.

Your EQ represents your CHARACTER;

your SQ represents your CHARISMA.
EQ and SQ make one COPE and manage better than the other.

Now there is a 4th one: A new paradigm

4. The Adversity Quotient (AQ):
the measure of your ability to go through a rough patch in life and
come out without losing your mind.
AQ determines
who will give up in face of troubles,
who will abandon their family or
who will decide quitting life's journey.

To parents,
Expose children to other areas of LIFE MORE THAN ACADEMICS.
Develop their EQ, SQ, and AQ. They should become MULTIFACETED human beings
who can do things independently of their parents.

Finally,
DO NOT PREPARE THE ROAD FOR YOUR CHILDREN ...rather, PREPARE YOUR
CHILDREN FOR THE ROAD.

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