Electrical Circuits

Lecture 6: Thevenin’s Theorem & Norton’s Theorem

Thevenin’s Theorem
- Thevenin’s theorem provides a technique by which the fixed part of the circuit is replaced by an
equivalent circuit.
- Thevenin’s theorem states that a two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a voltage source (𝑉𝑇ℎ ) in series with a resistor (𝑅𝑇ℎ ) where (𝑉𝑇ℎ ) is the open-
circuit voltage at the terminals and (𝑅𝑇ℎ ) is the input equivalent resistance at the terminals
when the independent sources are turned off.
o 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝑇ℎ
o 𝐼𝐿 =
𝑅𝑇ℎ +𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝐿
o 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑅𝐿 𝐼𝐿 = 𝑅 𝑉𝑇ℎ
𝑇ℎ +𝑅𝐿
o 𝑃𝐿 = 𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿
- For circuits with dependent sources
𝑉𝑜𝑐
o 𝑅𝑇ℎ =
𝐼𝑠𝑐
▪ 𝑉𝑜𝑐 : open circuit voltage
▪ 𝐼𝑠𝑐 : short circuit current

Norton’s Theorem
- Norton’s theorem is simply the source transformation of the Thevenin’s equivalent.
- Norton’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent
circuit consisting of a current source(𝐼𝑁 ) in parallel with a resistor (𝑅𝑁 ) where (𝐼𝑁 ) is the short-
circuit through the terminals and (𝑅𝑁 ) is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals
when the independent sources are turned off.
𝑉𝑜𝑐
o 𝑅𝑁 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ =
𝐼𝑠𝑐
𝑉
o 𝐼𝑁 = 𝐼𝑠𝑐 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ
𝑇ℎ
o 𝑉𝑇ℎ = 𝑉𝑜𝑐

Maximum Power Transfer

- Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load resistance equals the Thevenin
resistance as seen from the load (𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ ).
𝑉𝑇ℎ 2
o When 𝑅𝐿 ≠ 𝑅𝑇ℎ then 𝑝 = 𝑖 2 𝑅𝐿 = (𝑅 ) 𝑅𝐿
𝑇ℎ +𝑅𝐿
𝑉2
o When 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ then 𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 4𝑅𝑇ℎ
𝑇ℎ
Lecture 7: Capacitors
- A capacitor is a passive element designed to store energy in its electric field.
- Capacitors are used extensively in electronics, communications, computers, and power systems.
- A capacitor consists of two conducting plates separated by an insulator (or dielectric).
- When a voltage source is connected to the capacitor, the source deposits a positive charge 𝑞 on
one plate and a negative charge −𝑞 on the other.
- The amount of charge stored (𝑞) is directly proportional to the applied voltage (𝑣).
o 𝑞 = 𝐶𝑣
▪ 𝐶 (The capacitance of the capacitor): the constant of proportionality.
- The unit of capacitance is the farad (𝐹).
- Capacitance: is the ratio of the charge on one plate of a capacitor to the voltage difference
between the two plates
o 1 𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 1 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏/𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
- Capacitance DOES NOT depend on 𝑞 or 𝑣. It depends on the physical dimensions of the
capacitor.
𝜖𝐴
o 𝐶= 𝑑
▪ 𝐴 is the surface area of each plate.
▪ 𝑑 is the distance between the plates.
▪ 𝜖 is the permittivity of the dielectric material between the plates.
- Three factors determine the value of the capacitance:
1. The surface area of the plates—the larger the area, the greater the capacitance.
2. The spacing between the plates—the smaller the spacing, the greater the capacitance.
3. The permittivity of the material—the higher the permittivity, the greater the capacitance.
- Typically, capacitors have values in the picofarad (𝑝𝐹) to microfarad range (𝜇𝐹).

-
𝑑𝑣
o 𝑖 = 𝐶 𝑑𝑡
▪ Capacitors that satisfy this equation are said to be linear. For a nonlinear
capacitor, the plot of the current-voltage relationship is not a straight line.
1 𝑡
o 𝑣 = ∫−∞ 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝐶
1 𝑡
o 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝐶 ∫−∞ 𝑖(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 + 𝑣(𝑡0 )
𝑞(𝑡0 )
o 𝑣(𝑡0 ) = 𝐶
𝑑𝑣
o 𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑑𝑡
𝑡 𝑡 𝑑𝑣 𝑣(𝑡) 1
o 𝑤 = ∫−∞ 𝑝𝑑𝑡 = 𝐶 ∫−∞ 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐶 ∫𝑣(−∞) 𝑣𝑑𝑣 = 𝐶𝑣 2 |𝑣(𝑡)
𝑣(−∞)
𝑑𝑡 2
o When 𝑣(−∞) = 0, 𝑡 = −∞
1
▪ 𝑤 = 2 𝐶𝑣 2
𝑞2
o 𝑤 = 2𝐶
 - We should note the following important properties of a capacitor:
1. When the voltage across a capacitor is not changing with time (i.e., dc voltage), the current
through the capacitor is zero. Thus, However, if a battery (dc voltage) is connected across a
capacitor, the capacitor charges.
a. A capacitor is an open circuit to dc.
2. The voltage on the capacitor must be continuous. The voltage on a capacitor cannot change
abruptly. The capacitor resists an abrupt change in the voltage across it. A discontinuous
change in voltage requires an infinite current, which is physically impossible. Conversely, the
current through a capacitor can change instantaneously.
3. The ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy. It takes power from the circuit when storing
energy in its field and returns previously stored energy when delivering power to the circuit.
4. A real, nonideal capacitor has a parallel-model leakage resistance. The leakage resistance
may be as high as 100 𝑀Ω and can be neglected for most practical applications.

Series and Parallel Capacitors

Parallel Capacitors:
- Voltage is the same across them.
- 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 + ⋯ + 𝐶𝑁

Series Capacitors:
- Current is the same across them.
1 1 1 1 1
- 𝐶𝑒𝑞
= 𝐶 + 𝐶 +𝐶 + ⋯+ 𝐶
1 2 3 𝑁
- If only two capacitors:
𝐶 𝐶
o 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶 1+𝐶2
1 2
Lecture 8: Inductors
- An inductor is a passive element designed to store energy in its magnetic field.
- Any conductor of electric current has inductive properties that may be regarded as an inductor.
- A partial inductor is usually formed into a cylindrical coil with many turns of conducting wire.
- An inductor consists of a coil of conducting wire.
- If current is allowed to pass through an inductor, it is found that the voltage across the inductor
is directly proportional to the time rate of change of the current.
𝑑𝑖
o 𝑣=𝐿
𝑑𝑡
▪ 𝐿: (the inductance of inductor) constant of proportionality.
- The unit of inductance is the Henry (𝐻).
- 1 𝐻 = 1 𝑉𝑠/𝐴
- Inductance is the property whereby an inductor exhibits opposition to the change of current
flowing through it.
- The inductance of an inductor depends on its physical dimension and construction.
o For solenoid:
𝑁 2 𝜇𝐴
▪ 𝐿=
𝑙
• 𝑁: number of turns
• 𝐴: cross-sectional area
• 𝜇: permeability of the core
• 𝑙: the length.
o Inductance can be increased by increasing the number of turns of coils.
o Inductance can be increased by using material with higher permeability as the core.
o Inductance can be increased by increasing the cross-sectional area.
o Inductance can be increased by reducing the length of the coil.
- Current-voltage relationship:
1 𝑡
o 𝑖 = 𝐿 ∫𝑡 𝑣(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖(𝑡0 )
0
- The inductor is designed to store energy in its magnetic field.
𝑑𝑖
o 𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 = (𝐿 𝑑𝑡) 𝑖
- The energy stored:
𝑡 𝑡 𝑑𝑖 𝑡 1 1
o 𝑤 = ∫−∞ 𝑝𝑑𝑡 = ∫−∞ (𝐿 𝑑𝑡) 𝑖𝑑𝑡 = 𝐿 ∫−∞ 𝑖𝑑𝑖 = 2 𝐿𝑖 2 (𝑡) − 2 𝐿𝑖 2 (−∞)
▪ Since 𝑖(−∞) = 0
1 2
o 𝑤= 𝐿𝑖
2
- Important properties of an inductor:
1. the voltage across an inductor is zero when the current is constant. Thus, An inductor acts
like a short circuit to dc.
2. An important property of the inductor is its opposition to the change in current flowing
through it. The current through an inductor cannot change instantaneously. A discontinuous
change in the current through an inductor requires an infinite voltage, which is not physically
possible. Thus, an inductor opposes an abrupt change in the current through it.
 3. Like the ideal capacitor, the ideal inductor does not dissipate energy. The energy stored in it
can be retrieved at a later time. The inductor takes power from the circuit when storing
energy and delivers power to the circuit when returning previously stored energy.
4. A practical, nonideal inductor has a significant resistive component. This is due to the fact
that the inductor is made of a conducting material such as copper, which has some
resistance. This resistance is called the winding resistance (𝑅𝑤 ), and it appears in series with
the inductance of the inductor. The presence of (𝑅𝑤 ) makes it both an energy storage device
and an energy dissipation device. Since is usually very small, it is ignored in most cases. The
nonideal inductor also has a winding capacitance (𝐶𝑤 ) due to the capacitive coupling
between the conducting coils. (𝐶𝑤 ) is very small and can be ignored in most cases, except at
high frequencies.

Series and Parallel Inductors

Series Inductors:
- The inductors have the same current through them.
- The equivalent inductance of series-connected inductors is the sum of the individual
inductances.
o 𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3 + ⋯ + 𝐿𝑁

Parallel Inductors:
- The inductors have the same voltage across them.
- The equivalent inductance of parallel inductors is the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of
the individual inductances.
1 1 1 1 1
o 𝐿𝑒𝑞
= 𝐿 + 𝐿 + 𝐿 + ⋯+ 𝐿
1 2 3 𝑁
- For two inductors:
𝐿 𝐿
o 𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 𝐿 1+𝐿2
1 2