Output devices

Actuators

An actuator is a mechanical or electromechanical

device such as a relay, solenoid or motor. We will consider a solenoid as the
example; this converts an electrical signal into a magnetic field producing linear
motion:

Digital light projectors (DLP)

The use of millions of micro mirrors on a small digital micromirror device (DMD
chip) is the key to how these devices work.
The number of micro mirrors and the way they are arranged on the DMD chip
determines the resolution of the digital image.
When the micro mirrors tilt towards the light source, they are ON. When the micro
mirrors tilt away from the
light source, they are OFF. This creates a light or dark pixel on the projection
screen. The micro mirrors can switch on or off several thousand times a second
creating various grey shades –

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A bright white light source (for example, from a xenon bulb) passes through a
colour filter on its way to the DMD chip. The white light is split into the primary
colours: red, green and blue – the DLP projector can create over 16 million
different colours. The ON and OFF states of each micro mirror are linked with
colours from the filter to produce the coloured image.

LCD Projector :
Essentially a high-intensity beam of light passes through an LCD display and then
onto a screen. How this works in
principle is described below:
» a powerful beam of white light is generated from a bulb or LED inside the
projector body
» this beam of light is then sent to a group of chromatic-coated mirrors (known as
dichromic mirrors); these reflect the light back at different wavelengths
» when the white light hits these mirrors, the reflected light has wavelengths
corresponding to red, green and blue light components
» these three different coloured light components pass through three LCD screens
(each screen is composed of thousands of tiny pixels which can either block light or
let it through; this produces a monochromatic image)...

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» ... consequently, three different versions of the same image are now produced –
one is the whole image in different shades of red, one is the whole image in
different shades of green and one is the whole image in different shades of blue
» These images are then re-combined using a special prism to produce a full colour
image
» finally, the image passes through the projector lens onto a screen

Advantages and disadvantages of DLP and LCD projector:

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Inkjet and laser printers
Inkjet printers
Inkjet printers are essentially made up of:
» a print head, which consists of nozzles that spray droplets of ink onto the paper to form
characters
» an ink cartridge or cartridges; either one cartridge for each colour (blue, yellow and
magenta) and a black cartridge or one single cartridge containing all three colours + black
(Note: some systems use six colours)
» a stepper motor and belt, which moves the print head assembly across the page from
side to side
» a paper feed, which automatically feeds the printer with pages as they are required.
The ink droplets are produced currently using two different technologies:
Thermal bubble – tiny resistors create localised heat which makes the ink vaporise. This
causes the ink to form a tiny bubble; as the bubble expands, some of the ink is ejected from
the print head onto the paper. When the bubble collapses, a small vacuum is created which
allows fresh ink to be drawn into the print head. This continues until the printing cycle is
completed.
Piezoelectric – a crystal is located at the back of the ink reservoir for each nozzle. The
crystal is given a tiny electric charge which makes it vibrate. This vibration forces ink to be
ejected onto the paper; at the same time more ink is drawn in for further printing.

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When a user wishes to print a document using an inkjet printer, the following sequence of
events takes place. Whatever technology is used, the basic steps in the printing process are
the same.

Laser printers
Laser printers use dry powder ink rather than liquid ink and make use of the properties of
static electricity to produce the text and images. Unlike inkjet printers, laser printers print the
whole page in one go. Colour laser printers use 4 toner cartridges – blue, cyan, magenta and
black. Although the actual technology is different to monochrome printers, the printing
method is similar but coloured dots are used to build up the text and images.

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The following table describes briefly the stages that occur when a document is printed using
a laser printer:

Applications of inkjet and laser printers

Inkjet printer – inkjet printers are often used for printing one-off photos or where only a few
pages of good quality, colour printing is needed; the small ink cartridges or small paper trays
would not be an issue with such applications.
Laser printer – these devices produce high quality printouts and are very fast when making
multiple copies of a document; any application that needs high volume printing (in colour or
monochrome) would choose the laser printer (for example, producing a large number of high-
quality flyers or posters for advertising). Laser printers have two advantages: they have large
toner cartridges and large paper trays (often holding more than a ream of paper).

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3D printers
3D printers are used to produce solid objects that actually work. They are primarily based on
inkjet and laser printer technology. The solid object is built up layer by layer using materials
such as: powdered resin, powdered metal, paper or ceramic
The following information describes some of the features of 3D printing
» 3D printers use additive manufacturing (i.e. the object is built up layer by layer); this is in
sharp contrast to the more traditional method of subtractive manufacturing (i.e. removal of
material to make the object). For example, making a statue using a 3D printer would involve
building it up layer by layer using powdered stone until the final object was formed. The
subtractive method would involve carving the statue out of solid stone (i.e. removing the
stone not required) until the final item was produced. Similarly, CNC machining removes
metal to form an object; 3D printing would produce the same item by building up the object
from layers of powdered metal.
» Direct 3D printing uses inkjet technology; a print head can move left to right as in a normal
printer. However, the print head can also move up and down to build up the layers of an
object.
» Binder 3D printing is similar to direct 3D printing. However, this method uses two passes for
each of the layers; the first pass sprays dry powder and then on the second pass a binder (a
type of glue) is sprayed to form a solid layer.
» Newer technologies are using lasers and UV light to harden liquid polymers; this further
increases the diversity of products which can be made.

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Uses of 3D printing
3D printing is regarded as being possibly the next ‘industrial revolution’ since it
will change the manufacturing methods in many industries. The following list is
just a glimpse into what we know can be made using these printers; in the years
that follow, this list will probably fill an entire book:
» the covering of prosthetic limbs can be made to exactly fit the limb
» making items to allow precision reconstructive surgery (e.g. facial reconstruction
following an accident); the parts made by this technique are more precise in their
design since they can be made from exact scanning of the skull
» in aerospace, manufacturers are looking at making wings and other parts using 3D
technology; the bonus will be lightweight precision parts
» fashion and art – 3D printing allows new creative ideas to be developed
» making parts for items no longer in production e.g. suspension parts for a vintage car.

How 3D printer works to produce 3D solid object:

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LED and LCD screens
LCD screens
LCD screens are made up of tiny liquid crystals. These tiny crystals make up an
array of pixels that are affected by changes in applied electric fields. How this
works is outside the scope of this book. But the important thing to realise is that
for LCD screens to work, they require some form of backlighting.
Because LCD’s don’t produce any light, LCD screens are back-lit using light
emitting diode (LED) technology and must not be confused with pure LED
screens. Use of LED backlighting gives a very good contrast and brightness range.
Before the use of LEDs, LCD screens used cold cathode fluorescent lamp (CCFL) as
the back-lit method.
Essentially, CCFL uses two fluorescent tubes behind the LCD screen which supply
the light source. When LEDs are used, a matrix of tiny blue-white LEDs is used
behind the LCD screen.
LED screens
An LED screen is made up of tiny light emitting diodes (LEDs). Each LED is either
red, green or blue in colour. By varying the electric current sent to each LED, its
brightness can be controlled, producing a vast range of colours. This type of screen tends to be
used for large outdoor displays due to the brilliance of the colours produced. Recent
advancements in LED technology have led to the introduction of OLED (organic LED) screens
(see later).
LEDs have become increasingly more popular, as the method of back lighting, due
to a number of advantages over older CCFL technology:
» LEDs reach their maximum brightness almost immediately (there is no need to
‘warm up’ before reaching full efficiency)
» LEDs give a whiter light that sharpens the image and makes the colours appear
more vivid; CCFL had a slightly yellowish tint
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» LEDs produce a brighter light that improves the colour definition
» monitors using LED technology are much thinner than monitors using CCFL
technology
» LEDs last indefinitely; this makes the technology more reliable and makes for a
more consistent product
» LEDs consume very little power which means they produce less heat as well as
using less energy.:
Organic light emitting diodes (OLED) :
Newer LED technology is making use of organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs).
These use organic materials (made up of carbon compounds) to create semiconductors that
are very flexible. Organic films are sandwiched between two
charged electrodes (one is a metallic cathode and the other a glass anode).
When an electric field is applied to the electrodes, they give off light. This
means that no form of backlighting is required. This allows for very thin screens.
It also means that there is no longer a need to use LCD technology, since OLED is
a self-contained system.

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Advantages of using OLED compared to existing LEDs and LCDs:
» The plastic, organic layers of an OLED are thinner, lighter and more flexible
than the crystal structures used in LEDs or LCDs.
» The light-emitting layers of an OLED are lighter; OLED layers can be made from
plastic rather than the glass as used in LED and LCD screens.
» OLEDs give a brighter light than LEDs.
» OLEDs do not require backlighting like LCD screens – OLEDs generate their own light.
(Loud) speakers
Loudspeakers are output devices that produce sound. When connected to a
computer system, digitised sound stored on a file needs to be converted into
sound as follows:
» The digital data is first passed through a digital to analogue converter (DAC)
where it is changed into an electric current.
» This is then passed through an amplifier (since the current generated by the DAC
will be very small); this creates a current large enough to drive a loudspeaker.
» This electric current is then fed to a loudspeaker where it is converted into sound.

» When an electric current flows through the coil of wire that is wrapped around
an iron core, the core becomes a temporary electromagnet; a permanent
magnet is also positioned very close to this electromagnet.
» As the electric current through the coil of wire varies, the induced magnetic
field in the iron core also varies. This causes the iron core to be attracted
towards the permanent magnet and as the current varies this will cause the
iron core to vibrate.

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» Since the iron core is attached to a cone (made of paper or thin synthetic
material), this causes the cone to vibrate, producing sound waves.

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