IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CONTROL SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 13, NO.

4, JULY 2005 559

PID Control System Analysis, Design,

and Technology
Kiam Heong Ang, Gregory Chong, Student Member, IEEE, and Yun Li, Member, IEEE

Abstract—Designing and tuning a proportional-integral-deriva- development of various PID tuning techniques, sophisticated
tive (PID) controller appears to be conceptually intuitive, but can software packages, and hardware modules.
be hard in practice, if multiple (and often conflicting) objectives The success and longevity of PID controllers were character-
such as short transient and high stability are to be achieved.
Usually, initial designs obtained by all means need to be adjusted ized in a recent IFAC workshop, where over 90 papers dedicated
repeatedly through computer simulations until the closed-loop to PID research were presented [28]. With much of academic re-
system performs or compromises as desired. This stimulates search in this area maturing and entering the region of “dimin-
the development of “intelligent” tools that can assist engineers ishing returns,” the trend in present research and development
to achieve the best overall PID control for the entire operating (R&D) of PID technology appears to be focused on the integra-
envelope. This development has further led to the incorporation
of some advanced tuning algorithms into PID hardware modules. tion of available methods in the form of software so as to get the
Corresponding to these developments, this paper presents a best out of PID control [21]. A number of software-based tech-
modern overview of functionalities and tuning methods in patents, niques have also been realized in hardware modules to perform
software packages and commercial hardware modules. It is seen “on-demand tuning,” while the search still goes on to find the
that many PID variants have been developed in order to improve next key technology for PID tuning [24].
transient performance, but standardising and modularising PID
control are desired, although challenging. The inclusion of system This paper endeavours to provide an overview on modern
identification and “intelligent” techniques in software based PID PID technology including PID software packages, commercial
systems helps automate the entire design and tuning process to PID hardware modules and patented PID tuning rules. To begin,
a useful degree. This should also assist future development of Section II highlights PID fundamentals and crucial issues. Sec-
“plug-and-play” PID controllers that are widely applicable and tion III moves to focus on patented PID tuning rules. A survey
can be set up easily and operate optimally for enhanced produc-
tivity, improved quality and reduced maintenance requirements. on available PID software packages is provided in Section IV.
In Section V, PID hardware and tuning methods used by process
Index Terms—Patents, proportional-integral-derivative (PID)
control, PID hardware, PID software, PID tuning. control vendors are discussed. Finally, conclusions are drawn in
Section VI, where some differences between academic research
and industrial practice are highlighted.
I. INTRODUCTION

W ITH its three-term functionality covering treatment

to both transient and steady-state responses, propor-
tional-integral-derivative (PID) control offers the simplest and
II. THREE-TERM FUNCTIONALITY, DESIGN AND TUNING
A. Three-Term Functionality and the Parallel Structure
yet most efficient solution to many real-world control problems. A PID controller may be considered as an extreme form of
Since the invention of PID control in 1910 (largely owning to a phase lead-lag compensator with one pole at the origin and
Elmer Sperry’s ship autopilot), and the Ziegler–Nichols’ (Z-N) the other at infinity. Similarly, its cousins, the PI and the PD
straightforward tuning methods in 1942 [34], the popularity controllers, can also be regarded as extreme forms of phase-lag
of PID control has grown tremendously. With advances in and phase-lead compensators, respectively. A standard PID
digital technology, the science of automatic control now offers controller is also known as the “three-term” controller, whose
a wide spectrum of choices for control schemes. However, transfer function is generally written in the “parallel form”
more than 90% of industrial controllers are still implemented given by (1) or the “ideal form” given by (2)
based around PID algorithms, particularly at lowest levels [5],
as no other controllers match the simplicity, clear functionality, (1)
applicability, and ease of use offered by the PID controller
[32]. Its wide application has stimulated and sustained the
(2)

Manuscript received September 8, 2003; revised August 15, 2004. Manu-

script received in final form January 4, 2005. Recommended by Associate Ed- where is the proportional gain, the integral gain,
itor D. W. Repperger. This work was supported in part by Universities U.K. and the derivative gain, the integral time constant and, the
in part by University of Glasgow Scholarships. derivative time constant. The “three-term” functionalities are
K. H. Ang is with Yokogawa Engineering Asia Pte Ltd., Singapore 469270,
Singapore (e-mail: [email protected]). highlighted by the following.
G. Chong and Y. Li are with the Intelligent Systems Group, Department of • The proportional term—providing an overall control ac-
Electronics and Electrical Engineering, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12
8LT, U.K. (e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]). tion proportional to the error signal through the all-pass
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TCST.2005.847331 gain factor.
1063-6536/$20.00 © 2005 IEEE
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560 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CONTROL SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 13, NO. 4, JULY 2005

• The integral term—reducing steady-state errors through TABLE I

low-frequency compensation by an integrator. EFFECTS OF INDEPENDENT P, I, AND D TUNING
• The derivative term—improving transient response
through high-frequency compensation by a differentiator.
The individual effects of these three terms on the closed-loop
performance are summarized in Table I. Note that this table
serves as a first guide for stable open-loop plants only. For op-
timum performance, , (or ) and (or ) are mu-
tually dependent in tuning.
The message that increasing the derivative gain, ,
will lead to improved stability is commonly conveyed from
academia to industry. However, practitioners have often found saturation will be taken out. Nearly all software packages and
that the derivative term can behave against such anticipation hardware modules have implemented some form of integrator
particularly when there exists a transport delay [23], [28]. anti-windup protection.
Frustration in tuning has hence made many practitioners As most modern PID controllers are implemented in digital
switch off or even exclude the derivative term. This matter has processors, they can accommodate more mathematical func-
now reached the point that requires clarification, which will be tions and modifications to the standard three terms shown in (1)
discussed in Section II-E. to (3). A simple and most widely adopted anti-windup scheme
can be realized in software or firmware by modifying the inte-
B. Series Structure gral action to
A PID controller may also be realized in the “series form”
if both zeros are real, i.e., if . In this case, (2) can
(7)
be implemented as a cascade of a PD and a PI controller in the
form [23]
where represents the saturated control action and is a
(3) correcting factor. It is found that the range of [0.1,1.0] for
results in extremely good performance if PID coefficients are
where tuned reasonably [23].
It is also reported that, in the “series form,” the PI part may be
implemented to counter actuator saturation without the need for
(4) a separate anti-windup action, as shown in Fig. 1 [4], [29]. When
there is no saturation, the feedforward-path transfer is unity and
the overall transfer from to is the same as the last
C. Effect of the Integral Term on Stability
factor in (3).
Refer to (2) or (3) for and 0. It can be seen that,
adding an integral term to a pure proportional term will increase E. Effect of the Derivative Term on Stability
the gain by a factor of
Generally, derivative action is valuable as it provides useful
phase lead to offset phase lag caused by integration. It is also
(5) particularly helpful in shortening the period of the loop and
thereby hastening its recovery from disturbances. It can have
and will increase the phase-lag at the same time since a more dramatic effect on the behavior of second-order plants
that have no significant dead-time than first-order plants [29].
However, the derivative term is often misunderstood and mis-
(6) used. For example, it has been widely perceived in the control
community that adding a derivative term will improve stability.
Hence, both stability gain margin (GM) and phase margin (PM) It will be shown here that this perception is not always valid.
will be reduced, i.e., the closed-loop system will become more In general, adding a derivative term to a pure proportional term
oscillatory or potentially unstable. will reduce phase lags by

D. Integrator Windup and Remedies (8)

If an actuator that realizes the control action has an effective
range limit, then the integrator may saturate and future correc- which alone tends to increase the PM. In the meantime, however,
tion will be ignored until the saturation is offset. This causes the gain will be increased by a factor of
low-frequency oscillations and may lead to instability. A usual
measure taken to counteract this effect is “anti-windup” [4], [8], (9)
[29]. This is realized by inner negative feedback of some ex-
cess amount of the integral action to the integrator such that and, hence, the overall stability may be improved or degraded.
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ANG et al.: PID CONTROL SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY 561

Fig. 1. Anti-windup PI part of a “series form.”

To prove that adding a differentiator could actually destabilise

the closed-loop system, consider without loss of generality a
common first-order lag plus delay plant as described by

(10)
Fig. 2. Increasing derivative gain could decrease stability margins and
where is the process gain; is the process time-constant; destabilise the closed-loop system.
and is the process dead-time or transport delay. Suppose that
it is controlled by a proportional controller with gain and
now a derivative term is added. This results in a combined PD
controller as given by

(11)

The overall open-loop feedforward-path transfer function be-

comes

(12)

with gain becoming

(13) Fig. 3. Time-domain effect of an increasing gain on the closed-loop

performance.

where the inequality

has been obtained because
is monotonic with . This achieve the best performance [7]. However, care must be taken,
implies that the gain is not less than 0 dB if and as it is difficult to tune the differentiator properly. An example is
or and given in Figs. 2 and 3 for plant (10) with 10, 1 s and
0.1 s, which is initially controlled by a PI controller with
(14) 0.644 and 1.03 s It can be seen that if a differen-
tiator is added with 0.0303 s, both the GM and the PM
will be maximized while the transient response improves to the
In these cases, the 0 dB gain crossover frequency is at infinite,
best. However, if is increased further to 0.1 s, the GM and
where the phase
transient response will deteriorate. The closed-loop system can
even be destabilised if the derivative gain is increased to 20%
of the proportional gain. Hence, the derivative term should be
tuned and used properly.
(15)

Hence, by Bode or Nyquist criterion, there exist no stability mar- F. Remedies on Singular Derivative Action
gins and the closed-loop system will be unstable.
This phenomenon could have contributed to the difficulties A pure differentiator is not “casual.” It does not restrict
in the design of a full PID controller and also to the reason that high-frequency gains, as shown in (9) and demonstrated in
80% of PID controllers in use have the derivative part omitted Fig. 2. Hence, it will results in a theoretically infinite high
or switched off [21]. This means that the functionality and po- control signal when a step change of the reference or distur-
tential of a PID controller is not fully exploited. Nonetheless, bance occurs. To combat this, most PID software packages
it is shown that the use of a derivative term can increase sta- and hardware modules perform some forms of filtering on the
bility robustness and can help maximize integral gain so as to differentiator.
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562 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CONTROL SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 13, NO. 4, JULY 2005

1) Averaging Through a Linear Low-Pass Filter: A

common remedy is to cascade the differentiator with a low-pass
filter, i.e., to modify it to

(16)

Most industrial PID hardware provides a setting from 1 to

33 and the majority falls between 8 and 16 [72]. A second-order
Butterworth filter is recommended in [17] for further attenuation
of the high-frequency gains.
2) Modified Structure: The issue of improving transient per-
formance has recently become such a crucial one that atten-
tion of the fundamental unity negative feedback structure has
been proposed in the R&D of PID control [4]. In cascade con- Fig. 4. Three-point median filter to eliminate singular derivative action.
trol applications, the inner-loop often needs to be less sensitive
to set-point changes than the outer-loop. For the inner-loop, a
variant to the standard PID structure may be adopted, which G. Tuning Objectives and Existing Methods
uses the process variable (PV) instead of the error signal, for
the derivative term [40], i.e. Preselection of a controller structure can pose a challenge in
applying PID control. As vendors often recommend their own
designs of controller structures, their tuning rules for a specific
(17) controller structure does not necessarily perform well with other
structures. One solution seen is to provide support for individual
structures in software. Readers may refer to [16] and [22] for de-
where is the PV, and is the reference
tailed discussions on the use of various PID structures. Nonethe-
signal or set-point. It is also proposed that, in order to further
less, controller parameters are tuned such that the closed-loop
reduce sensitivity to set-point changes, the proportional term
control system would be stable and would meet given objec-
may also be changed to act upon the PV, instead of the error
tives associated with the following:
signal, i.e., [40]
• stability robustness;
• set-point following and tracking performance at transient,
(18) including rise-time, overshoot, and settling time;
• regulation performance at steady-state, including load dis-
turbance rejection;
Structure (17) is sometimes referred to as “Type B” (or PI-D)
• robustness against plant modeling uncertainty;
control and structure (18) as “Type C” (or I-PD) control, while
• noise attenuation and robustness against environmental
structures (1) to (3) as “Type A” PID control. Note that, Types B
uncertainty.
and C alter the foundations of conventional feedback control and
can make the PID schemes more difficult to analyze with stan- With given objectives, tuning methods for PID controllers can
dard techniques on stability and robustness, etc. For set-point be grouped according to their nature and usage, as follow [4],
tracking applications, however, one alternative to using Type B [13], [23].
or C is perhaps a set-point filter that has a critically-damped • Analytical methods—PID parameters are calculated from
dynamics so as to achieve soft-start and smooth control [13]. analytical or algebraic relations between a plant model
Nevertheless, the ideal, parallel, series and modified forms of and an objective (such as internal model control (IMC) or
PID structures can all be found in present software packages lambda tuning). These can lead to an easy-to-use formula
and hardware modules. Readers may refer to Techmation’s Ap- and can be suitable for use with online tuning, but the
plications Manual [72] for a list documenting the structures em- objective needs to be in an analytical form and the model
ployed in some of the industrial PID controllers. must be accurate.
3) Removal of Singular Action Through a Nonlinear Median • Heuristic methods—These are evolved from practical ex-
Filter: Another method is to use a median filter, which is perience in manual tuning (such as the Z-N tuning rule)
nonlinear and widely applied in image processing. It compares and from artificial intelligence (including expert systems,
several neighboring data points around the current one and fuzzy logic and neural networks). Again, these can serve
selects their median for a “nonsingular” action. This way, in the form of a formula or a rule base for online use, often
unusual or unwanted spikes resulting from a step command with tradeoff design objectives.
or disturbance, for example, will be filtered out completely. • Frequency response methods—Frequency characteristics
Pseudocode of a three-point median filter is illustrated in Fig. 4 of the controlled process are used to tune the PID con-
[23]. The main benefit of this method is that no extra parameter troller (such as loop-shaping). These are often offline and
is needed, though it is not very suitable for use in under-damped academic methods, where the main concern of design is
processes. stability robustness.
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ANG et al.: PID CONTROL SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY 563

• Optimization methods—These can be regarded as a spe-

cial type of optimal control, where PID parameters are
obtained ad hoc using an offline numerical optimization
method for a single composite objective or using comput-
erised heuristics or an evolutionary algorithm for multiple
design objectives. These are often time-domain methods
and mostly applied offline.
• Adaptive tuning methods—These are for automated on-
line tuning, using one or a combination of the previous
methods based on real-time identification.
The previous classification does not set an artificial boundary
and some methods applied in practice may belong to more than
one category. An excellent summary on PID tuning methods
can be found in [4], [18], [26], and [28]. However, no tuning
method so far can replace the simple Z-N method in terms of
familiarity and ease of use to start with. Further, there exists a
lack of methods that are generic and can be quickly applied to Fig. 5. Gain and phase margins resulting from PIDeasy designs.
the design of onboard or onchip controllers for a wide range
TABLE II
of consumer electronics, domestic appliances, mechatronic sys- GAIN AND PHASE MARGINS OF PIDEASY ON TEST EXAMPLES
tems and microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). Over the
past half century, search goes on to find the next key technology
for PID tuning and modular realization [24].

H. PIDeasy—A Software-Based Approach

During the past decade, the Intelligent Systems research
group at University of Glasgow has attempted to solve the PID
design problem systematically, using modern computational
intelligence technology. As a result, a design solution has been
obtained in the form of software, PIDeasy [23]. For simplicity
and reliability in PID applications, effort is made to maintain
the controller structure in the “standard form,” while allowing
optimal augmentation with simple and effective differentiator
filtering and integrator anti-windup. High-performance partic-
ularly that of transient response is offered through setting the
controller parameters optimally in a fraction of a millisecond,
as soon as changes in process dynamics are detected. The opti-
mality is multiobjective and is achieved by addressing existing
problems at the roots using modern computational intelligence
techniques.
The PIDeasy technology is targeted toward wider applica-
resulting GMs and PMs are shown in Fig. 5, which confirms
tions than the Z-N based and other techniques currently avail-
that this tuning method is stable and robust with margins almost
able, so as to offer the following:
uniformly around those that practitioners prefer. While in the
• optimal PID designs directly from offline or online plant time-domain, fast response, no overshoot and no steady-state
response; error are achieved.
• generic and widest application to any first-order (and To further validate this software-based tuning method and to
higher order) delayed plants; provide a lookup table of parameter sets for many typical plants,
• “off-the-computer” digital controller code in C++ and a batch of higher order plants proposed in [6] are tested
Java languages;
• no need for any follow-up refinements; and (19)
• “plug-and-play” integration of an entire process of data
acquisition, system identification, design, digital code im-
plementation and online testing.
Time-domain performance of PIDeasy is seem much better (20)
than existing methods, in all five criteria listed in Section II-G,
(21)
with or without actuator saturation [23]. A simple example has
been shown in Figs. 2 and 3. To verify the robustness, PIDeasy is
(22)
tested against an ratio ranging from 0.001 to 1000.0. The
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564 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CONTROL SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 13, NO. 4, JULY 2005

TABLE III
PATENTS ON PID TUNING

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ANG et al.: PID CONTROL SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY 567

TABLE IV
PID SOFTWARE PACKAGES

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ANG et al.: PID CONTROL SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY 569

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570 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CONTROL SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 13, NO. 4, JULY 2005

TABLE V
COMMERCIAL PID CONTROLLER HARDWARE MODULES

Again, PIDeasy provides optimal parameters within a mil- III. PID PATENTS
lisecond. The results on the GM and PM are shown in Table II,
A. Patents Filed
confirming the software-based PIDeasy approach is stable and
robust against model variations. Therefore, this software-based This section focused on the currently patented tuning
approach has a wide applicability and should provide a useful methods that are often adopted in industry for PID design tools
engine for onboard or onchip controller design. It also provides and hardware modules. A range of patents on PID tuning are
an excellent starting point for higher order and nonlinear plants being studied and analyzed, which are chronologically listed in
to swiftly tune a network of PID controllers ad hoc [10]. Table III. There are 64 such patents filed in the United States
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ANG et al.: PID CONTROL SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY 571

(US), 11 in Japan (JP), 2 in Korea (KR) and 2 by the World

Intellectual Property Organization (WO). Note that a Korean
patent (KR 9 407 530) is not included in the following analysis
as it is not available in English. Readers may refer to [12] and
[30] for detailed information on each patent.

B. Identification Methods for Tuning

Most of the tuning methods patented rely on an identification
of plant dynamics, using an excitation (E) or nonexcitation (NE)
type of method. The excitation type can be broken down further Fig. 6. Type of identifications used in patents from 1971 to 2000.
into time- or frequency-domain method.
Excitation is often used during plant set-up and commis-
sioning in order to set initial PID parameters. Time-domain
excitations are usually a step or pseudorandom binary sequence
(PRBS) applied in an open-loop fashion. This is a classical
and the most widely practised method. It is often adopted for
model-based tuning methods. Frequency-domain excitations
usually use a relay-like method, where the plant will undergo
a controlled self-oscillation. This type of identification does
not normally require a parametric model in tuning a PID con-
troller, which is the main advantage over time-domain based
identification.
Generally, nonexcitation type of identification is preferred by Fig. 7. Type of tuning methods used in patents from 1971 to 2000.
industry due to safety reasons, particularly during normal oper-
ations, as this does not upset the plant. An increasing number of
patents are now filed on nonexcitation identification, as seen in
Fig. 6.

C. Tuning Methods Patented

Most of the identification and tuning methods patented are
process engineering oriented and appear rather ad hoc. Shown
in Table III, patented tuning methods are mostly formula-based
(F), rule-based (R), and optimization-based (O). Formula-based
methods first identified the characteristics of the plant and then
perform a mapping (similar to the Z-N formula). These are
often used in on-demand tuning for responsiveness. Rule-based
methods are often used in adaptive control, but can be quite
complex and ad hoc. These can be expert systems, including
simple heuristics and fuzzy logic rules. Optimization-based Fig. 8. ABB–CEM measurements [2].
methods are often applied offline or on very slow processes,
using a conventional (such as least mean squares) or an uncon- company’s system performance and, hence, production quality
ventional (such as genetic algorithms [13]) search method. and efficiency without needing to invest a vast amount of time
Fig. 7 shows that formula-based tuning methods are still the and manpower in testing and adjusting control loops.
most actively developed, while other methods receive an in- Table IV analyzes and summarizes currently available
creasing attention. However, most do not yield global or multi- commercial PID software packages, grouped by the methods
objective optimal performance and their applicability is, hence, of their tuning engines whenever known. Note that Adva-
often limited. Control Loop Tuner (Advant OCS system), DeltaV Tune
(DeltaV workstation), Intelligent Tuner (Fisher-Rosemount
IV. PID SOFTWARE PACKAGES PROVOX controller), OvationTune (Westinghouse DCS),
Profit PID (Honeywell TPS/TDC system), PID Self-Tuner
A. Software Packages (Siemens SIMATIC S7/C7) and Tune-a-Fish (Fisher-Rose-
Due to the lack of a simple and widely applicable tuning mount PROVOX controller) are for ad hoc systems. Note
method, a need for the development of easy to use PID tuning also that Tune-a-Fish has been discontinued since 2 April
software has therefore arisen. This allows a practitioner with 2002 and ExperTune Inc. now handles support and upgrade.
some control knowledge or plant information to be able to tune a IMCTune and CtrlLAB are suitable for learning and testing of
PID controller efficiently and optimally for various applications. generic controller designs, they are also listed in Table IV for
It is hoped that such software tools will increase the practising information.
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572 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CONTROL SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 13, NO. 4, JULY 2005

TABLE VI
ABB—ITAE EFORMULA MAPPING

Fig. 11. Functional block diagram of Yokogawa SUPER CONTROL modes 2

and 3 [33].

B. Tuning Methods Adopted

Within the “Analytical Methods” group in Table IV, it is

seen from the “Remarks” column that the IMC or lambda
tuning method is the most widely adopted tuning method in
commercial software packages. Almost all these packages
require a time-domain model before the controller can be set.
The adopted model is the one given by (10). The pIDtune
method by EngineSoft is the only one that uses an ARX (Auto
Regressive with eXternal input) model instead of the model
given by (10). On design, “Type C” (or I-PD) structure is
strongly recommended in BESTune [40]. Note that ExperTune
is embedded in RSTune and Tune-a-Fish.
It is almost impossible to name a software package to be the
best as there is no generic method to set the PID controller op-
timally to satisfy all design criteria and needs. However, most
of the software packages studied in Table IV provide a tuneable
parameter set for the user to determine an overall performance
that is best suited to an ad hoc application.

C. Operating Systems and Online Operation

Based on the information summarized in Table IV, Microsoft

Windows is currently the most supported platform. Meanwhile,
MATLAB is a popular software environment used in offline
analysis.
Quite a few software packages in Table IV do not support
online operations, such as, real-time sampling of data, online
tuning, etc. The common nonvendor specific interfaces sup-
ported for online operations are Microsoft Windows dynamic
Fig. 9. Foxboro—SMART adaptive self-tuning [14]. data exchange (DDE) and OLE for process control (OPC)
[27] based on Microsoft object linking and embedding (OLE),
component object model (COM) and distributed component
object model (DCOM) technologies.
OPC is an industry standard created with the collaboration of
a number of leading worldwide automation and hardware/soft-
ware suppliers working in cooperation with Microsoft Inc. The
standard defines a method for exchanging real-time automa-
tion data among PC-based clients using Microsoft operating
systems. Thus the aim of OPC is to realize possible interoper-
ability between automation and control applications, field sys-
tems and devices, and business and office applications. There
are currently hundreds of OPC Data Access servers and clients
Fig. 10. Foxboro—pattern recognition characteristics [15]. available.
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ANG et al.: PID CONTROL SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY 573

D. Modern Features allows measurements of the process response so as to calculate

Remedial features such as differentiator filtering and inte- the appropriate controller parameters. “Adaptive tuning” aims
grator anti-windup are now mostly accommodated in a PID to set the PID parameters without inducing upsets. When a con-
software package. Now the trend is to provide some addi- troller is utilising this function, it constantly monitors the PV
tional features, such as diagnostic analysis, which prove to for any oscillation around the set-point and, hence, closed-loop
be very helpful in practice. An example is highlighted by identification can be as effective as in “tuning on demand.” This
ExperTune, which includes a wide range of fault diagnosis type of tuning is ideal for processes where load characteristics
features, such as valve wear analysis, robustness analysis, au- change drastically while the process is running. If there is any
tomatic loop report generation, multivariable loop analysis, oscillation, the controller adjusts the PID parameters in an at-
power spectral density plot, auto and cross correlations plot, tempt to eliminate them. It cannot be used effectively, however,
and shrink-swell (inverse response) process optimization, etc. if the process has externally induced upsets for which the con-
Other additional features seen in commercial PID packages trol could not possibly be tuned out.
include user-friendly interfaces, support of a variety of con-
troller structures and allowing more user-defined settings in B. ABB Controllers
determining PID parameters when necessary. ABB controllers offer two auto-tuning options, namely,
quarter-wave and minimal overshoot. They also come with a
V. PID HARDWARE MODULES manual fine-tuning option called control efficiency monitor
A. Hardware and Auto-Tuning (CEM). As shown in Fig. 8, six “key-performance” parameters
labeled are measured and displayed, allowing the user to vary
Many PID software features are now incorporated in hard- the PID settings to match the process needs and to fine-tune
ware modules, particularly those used in process control. A manually.
range of these are available from the four dominant vendors, ABB also offers another tuning algorithm for its Micro-DCI
namely, ABB, Foxboro, Honeywell and Yokogawa, as listed series, the Easy-Tune. The Easy-Tune algorithm approximates
in Table V. Hardware brands from Elsag Bailey, Kent-Taylor a process by a first-order plus delay model, as shown in (10). It
Instruments, Hartmann & Braun and Alfa Laval have been uses a typical graphical method, where the step changes are ap-
acquired by ABB. The following brands have been acquired plied so as to measure the gain, delay and rise-time and, hence,
under Emerson Process Management Group, namely, Brooks the time-constant. These are then used to map the controller pa-
Instrument, Daniel, DeltaV, Fisher, Intellution, Micro Motion, rameters through formulae shown in Table VI [1], which are op-
PROVOX, Rosemount, RS3 and Westinghouse Process Con- timized for the integral of time-weighted absolute error (ITAE)
trol. Invensys Production Management Division consists of performance index.
APV, Avantis, Esscor, Eurotherm, Foxboro, Pacific Simulation, It is unclear, unfortunately, whether the three plant parame-
Triconex, and Wonderware. Readers may refer to [3], [4], [9], ters are continuously identified so as to vary the PID parameters
[19], [20], [25], and [31] for more information on commercial online. If they are, however, Micro-DCI series should be very
PID controllers. powerful in dealing with changing plant dynamics through con-
Based on a survey carried out by Control Engineering in 1998
tinuously scheduled optimal PID settings.
[11], single-loop models account for 64% of the controllers,
while multiloop, 36%. It also reveals that 85% of the loop con-
C. Foxboro Series
trollers are used for feedback control, 6% for feedforward con-
trol, and 9% for cascade control. The most important features Foxboro 716C, 718, and 731C series use a proprietary self-
that are expected from a loop controller are, in order of im- tuning algorithm SMART. During start-up and control, SMART
portance, PID function, start-up self-tuning, online self-tuning, continuously monitors the PV and automatically adjusts the PID
adaptive control and fuzzy logic. parameters according to the response of the PV, as shown in
Many PID controller manufacturers provide various facilities Fig. 9. The advantage of SMART is its ability to operate without
in their products that allow easy tuning of the controller. As seen injecting any artificial change into the system.
in PID patents and software packages, most of the hardware Foxboro 743C, 760C, 761C, 762C, and T630C controllers
systems also adopt a time-domain tuning method, while a mi- use another patented self-tuning algorithm, expert adaptive
nority rely on open-loop relay experiments. Some modules offer controller tuning (EXACT). EXACT does not use a parametric
gain-scheduling capabilities and, hence, can cover a large op- model, but adjusts the controller based on pattern recognition
eration envelope. Some are more adaptive, using online model results of the actual current process. When it senses a process
identification or rules inferred from online responses. upset, it immediately takes corrective action for the pattern
Automated tuning is mainly implemented through ei- recognition. The user can choose the threshold levels of desired
ther “tuning on demand” with upset or “adaptive tuning.” damping and overshoot-to-load changes, as shown in Fig. 10.
Some manufacturers refer ‘tuning on demand’ with upset as EXACT needs to have a good initial PID parameter set to
“self-tune,” “auto-tune” or “pretune,” while “adaptive tuning” start with in order to achieve satisfactory performance. Thus,
is sometimes known as “self-tune,” “auto-tune” or “adaptive the initial PID parameters are determine by introducing a
tune.” There exists no standardization in the terminology. small perturbation to the process and use the resulting process
“Tuning on demand” with upset typically determines the PID reaction curve to calculate. To start up the control system, engi-
parameters by inducing a controlled upset in the process. This neers must determine an anticipated noise-band and maximum
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574 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CONTROL SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 13, NO. 4, JULY 2005

wait-time of the process. The noise-band is a value repre- compromise in stability when a new set-point is entered and as
senting expected amplitude of noise on the feedback signal. the process output approaches that change. The process block
The maximum wait-time is the maximum time that EXACT is simply the first-order lag time with gain model and it simu-
algorithm will wait for a second peak in the feedback signal lates the PV without any inherent dead time. A functional block
after detecting a first peak. These two settings are crucial in diagram for Modes 2 and 3 is shown in Fig. 11. If Mode 2 or
order for the EXACT algorithm to have optimal performance 3 observes any phase shift that has changed from normal oper-
but can be quite tricky to determine. ating conditions, it uses the process model to compute a calcu-
All Foxboro’s controllers studied here are rule-based, instead lated process variable (CPV) and attempts to suppress PV from
of model-based but do not support feedforward control. If they hunting. The compensation model switches between the mea-
support gain scheduling, however, they will be very effective for sured PV and CPV while the control function block performs
the entire operating envelope, as gain-scheduling can be more the normal PID computation. It is unclear how the three modes
useful than continuous adaptation in most situations [3]. are switched between, but it would be advantageous if this is
scheduled automatically.
D. Honeywell Tuners
Honeywell offers a “tuning on demand” controller, Autotune, F. Remarks
which is not adaptive or continuous. They also offer an adaptive Many PID hardware vendors have made tremendous efforts
tuner, Accutune, which uses a combination of frequency and to provide a built-in tuning facility. Owing to their vast expe-
time response analysis plus rule-based expert system techniques rience on PID control, most manufacturers have incorporated
to identify the process continually. An enhanced version of this their knowledge base into their algorithms. Current PID con-
is, Accutune II, which incorporates a fuzzy logic overshoot trol modules provide “tuning on demand” with upset or “adap-
suppression mechanism. It provides a “plug-and-play” tuning tive tuning” or both, depending on the model and user settings.
algorithm, which will starts at the touch of a button or through Either technique has its advantages and disadvantages. For ex-
an input response data set identify and tune for any processes ample, if using “tuning on demand” only, the controller needs
including integrating processes and those with a dead-time. to be retuned periodically and whenever changes occur in the
This speeds up and simplifies the startup process and allows process dynamics. This can be quite tedious and sometimes
retuning at any set-point in an “automatic mode.” The fuzzy under-performance can be too late to notice. Therefore, “tuning
logic overshoot suppression function operates independently on demand” coupled with “gain-scheduling” could provide an
from Accutune tuning as an add-on. It does not change the advantage.
PID parameters, but temporarily modifies the control action to If relying on an “adaptive tuner” only, the range of changes
suppress overshoot. Although this makes the control system that can be covered is rather limited and a classical step-response
more complex and difficult to analyze, it allows more aggressive model is still needed for determining initial PID settings. Be-
action to co-exist with smooth process output. It can be disabled, fore normal operations may begin, these systems generally re-
depending on the application or user requirements, and should quire a carefully supervised start-up and testing period. Further,
be unnecessary if the PID controller is set adaptively optimally. the more controller parameters the operator needs to select, the
E. Yokogawa Modules more difficult it is to adjust for optimal performance and the
longer it takes to prepare for the operation. Nevertheless, once
Yokogawa first introduced its SUPER CONTROL module the controller is correctly configured, it can constantly monitor
over a decade ago. Similar to Honeywell’s Accutune II, it also the process and automatically adjust the controller parameters
uses a fuzzy logic based algorithm to eliminate overshoots, to adapt to changes in the process.
mimicking control expertise of an experienced operator. It The second effort made by many PID hardware vendors ap-
consists of two main parts, namely, the set-point modifier and pears to be incorporating an overshoot suppression function in
the set-point selector. their onboard algorithms. In order to meet multiple objectives
The set-point modifier models the process and functions as highlighted in Section II-G, they have also added other func-
an “expert operator” by first considering that a PID controller tions to a standard PID algorithm or allowed the user to switch
is difficult to tune to deliver both a short rise-time and a low between modes. However, these features are not commonly seen
overshoot. It thus seeks a knowledge base about the process, its in commercial software packages (see Table IV).
dynamics, and any nonlinearity of the process (including load
changes). Then it leads the system into performing perfectly by
VI. CONCLUSION
feeding artificial target set-points into the PID block through the
set-point selector. PID, a structurally simple and generally applicable control
In particular, SUPER CONTROL operates on three modes. technique, stems it success largely from the fact that it just works
Mode 1 is designed for overshoot suppression by observing the very well with a simple and easy to understand structure. While
rate of change when the process output approaches a new target a vast amount of research results are published in the literature,
set-point. It installs “subset points” as the process output ap- there exists a lack of information exchange and analysis. This
proaches set-point to insure overshoot does not occur. Mode 2 can lead to some misunderstanding between academia and in-
is for ensuring high stability at the set-point while sacrificing dustry. For example, there exists no standardization of a generic
some response time to a set-point change. Mode 3 is for a faster PID structure for control engineering practice. This is partic-
response than Mode 2 to a set-point or load change with some ularly evident with analogue PID controllers being replaced by
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ANG et al.: PID CONTROL SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY 575

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