Boolean Algebra is the mathematics support used to specify and to implement

switching functions. A switching function is a binary function of binary variables.

Definition
A Boolean algebra B is a finite set over which two binary operations are defined:
 The Boolean sum +
 The Boolean product
Those operations must satisfy the following six rules (postulates):
1. The Boolean sum and the Boolean product are internal operations:
∀a and b ∈ B : a + b ∈ B and a ∙ b ∈ B
This postulate only emphasizes the fact that + and ∙ are operations over B.
2. The set B includes two particular (and different) elements 0 and 1 that satisfy
the following conditions:
∀a ∈ B : a + 0 = a and a ∙ 1 = a
In other words, 0 and 1 are neutral elements with respect to the sum (0) and with
respect to the product (1).
3. Every element of B has an inverse in B:
∀a ∈ B , ∃a ∈ B such that a + a = 1 and a ∙ a = 0
4. Both operations are commutative
∀a and b ∈ B : a + b = b + a and a ∙ b = b ∙ a
5. Both operations are associative
∀a , b and c ∈ B : a + b + c = (a + b) + c and a ∙ b ∙ c = (a ∙ b) ∙ c
6. The product is distributive over the sum and the sum is distributive over the
product:
∀a , b and c ∈ B : a ∙ b + c = a ∙ b + a ∙ c and a + b ∙ c = (a + b) ∙ (a + c )

Postulates 1–6 constitute a set of symmetric postulates: given a rule, by

interchanging sum and product, and 0 and 1, another rule is obtained: for example
the fact that a + 0 = a implies that a ∙ 1 = a , or the fact that
a ∙ b + c = a ∙ b + a ∙ c implies that a + b ∙ c = (a + b) ∙ (a + c ). This property
is called duality principle.
Here are several additional properties that can be demonstrated and can be used to
minimize Boolean expressions and to optimize the corresponding circuits:
Properties:
 0 = 1 and 1 = 0.
 Idempotence: ∀a ∈ B: a + a = a and a ∙ a = a
 ∀a ∈ B: a + 1 = 1 and a ∙ 0 = 0
 Inverse uniqueness : if a ∙ b = 0, a + b = 1, a ∙ c = 0 and a + c = 1 then b = c
 Involution: ∀a ∈ B: a = a
 Absorption law : ∀a and b ∈ B, a ∙ (a + b) = 1 and a +(a ∙ b) = 1
 ∀a and b ∈ B, a + a ∙ b = a + b and a ∙ (a +b) = a + b
 de Morgan’s laws: ∀a and b ∈ B , a + b = a ∙ b and , a ∙ b = a + b
Boolean Functions and Truth Tables
A Boolean function described by an algebraic expression consists of binary variables,
the constants 0 and 1, and the Boolean operations (sum, product, and inversion).
A Boolean function can be represented in a truth table.
The Truth Table is a table showing the inputs and the corresponding outputs of a logic
expression or circuit.
If f is an n-variable switching function then its truth table has 2n rows.
For a given value of the binary variables, the switching function can be equal to either
1 or 0
A Boolean function expresses the logical relationship between binary variables and is
evaluated for every combination of variable values, in total 2n different combinations
if there are n variables.
Example:
Consider the Boolean function following Boolean expression that defines a 4-variable
switching function f(a, b, c, d) = a(b + cd)
Define a table with as many rows as the number of combinations of values of
a, b, c and d, that is, 24 = 16 rows, and compute the value of f that corresponds to
each of them.
 a b c d 𝐚(𝐛 + 𝐜𝐝)
0 0 0 0 0
Steps taken when constructing a truth
table: 0 0 0 1 0
 List the input variables 0 0 1 0 0
combinations of 0s and 1s in a 0 0 1 1 0
binary sequence (2n combinations 0 1 0 0 0
for n inputs).
0 1 0 1 0
 Place a 1 in the output column for
each combination of input 0 1 1 0 0
variables that was determined in 0 1 1 1 0
the evaluation. 1 0 0 0 0
 Finally, place a 0 in the output 1 0 0 1 0
column for each combination of
1 0 1 0 0
input variables remaining.
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 1
Table 2.1 1 1 1 1 1
Definitions
 Variable- symbol used to represent a logical quantity.
 Complement- inverse of a variable. a or a
 Literal is a variable/ complement of a variable.

Boolean sum is equivalent to the OR operation.

Basic rules of Boolean sum:
𝟎+𝟎 =𝟎 𝟎+𝟏=𝟏 𝟏+𝟎=𝟏 𝟏+𝟏 =𝟏
In Boolean algebra, a sum term is a sum of literals. e.g. a + b
Boolean product is equivalent to the AND operation.
Basic rules of Boolean product:
𝟎. 𝟎 = 𝟎 𝟎. 𝟏 = 𝟏 𝟏. 𝟎 = 𝟏 𝟏. 𝟏 = 𝟏
In Boolean algebra, a product term is a product of literals. e.g abc
A Boolean function can be transformed from an algebraic expression into a circuit
diagram composed of logic gates connected in a particular structure.
A logic gate is an circuit that perform basic logical operation. In reality, gates consist
of one to six transistors, but digital designers think of them as a single unit.
Integrated circuits contain collections of gates suited to a particular purpose.
We start by looking at the 3 simplest gates which are the AND gate that implements a
Boolean product, the OR gate that implements a Boolean sum, and the inverter (NOT
gate) implements an invert function.

NOT gate/ Inverter

 performs inversion/ complementation operation- changes one logic level to the
opposite level
 The negation indicator is a bubble.
AND gate
 Its composed of 2/ more inputs and a single output.
 the total number of possible combinations of binary inputs is given by N = 2n
where N is the input combinations and n is the number of input variables.
 performs logical multiplication and produces a HIGH output when all of the inputs
are HIGH

OR gate
 Its composed of 2/ more inputs and a single output.
 performs logical addition and produces a HIGH output when any of the inputs is
HIGH.
Distinctive Shape
Symbol

Truth Table
Boolean algebra/ Boolean expressions provides a concise way to express the operation
of a logic circuit formed by a combination of logic gates so that the output can be
determined for various combinations of input values.
To derive a Boolean expression for a given logic circuit, begin at the left-most inputs
and work towards the final output, writing the expression for each gate.
Example:
Derive the Boolean expression of the circuit diagram in Figure 2.1 below
a a a + b = ab
a

a + b + ab
b
a+b

Figure 2.1
Simplification of Boolean expressions using Boolean Algebra
In many applications of Boolean Algebra, you have to reduce a particular expression
to its simplest form or change its form to a more convenient one to implement the
expression more efficiently.
This approach uses basic laws, rules and theorems of Boolean Algebra to manipulate
and simplify the expression.
Simplified Boolean expression uses the fewest gates possible to implement a given
expression.
Example:
Simplify the following Boolean Expression:
𝐀𝐁 + 𝐀𝐂 + 𝐀𝐁𝐂
= 𝐀𝐁 𝐀𝐂 + 𝐀𝐁𝐂 apply De Morgan law
= ( 𝐀 + 𝐁 )(𝐀 + 𝐂) + 𝐀𝐁𝐂 apply De Morgan law
= (𝐀 + 𝐁𝐂) + 𝐀𝐁𝐂 apply the rule 𝐀 + 𝐁 𝐀 + 𝐂 = 𝐀 + 𝐁𝐂
= 𝐀 𝟏 + 𝐁𝐂 + 𝐁𝐂 apply the rule 𝟏 + 𝐀 = 𝟏
= 𝐀 + 𝐁𝐂
Standard Forms/ Canonical Forms of Boolean Expressions
Standardization makes the evaluation, simplification and implementation of Boolean
expression much more systematic and easier.
Definitions
 A literal is a variable/ complement of a variable. For example a, b, c, c, d, d.
 The domain of Boolean expression is the set of variables contained in the
expression in complemented or un complemented form. For example, the domain
of the expression f = a + a. b. c + b. c. d is the set of variables a, b, c ,d.
 A product term is a single literal or a logical product of two or more literals. For
example a, a. b, a. b. c, b. c. d.
 A sum of products is formed when 2 or more product terms that are summed by
Boolean addition. For example, f = a + a. b + b. c. d. In a SOP expression, a single
overbar cannot extend over more than one variable. In other words, a SOP
expression can have a. b. c but not a. b. c.
 A sum term is a single literal or a logical sum of two or more literals. For example,
a, a + b, a + b + c, b + c + d.
 A product of sums is formed when 2 or more sum terms are multiplied. For
example, a + b a + b + c a + b + c . A POS expression can contain a single-
variable term. In a POS expression, a single overbar cannot extend over more than
one variable.
 A normal term is a product or sum term in which no variable appears more than
once and contains all variables from the domain of the Boolean expression.
Examples of normal terms: a . b. c . d, a + b + c + d.
 An 𝑛-variable minterm/ standard product term is a normal product term with 𝑛
literals. There are 2n such product terms. Examples of 4-variable minterms:
a . b. c . d, a . b. c . d, a . b. c . d .
 An 𝑛-variable maxterm/ standard sum term is a normal sum term with 𝑛 literals.
There are 2n such sum terms. Examples of 4-variable maxterms: a + b + c + d,
a + b + c + d.
There is a close correspondence between the truth table and minterms and maxterms.
A minterm/ standard product term can be defined as a product term that is 1 in
exactly one row of the truth table(for only one combination of variable values).
Similarly, a maxterm/ standard sum term can be defined as a sum term that is 0 in
exactly one row of the truth table.
Table 2.2 below shows this correspondence for a 3-variable truth table.
Minterm 𝑖 denotes the minterm corresponding to row 𝑖 of the truth table. In minterm
𝑖, a particular variable appears complemented if the corresponding bit in the binary
representation of 𝑖 is 0; otherwise, it is uncomplemented. For example, row 5 has
binary representation 101 and the corresponding minterm is a. b. c .
In maxterm 𝑖, a variable appears complemented if the corresponding bit in the binary
representation of 𝑖 is 1. Thus, maxterm 5 (101) is a + b + c.
Row a b c f Maxterm Minterm
0 0 0 0 f(0, 0, 0) 0 a. b . c
1 0 0 1 f(0, 0, 1) 1 a. b. c
2 0 1 0 f(0, 1, 0) 0 a. b. c
3 0 1 1 f(0, 1, 1) 0 a. b. c
4 1 0 0 f(1, 0, 0) 1 a. b. c
5 1 0 1 f(1, 0, 1) 0 a. b. c
6 1 1 0 f(1, 1, 0) 0 a. b. c
7 1 1 1 f(1, 1, 1) 1 a. b. c
Table 2.2
 Inputs Output
Row a b c f
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 1
2 0 1 0 0
3 0 1 1 0
4 1 0 0 1
5 1 0 1 0
6 1 1 0 0
7 1 1 1 1
Table 2.3
The canonical sum/standard sum of products of a logic function is a sum of the
minterms corresponding to truth-table rows (input combinations) for which the
function produces a 1 output. For example, the canonical sum for the logic function in
Table 2.3 is f = a. b. c + a. b. c + abc.
The canonical product/ standard product of sums of a logic function is a product of the
maxterms corresponding to input combinations for which the function produces a 0
output. For example, the canonical product for the logic function in Table 2.3 is
f = (a + b + c)(a + b + c) (a + b + c)(a + b + c) (a + b + c)

To convert sum terms to canonical product/standard POS

 Add to each non-standard product term aa = 0 where a is the missing
variable.
 Apply rule a + bc = a + b a + c
 Repeat step 1, until all resulting sum terms contain all variables in the domain.
To converting product terms to canonical sum/standard SOP
 Multiply each nonstandard product term by a + a = 1 where A is the missing
variable.
 Repeat the step above until all resulting product terms contain all variables in
the domain.
Example:
Question: Convert abc + ab + abcd into canonical sum/ standard SOP form.
Answer:
Standardize the first product term
abc(d + d) = abcd + abcd
Standardize the second product term
ab (c + c) = abc + abc
abc(d + d) = abcd + abcd
abc (d + d) = abcd + abcd
Standard SOP/ canonical sum
abcd+ abcd + abcd+ abcd + abcd+ abcd + abcd
Example
Question: Convert the following Boolean expression (a+b + c)(b + c + d)(a + b +
c + d) into a standard POS/ canonical product.
Answer: The domain of the Boolean expression is a, b, c, d. The sum term
(a +b + c) into is missing the variable d or d. To make it a maxterm / standard sum
term, add dd and apply the rule a + bc = a + b a + c .
(a +b + c)+ dd = (a +b + c+ d) (a +b + c+ d)
The sum term b + c + d is missing the variable a or a. To make it a maxterm /
standard sum term, repeat the process above.
b + c + d + aa = a + b + c + d (a +b + c+ d)
The term a + b + c + d is already in standard form.
The standard POS/ canonical product is: (a +b + c+ d) (a +b + c+ d)
a + b + c + d (a +b + c+ d) a + b + c + d
Conversion between Standard SOP and Standard POS
Binary values of the product terms in a given standard SOP expression are present in
the equivalent standard POS expression.
To converting standard SOP to standard POS
 Evaluate each product term in the SOP. Determine the numbers that represent
the product term. REMEMBER: Standard product term/minterm =1
 Determine all binary not included in the evaluation in 1
 Write the equivalent sum term for each binary number from step 2 and
expression in POS form.
Example
Convert the SOP expression to an equivalent POS expression:
abc + abc + abc + abc + abc
Binary values are 000, 010, 011, 101,111
There are 3 variables in the domain of this expression and 23 possible combinations.
SOP expression contains 5 of these combinations so the POS must contain the other
which are 001, 100 and 110.
a + b + c a + b + c (a + b + c)
To convert a standard POS to a standard SOP
 Evaluate each sum term in the POS. Determine the numbers that represent the
sum term.
REMEMBER: Standard sum term =0
 Determine all binary not included in the evaluation in 0
 Write the equivalent product term for each binary number from step 2
Karnaugh Map
K map provides a systematic method for simplifying Boolean expression and if
properly used will introduce the simplest SOP/ POS expression possible(minimum
expression).
Its an array of cells in which each cell represents a binary value of the input variables.
Cells are arranged in a way so that simplification of a given expression is a matter of
grouping the cells.
K-map can be used for expressions with 2,3,4 and 5 variables.
The Quine McClusky method can be used for higher numbers of variables.
The number of cells in a K-map = total number of possible input variable
combinations.
3 variable K-map array of 8 cells
c
ab 0 1
00 abc abc
01 abc abc
11 abc abc
10 abc abc

Cells in a K-maps are arranged so that there is a single-variable change between

adjacent cells( adjacency is defined by a single-variable change).
Physically, each cell is adjacent to the cells that are immediately next to it on any of its
4 sides( a cell is not adjacent to the cells to any of its corner –cells that diagonally
touch each other).
Top row cells are adjacent to the corresponding bottom row cells.
Cells in the outer left column are adjacent to the corresponding cells in the outer right
column( wrap- around adjacency).
K-map SOP Minimization
For an SOP expression in standard form, a 1 is placed on the K-map for each product
term in the expression.
The cells that do not have 1 are the cells for which the expression is 0.
When working with SOP expressions the 0s are left off the map.

Example : Map the standard SOP expression on the K-map abc + abc + abc + abc

c
ab 0 1
abc
00 1
abc
01 1
11 1 1 abc
abc
10

For a nonstandard SOP expression , convert it to standard form before you use a K-
map.
Simplification of SOP expressions using K-maps is the process of getting the fewest
possible terms with the fewest possible variables(minimum expression)
The minimum expression is obtained by grouping 1s i.e. enclosing those adjacent cells
containing 1s.

Rules
 Groups must contain either 1,2,4,8 or 16 cells(2n cells).
 Each cell in the group must be adjacent to 1 or more cells in that same group.
 Include the largest possible number of 1s in a group.
 Each 1 on the map must be included in at least 1 group. The 1s already in a group
can be included in another group.
 Groups may overlap.
 Maximize the size the groups and minimize the number of groups.

Determination of SOP expressions from K-map

 Each group of cells containing 1s creates one product term composed of variables
that stay the same within a group . i.e. variables that do not change from in
complemented to uncomplemented or vice versa.
 Determine the minimum product term for each group.
For a 3 variable map
1 cell group yields a 3 variable term.
2 cell group yields a 2 variable term.
4 cell group yields a 1 variable term.
8 cell group yields a value of 1 for expression.
For a 4 variable map
1 cell group yields a 4 variable term.
2 cell group yields a 3 variable term.
4 cell group yields a 2 variable term.
8 cell group yields a 1 variable term.
16 cell group yields a value of 1 for expression.
Example
Minimize bcd + abcd + abcd + abcd + abcd + abcd + abcd + abcd + abcd using a
K-map.
The first product term is not in standard form. Converting it into standard form it
becomes abc d + abc d
cd
ab 00 01 11 10
A group of 8 cells
formed by adjacent 00 1 1 1
outer columns produces d
01 1 1
A group of 4 cells
formed by adjacent 11 1 1
outer column produces
10 1 1 1
bc

Minimum expression bc + d
With POS expressions in standard form, 0s representing the standard terms are on the
K-map.
Example
Question: Map the standard POS expression on the K-map
(a + b + c + d)(a + b + c + d)(a + b + c + d)(a + b + c + d)

 For a nonstandard POS expression , convert it to standard form before you use a K-
map.

K-maps POS Minimization

1. Determine the binary value of each sum term in the standard POS expression
with binary value =0.
2. Group the 0s to minimum sum terms

Example
Question: Map the standard POS expression on the K-map
(b + c + d)(a + b + c + d)(a + b + c + d)(a + b + c + d)(a + b + c + d)
Conversion between POS and SOP using the K-map
With POS expressions, all cells that do not contain 0s contain 1s from which SOP
expression is derived.
Likewise for an SOP expression, all the cells that do not contain 1s contain 0s, from
which the POS expression is derived.
This provides a good way to compare both minimum forms of an expression to
determine if one of them can be implemented with fewer gates than the other.

Example
Convert the following standard POS expression into a minimum POS expression, a
standard SOP expression and a minimum SOP expression
(a + b + c + d)(a + b + c + d)(a + b + c + d)(a + b + c + d)(a + b + c + d)
(a + b + c + d)(a + b + +c + d)