TAIBAH UNIVERSITY- COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CE204 - FLUID MECHANICS (Research project)

(Fluid properties)

Student Name Student ID

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 Table of Contents
Introduction.....................................................................3
Executive Summary.........................................................4
What Is a Fluid?.............................................................4
Types of fluids:............................................................4
DENSITY...........................................................................5
The unit.........................................................................5
SPECIFIC GRAVITY............................................................6
Specific Gravity for some common Materials:..............6
VISCOSITY........................................................................7
Viscosity Definition:......................................................7
VAPOR PRESSURE............................................................8
Differential manometer................................................8
COHRSION AND ADHESION.............................................9
Cohesion Definition:......................................................9
Adhesion Definition:..................................................9
SURFACE TENSION.........................................................10
CAPILLARITY...................................................................11
Define Capillary Action................................................11
COMPRESSIBILITY..........................................................12
Negative compressibility:............................................12
Conclusion.....................................................................13
References.....................................................................13

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 Introduction
Mechanics is the oldest physical science that deals with the interaction
of forces on both stationary and moving bodies. Statics is the branch of
mechanics that deals with bodies at rest, while dynamics is the branch
that deals with bodies in motion. Fluid mechanics is defined as the
science that studies the behavior of fluids at rest (fluid statics) and in
motion (fluid dynamics), as well as their interactions with solids or other
fluids at the boundaries. By considering fluids at rest as a special case of
motion with zero velocity, fluid mechanics is also known as fluid
dynamics.

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 Executive Summary
?What Is a Fluid
A substance in the liquid or gas phase is referred to as a fluid. Distinction
between a solid and a fluid is made on the basis of the substance’s ability
to resist an applied shear (or tangential) stress that tends to change its
.shape

:Types of fluids
:Ideal fluid
A fluid is said to be ideal when it cannot be compressed and the viscosity doesn’t fall in the
.category of an ideal fluid. It is an imaginary fluid which doesn’t exist in reality

:Real fluid
.All the fluids are real as all the fluid possess viscosity

:Compressible and Incompressible Fluid

A flow is classified as being compressible or incompressible, depending on the level of variation
of density during flow. Incompressibility is an approximation, and a flow is said to be
incompressible if the density remains nearly constant throughout. Therefore, the volume of every
portion of fluid remains unchanged over the course of its motion when the flow (or the fluid) is
.incompressible

:The properties of the fluids that we will discuss

Density, Specific Gravity, Viscosity, Vapor Pressure, Cohesion And
Adhesion, Surface Tension ,Capillarity ,Compressibility.

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 DENSITY
Density is a very common and important property of matter. For a
liquid, density is defined as the mass contained in a unit volume. The
.more precise name for density is volumetric mass density
.The symbol used for density is the Greek letter ρ (rho)
Mathematically, density (ρ) is defined as the ratio between the mass (m)
:and the volume (V) of a substance/body
ρ=m/V
.The unit of measurement for density in SI is kg/m3
As you can see by examining
(Figure), the density of an object may
help identify its composition. The
density of gold, for example, is about
2.5 times the density of iron, which is
about 2.5 times the density of
aluminum. Density also reveals
something about the phase of the
matter and its substructure. Notice
that the densities of liquids and solids
are roughly comparable, consistent
with the fact that their atoms are in
close contact. The densities of gases
are much less than those of liquids
and solids, because the atoms in gases
are separated by large amounts of
.empty space
Density is a dimensional property; therefore, when comparing the
densities of two substances, the units must be taken into consideration.
For this reason, a more convenient, dimensionless quantity called the
.specific gravity is often used to compare densities
Density also depend on temperature. The density of solids and liquids
)Samuel J. Ling, 2016( .normally increase with decreasing temperature

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 SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Specific Gravity (Relative Density) - SG - is a dimensionless unit
defined as the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of water -
:at a specified temperature and can be expressed as
SG = ρ substance / ρH2O
where
SG = Specific Gravity of the substance
ρ substance = density of the fluid or substance [kg/m3]
ρH2O = density of water - normally at temperature 4 C [kg/m3]
It is common to use the density of water at 4 C (39oF) as a reference
since water at this point has its highest density of 1000 kg/m3 or 1.940
.slugs/ft3
Since Specific Gravity - SG - is dimensionless, it has the same value in
the SI system and the imperial English system (BG). SG of a fluid has the
same numerical value as its density expressed in g/mL or Mg/m3. Water
is normally also used as reference when calculating the specific gravity
.for solids
:Specific Gravity for some common Materials
Specific Weight is defined as weight per unit volume.
Weight is a force. The SI unit for specific weight is
.[N/m3]. The imperial unit is [lb/ft3]
Specific Weight (or force per unit volume) can be
: expressed as
γ = ρ ag
where
γ = specific weight (N/m3], [lb/ft3]
ρ = density [kg/m3], [slugs/ft3]
ag = acceleration of gravity (9.807 [m/s2], 32.174
[ft/s2] under normal conditions). (ahmed, 2019)

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 VISCOSITY
Most fluids offer some resistance to motion, and we call this resistance
“viscosity.” Viscosity arises when there is relative motion between
layers of the fluid. More precisely, it measures resistance to flow arising
due to the internal friction between the fluid layers as they slip past one
another when fluid flows. Viscosity can also be thought of as a measure
.of a fluid’s thickness or its resistance to objects passing through it
A fluid with large viscosity resists motion because its strong
intermolecular forces give it a lot of internal friction, resisting the
movement of layers past one another. On the contrary, a fluid with low
viscosity flows easily because its molecular makeup results in very little
friction when it is in motion. Gases also exhibit viscosity, but it is harder
.to notice in ordinary circumstances
:Viscosity Definition
: The definition of viscosity is as follows
Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s
resistance to flow.
:Viscosity Types
Viscosity is the measure of fluid’s
friction to its flow. There are two ways to
: measure the fluid’s viscosity as follows
Dynamic Viscosity (Absolute Viscosity)
Kinematic Viscosity
The viscosity of most fluids obeys
simple laws which can be expressed by
mathematical equations. Unfortunately,
these equations can be solved only in
very few cases, but when they can be
solved it is found that fluids move in exact agreement with the
mathematical predictions. The figure shows a high-pressure viscometer.
(ayodele, 2018) (G.J.Taylor, 1937)

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 VAPOR PRESSURE
The vapor pressure of a substance is the pressure that the gaseous part
of the substance exerts on the container of said substance.
Vapor pressures are dependent only on temperature and nothing else. The
vapor pressure of a liquid does not depend on the amount on the liquid in
the container, be it one liter or thirty liters; at the same temperature, both
samples will have the same vapor pressure. Vapor pressures have an
exponential relationship with temperature and always increase as
temperature increases (Figure 2: Vapor Pressure Curves). It is important
to note that when a liquid is boiling, its vapor pressure is equal to the
external pressure. For example, as water boils at sea level, its vapor
pressure is 1 atmosphere because the external pressure is also 1
atmosphere.
Differential manometer and vapor-
pressure cell The construction of the
bellows-type differential manometer,
which is similar in principle to that
described by East & Kuhn (1946), is
shown in detail in figure 2a.The mirror
reflects a parallel beam of light on to a
scale approximately 1 m away, and
movement of this spot of light
measures directly the pressure
difference across the bellows. The
zero position of the spot was determined with tap Tx open, and the
defluxion of the spot with a known pressure difference across the bellows
was found to be proportional to the pressure difference. Movement
of 1mm on the scale corresponded almost exactly to a pressure
change of 0-02 mm Hg. In making vapor-pressure measurements it
was thus not necessary to balance the vapor pressure exactly, since
small differences could be determined from the spot reading. Thermal
expansion effects in the bellows manometer gave rise to a small change
of zero with temperature; this was determined in an experiment with the
two sides of the manometer in communication, and was taken into
account when calculating the results. (P.W.Allen, 1951) (shuyang, 2020)

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 COHRSION AND
ADHESION
:Cohesion Definition
Cohesion, as is also mentioned prior, is a property of molecules, typically
similar in nature, to bond with one another. Cohesive forces correspond
to Van Der Waals forces and hydrogen bonding that often cause liquid
substances, much like water, to hold out against separation. For instance,
when a glass is poured with a liquid substance, adhesive and cohesive
forces together make an impact to withstand any force of separation.
.strong cohesive forces help create droplets of water on the surface
:Adhesion Definition
Adhesion, on the opposite side, is the property of molecules, mainly
different in nature, to bond with one another. For instance, solid
substances usually have a high
cohesive tendency which is why they
try sticking to surfaces they connect to.
Adhesive forces mainly result due to
electrostatic forces, especially exerted
on different substances which have
contrasting properties. Strong adhesive
forces cause liquid substances, like
water, to outspread over the given
surface. However, in most cases, both phenomena vary in strength,
especially based on the nature of the surroundings.
:Difference Between Adhesion and Cohesion
Adhesion and cohesion vary in nature, but still co-exist with one another.
Here are differences between the both of them.

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(Das, 2022) (Gao, 2015)

SURFACE TENSION
Surface tension is basically defined as the tensile force acting on the
surface of a liquid in contact with gas such as air or on the surface
between two immiscible liquids. Surface tension is basically the tensile
force per unit length of the surface of liquid and therefore unit of surface
.tension will be N/m.Surface tension will be displayed by the symbol σ
Surface tension not only depends upon the forces of attraction between
the particles within the given liquid but also on the forces of attraction of
solid, liquid or gas in contact with it. The energy responsible for the
phenomenon of surface tension may be thought of as approximately
equivalent to the work or energy required to remove the surface layer of
.molecules in a unit area
Surface tension is typically measured in dynes/cm, the force in dynes is
required to break a film of length 1 cm.
(1) The surface tension of a liquid can be determined in absolute units by
measuring the volume of drops by means of the micrometer syringe.
(2) The slow fall of “static” surface tension in the newly-formed surface
of a solution of a hydrophilic colloid can be followed by this method.
(3) The apparent viscous-elasticity of the surface of saponin solutions is
clearly shown by the changes which occur in the shape of drops. The
rapid changes can be explained in terms of the changes which must occur
in the concentration of saponin in the surface. It is suggested that the
slow changes are due to the diffusion of saponin.
(4) It is suggested that the slow changes which occur in the tension of
certain plastic bodies following a strain may also be due to the diffusion
of molecules into positions where they affect the tension.

(Inga, 2019) (Kurt Schwenk, 2019)

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 CAPILLARITY
Capillarity is an invisible force that works against the force of gravity.
It pushes a liquid up in a tube or a narrow pipe. This rising of liquid is the
capillary action. We call such liquid capillary water because the water
.follows the principle of capillarity
In this article, we will learn how to do the capillary definition, discuss the
capillary action definition, explain capillary action, understand the
capillary water meaning, define capillary action, and understand the
.capillary action in detail
Capillarity is the ability of a liquid to move through a second liquid due
to attraction, and is one of the fundamental physical properties of all
fluids. It can be defined as the rate at which liquids move across a surface
(wetted or not) or between two surfaces.
Define Capillary Action
Capillary action is the force or an effort
made to push the liquid by fighting the
gravitational force of attraction. Also,
after a certain amount of time, the liquid
falls. This fall occurs when the liquid
.faces a surface tension
For measuring the temperature of our body, we use a clinical
thermometer. Generally, a digital thermometer takes 60 seconds to
determine the temperature. So, there is another thermometer, which is a
mercury thermometer, which displays the temperature in the form of
mercury rise. The division at which the mercury rise stops is the ultimate
body temperature. So, here, the mercury rise is the capillary action. Here,
we also notice that after some time, the mercury falls. So, the rise and fall
of mercury is also a capillary action.
(Phillips, 2017) (J.S.Rowlinson, 1982)

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 COMPRESSIBILITY
In thermodynamics and fluid mechanics, the compressibility (also
known as the coefficient of compressibility or, if the temperature is held
constant, the isothermal compressibility ) is a measure of the
instantaneous relative volume change of a fluid or solid as a response to a
pressure (or mean stress) change. In its simple form, the compressibility
{\display style \kappa}\kappa (denoted β in some fields) may be
expressed as

where V is volume and p is pressure. The choice to define

compressibility as the negative of the fraction makes compressibility
positive in the (usual) case that an increase in pressure induces a
reduction in volume. The reciprocal of compressibility at fixed
temperature is called the isothermal bulk modulus.
The degree of compressibility of a fluid has strong implications for its
dynamics. Most notably, the propagation of sound is dependent on the
compressibility of the medium.
Compressibility is an important factor in aerodynamics. At low speeds,
the compressibility of air is not significant in relation to aircraft design,
but as the airflow nears and exceeds the speed of sound, a host of new
aerodynamic effects become important in the design of aircraft. These
effects, often several of them at a time, made it very difficult for World
War II era aircraft to reach speeds much beyond 800 km/h (500 mph).
:Negative compressibility
For ordinary materials, the bulk compressibility (sum of the linear compressibility's
on the three axes) is positive, that is, an increase in pressure squeezes the material to a
smaller volume. This condition is required for mechanical stability.[8] However,
under very specific conditions, materials can exhibit a compressibility that can be
negative.[9] The kind of material that would have such properties are human-made
ones that are composed of micromechanical unit cells composed of small levers,
joints, and hinges surrounded by open space, and in which the lever system results in
a contraction in one direction if a compressive force is applied in the opposite
direction(s). (B.Widom, 2012)

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 Conclusion
Finally, knowing the most important characteristics of
fluids allows us to deal with the conditions or problems
that civil engineers may encounter and adapt fluids to
our needs. Many villages, cities and civilizations grew up
on the use of windmills in rivers to produce energy, as
well as dams. Therefore, the properties of fluids must be
well known and studied in order to produce such
inventions that changed the course of history.

References
ahmed. (2019, 5 3). Density vs. Specific Weight and Specific Gravity. Retrieved from the engineering
toolbox: https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/density-specific-weight-gravity-d_290.html

ayodele, s. (2018, 5 3). Viscosity. Retrieved from BYJS: https://byjus.com/physics/viscosity/

B.Widom. (2012). coefficient of compressibility. Tokyo : Glossary of Meteorology.

Das, S. (2022, 4 5). Difference Between Adhesion and Cohesion. Retrieved from collegedunia:
https://collegedunia.com/exams/difference-between-adhesion-and-cohesion-chemistry-
articleid-4857

G.J.Taylor. (1937). Viscosity of Liquids. Paris: the royal society.

Gao, Y. (2015). COHRSION AND ADHESION. Sydney: the royal society.

Inga, L. (2019, 5 3). What is Surface Tension? Retrieved from BYJUS:

https://byjus.com/physics/surface-tension/

J.S.Rowlinson. (1982). Molecular Theory of Capillarity. New York: Google books.

Kurt Schwenk. (2019). USA: THE ROYAL SOCIETY.

P.W.Allen. (1951). The thermodynamics of hydrocarbon solutions. Manchester: the royal society .

Phillips, J. R. (2017, 5 3). Capillarity Meaning. Retrieved from VEDANTA:

https://www.vedantu.com/physics/capillarity

Samuel J. Ling. (2016). University Physics volume. Paris: OpenStax.

shuyang. (2020, 11 22). Vapor Pressure. Retrieved from LibreTexts:

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Ma
ps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/
Physical_Properties_of_Matter/States_of_Matter/Properties_of_Liquids/Vapor_Pressure

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