Unit One: No place like home

1- The tense system

Passive and Active Voices

The following table summarizes the most common cases of active and passive
voices‟ examples according to the tense of the sentence:

Active Passive Tense

Reporters write news News reports are written by Present Tense
reports. reporters.
Mike is baking a cake. A cake is being baked by Mike. Present
Continuous
Jean Rhys wrote “Wide “Wide Saragasso Sea” was written Past Simple
Saragasso Sea”. by Jean Rhys.
They were decorating the The hall was being decorated Past Continuous
hall when I arrived. when I arrived.
Lisa has recorded a song. A song has been recorded by Lisa. Present Perfect
They are going to knock The old library is going to be Future (Going to)
down the old library. knocked down.
I will make it tomorrow. It will be made tomorrow. Future (Will)

Examples:

Harry ate six shrimp at dinner. (active)

At dinner, six shrimp were eaten by Harry. (passive)

We are going to watch a movie tonight. (active)

A movie is going to be watched by us tonight. (passive)

The crew paved the entire stretch of highway. (active)

The entire stretch of highway was paved by the crew. (passive)

I will clean the house every Saturday. (active)

The house will be cleaned by me every Saturday. (passive)

She faxed her application for a new job. (active)

The application for a new job was faxed by her. (passive)

The teacher always answers the students‟ questions. (active)

The students‟ questions are always answered by the teacher. (passive)

Who taught you to ski? (active)

By whom were you taught to ski? (passive)

The cleaning crew vacuums and dusts the office every night. (active)
Every night the office is vacuumed and dusted by the cleaning crew. (passive)
Who ate the last cookie? (active)
The last cookie was eaten by whom? (passive)

Headway Plus Workbook (page 4-6):

1. Identifying tenses
2. Correcting mistakes
4. Active or passive

2. Auxiliary verbs (be, do, and have):

An auxiliary verb helps the main (full) verb and is also called a "helping verb."
With auxiliary verbs, you can write sentences in different tenses, moods, or voices.
Auxiliary verbs are: be, do, have, will, shall, would, should, can, could, may,
might, must, ought, etc.
Follow the Grammar reference Page 140 (Student‟s book) for more details.

Examples:

1- You are lying. (be: present)

2- I have been swimming. (be: present perfect)
3- She doesn‟t understand. (do: negative)
4- I‟m not interested in sport, but I do like tennis. (do: express emphasis)
5- My car had broken down before. (have: past perfect)

Headway Plus Workbook (page 7):

6. Have, be, or do?

 Unit Two: Been there, done that!

1- Reading (Paradise lost) pages 20-21

2- Present perfect simple and continuous :(Student‟s book, page 141-142)
Compare the meaning of the following sentences:
I lived in Rome. (but not anymore)
I have lived in Rome, Paris, and New York. (I know all these cities now)
I have been living in New York for ten years. (and I‟m living there now)
Present perfect relates the past actions to the present time. Simple and
continuous present perfect have three main uses:
 Unfinished past
The verb action began in the past and continues to the present. It possibly goes
on into future as well.
- We‟ve lived in this house for twenty years.
- I‟ve been working at the same school all that time.

Notes:

1- There is a little or no difference between the simple and the continuous.

I‟ve played tennis since I was a kid.
I‟ve been playing tennis since I was a kid.
2- The continuous can sometimes suggest a more temporary situation, and the
simple can sound more permanent.
I‟ve been living with a host family for six weeks.
The castle has stood on the hill overlooking the sea for centuries.
3- Verbs that suggest duration by their definition (for example: rain, wait,
snow, learn, sit, play, stay) are often expressed in the continuous form:
It‟s been raining all day.
She‟s been sitting reading for hours.
 Present result:
The verb action happened in the past, usually the recent past and the result of
the action are felt now. The simple emphasizes the completed action and the
continuous emphasizes the repeated activities over a period of time.
 You have changed. What have you done to yourself?
I‟ve been doing some exercise.

 Indefinite past
The verb action happened at an unspecified time in the past. The actual time
isn‟t important since we are focusing on the experience at some time in our
life.
Have you ever taken karate classes?
She‟s never been abroad.

Headway Plus Workbook (page 11): exercises 1 and 2

Page 14: 4. Present perfect passive

 Unit Three: What a story!
Narrative tenses (Student‟s book pp. 142-143)

Narrative tenses are verb tenses that are used to talk about the past. They are often
found in stories and descriptions of past events, such as personal anecdotes.

Use the past simple for completed actions in the past which tell the main event in
a story.

I picked up the phone and ordered a pizza.

She took a deep breath, tried to calm down and then spoke.

(Present Continuous)

Use the past continuous:

a) to set the general scene of a story

The music was playing softly, and the guests were arriving one by one.
The wind was blowing gently and the birds were singing the best songs ever.

He was moving very fast, looking around and giving orders to the other police
officers around.

b) to talk about actions in progress at or around a particular point in a story, often

interrupted by another (shorter) action or event (usually in the past simple).

He was talking loudly when the waiter brought his food.

Everybody was working in the office when the electricity went off.

She was making jokes and telling anecdotes when the teacher asked her a
difficult question.

Use the past perfect to talk about actions or situations that were completed before
another action in the story. The actions are often mentioned out of time sequence,
and the past perfect makes the order clear.

Before I called him, I had prepared a farewell speech.

She went to bed and took a good night sleep after she had finished all the
housework.
 (Present Continuous)

Use the past perfect continuous to talk about longer actions or situations which
started before and continued up to a point in the story.

She had been studying for hours when she found out the exam was cancelled.

They had been talking about the details of the party for a couple of hours, so
when I asked them whether they wanted a break, they all agreed.

Required exercises:

- Writing narratives (2) page 28 (student‟s book)

- Narrative tenses exercise 1, 2, 3 pp 18-19 (workbook)
- Revision of active and passive pp 21 (workbook)
 Unit Four

Nothing but the Truth

Questions and Negatives (Student‟s book pp144)

Question forms:

 Questions with no auxiliary verb:

Who broke the window?
What happens at the end of the book?
 Questions with prepositions at the end
Who is your letter from?
What are you talking about?
 Question words + noun/ adjective/adverb
What sort of music do you like?
How big is their new home?
How fast does your car go?
 Other ways of asking why?
What did you do that for?
How come you got here before us? (to express surprise)

What and Which

 What and which are used with nouns to make questions

What size shoes do you take?
Which of these curries is the hottest?
 Sometimes, there‟s no difference between using what and which
What/Which is the biggest city in the world?
 Use “which” the speaker has a limited number of choices in his mind:
There‟s a blue one and a red one. Which do you want?
 Use “what” if the speaker is not thinking of a limited number of choices:
What car do you drive?
Asking for descriptions:

 What is ---- like? Used to give some information about (---) because we
don‟t have any information about it
What‟s your capital city like?
 How is -----? Asking about a person‟s health and happiness
How is your mother these days?
How was your journey?
How‟s your new job going?

Forming negatives:

1- By adding “not” after the auxiliary verb and adding do/does/did if there‟s
no auxiliary verb.
I haven‟t seen him for ages
We don‟t like big dogs.
2- The verb “have” has two forms in the present:
(I don‟t have/ I haven‟t got) any money, but I didn‟t have any money.
3- Infinitives and -ing forms can be negative:
We decided not to go outside.
I like not working. It suits me.
4- “Not” can go with other parts of a sentence:
Ask him, not me.
Buy me anything, but not perfume.
5- Negative ideas with verbs (think, believe, suppose, and imagine) we
make the first verb negative not the second.
I don‟t think you‟re right. I think you aren‟t
I don‟t suppose you want a game of tennis?
6- In short answers, the following forms are possible:
Are you coming? - I think so
- I believe so
- I hope so
- I don‟t think so
 - I hope not

Negative questions: Negative questions can express various ideas:

 Surprise: Haven‟t you finished school yet?

 Suggestion: Don‟t you think we should wait for them?
 Persuasion: Wouldn‟t it be better to go tomorrow?
 Criticism: Can‟t you see I‟m busy? Go away!
 Exclamation: Isn‟t it a lovely day!

Also, we can see the negative forms in “tag questions”:

You haven‟t done your homework yet, have you?

We‟ve met before, haven‟t we?

Required exercises:

1- Reading: “ The Apollo Moon Landing” page 40 (student‟s book)

2- Workbook pp 24-25: exercise 1, 2, 3 , and 4
3- Workbook pp 26-28: exercise 5, 7, and 8
 Unit Five

An Eye to the Future

This chapter is intentionally left

 Unit Six

Making it Big

Quantifiers (student‟s book pp 146-147)

 Quantifiers used with countable nouns only: (many, a few/few, several)

 Quantifiers used with uncountable nouns only: (much, a little/little, less)
 Quantifiers used with both countable and uncountable nouns: (some, any,
more/most, all/no, enough)
 Quantifiers used with singular countable nouns only: (each, every)
 Quantifiers used with plural countable nouns only: (both)

Notes:

 Most of quantifier (excluding not and every) can be used as follows:

( of + the/my/those, etc. + noun).

They took all of my money.

Some of the people at the match started leaving.

Both of my children are clever.

 For non and every, we use none and every one or all:
None of the audience was listening.
All of the hotels were booked.

Some, any, somebody, anything

 “Some” is used in affirmative sentences and “any” is used in negative

sentences and questions.

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 I need some help.

I need somebody to help me.

I don‟t need any help.

Did anyone call me last night?

 “Some” is used in request and invitations, or when expect the answer “yes”
Have you got some money you could lend me?
Can we go somewhere quiet to talk?
 “Any” is used in affirmative sentences that have a negative meaning
He never has any money.
I made the cake myself without any help.

Much, many, a lot of, lots of, a great deal of, a large number of, plenty of

 “Much” and “many” are used in questions and negatives.

How much does it cost?
How many people came to the meeting?
I don‟t have much money.
You don‟t see many snakes in England.
 “Much” and “many” are also used in affirmative sentences after (so, as, and too)
He has so much money that he doesn‟t know what to do with it.
You make too many mistakes. Be careful.
She hasn‟t got as many friends as I have.
 In affirmative sentences, the following is used in informal/ spoken English

There will be plenty of food/people. (uncount, count)

We‟ve got lots of time/friends. (uncount, count)

For written/ formal English:

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 A great deal of money was lost during the war. (count)

A large number of matches were cancelled due to bad weather. (uncount)

Little / few / less / fewer

 A little and a few express a small amount or number in a positive way.

Can you lend me a little sugar?
A few friends are coming tonight.
 little and few express a small amount in a negative way.
Very few people passed the exam.
There‟s very little milk left.
 Fewer is the comparative of few, less is the comparative of little.
Fewer people read books these days. (countable noun)
I spend less and less time doing what I want. (uncountable noun)

All

 Using “all” can have a negative meaning, expressing ideas like (nothing more or only
this):
All I want is a place to sleep.
 Before a noun with a determiner (the, my, this), both “all” and “all of” are possible:
You eat all (of) the time.
 Before a noun with no determiner, use “all”
All people are born equal.
 With personal pronouns, use “all of”

All of you passed. Well done!

I don‟t need these books. You can have all of them.

Required exercises:

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 Reading: “Apple Macintosh”, (student‟s book pp 59)
 Workbook pp 37-41 (exc. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7)

Unit Seven is intentionally left

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 Unit Eight

Relative Clauses

Student‟s book pp 149

There are two main types of relative clauses:

1- Defining relative (DR) clauses: this type qualifies a noun and tells exactly which
person or thing is being referred to.

Children who tells lies are odious.

There is no pause before and after the DR clause. This type is very common in spoken
English

Notes:

 We can leave out the relative pronoun if it is the object of the relative clause.

Did you like the present ( ) I gave you?

Who was that man ( ) you were talking about?

 We cannot leave out the pronoun if it is the subject of the clause.

I met a man. He works in advertising.

I met a man who works in advertising.

Person Thing
Subject Who (that) That (which)
Object ------- (that) ------- (that)

2- Non-defining relative (NDR) clauses: this type adds secondary information to a

sentence, almost afterthought:
My friend Andrew, who is Scottish, plays guitar very well.

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 There is a pause and comma before and after the NDR clause. This type is very
common in written English

Relative pronouns as subject (NRD)

Paul Jennings, who has written several books, addressed the meeting.

His last book, which received a lot of praise, has been a great success.

Relative pronouns as object (NRD)

Paul Jennings, who I knew at university, addressed the meeting.

His last book, which I couldn‟t understand at all, has been a great success.

Person Thing
Subject ….Who … ….which….
Object … who (whom)… ….which….

Which: can be used in NDR clauses to refer to the whole of the sentence before:

She arrived on time, which amazed everybody.

He gave away all his money, which I thought was ridiculous.

Whose: used in both DR and NDR clauses:

That‟s the woman whose son was killed recently. (DR clause)

My parents, whose only interest is gardening, never go away on holiday. (NDR clause)

What: is used in DR clauses to mean the thing that.

Has she told you what‟s worrying her?

Why, When, Where:

Why is used in DR clauses to mean (the reason why)

I don‟t know why we‟re arguing.

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When and where can be used in DR and NDR clauses.

Tell me when you expect to arrive. (describing time) (DR)

The hotel where we stayed was excellent. (describing place) (DR)

He works in Oxford, where my sister lives. (NDR)

Required exercises:

Exercises from pages 50-54 (workbook)

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 Unit Twelve

Articles

Articles are the forms a, an, and the, it is a part of speech that comes before a noun.

The Indefinite Articles (a/an)

 The form a is used before a word beginning with a consonant, or a vowel with a
consonant sound:
a plane a one-way

 The form an is used before words beginning with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u) or words
beginning with a silent h:
an iron an hour
 Use of the indefinite articles:
The indefinite articles (a/an) are used:
(1) Before a singular noun which is countable (i.e. of which there is more than one) when
it is mentioned for the first time and represents no particular person or thing:
The four centers lie in a plane.

(2) With a noun complement:

The noun complement is a word or phrase used to complete a grammatical
construction. There are two kinds of noun complements; subject complement and
object complement.
A subject complement is a predicative expression that follows a linking verb (the term
linking verb is used to refer to verbs that describe the subject or link the subject to
some complement such as a predicate adjective or predicate noun) and that completes
the subject of the sentence by either renaming it or describing it.

The subject complement is bold in the following examples:

The lake was a tranquil pool.

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 Predicate adjective

It was an earthquake.

Predicate noun

The object complement is a noun, pronoun, or adjective which follows a direct object.

The advisor sent him a paper

Indirect object (entity indirectly affected by the action)

The Definite Article (the)

The definite article (the) is used with countable nouns in the singular/plural and
uncountable nouns in the meaning “mentioned earlier.”
 Use of the definite articles:
The definite article (the) is used:
(1) In generalizations with singular countable nouns to refer to a class of things.
The brain is a complex biological system.

(2) Before the superlative degrees of adjectives, ordinal numerals, and specifies (such
as same, only, principal, etc.).
The best results were obtained during the second experiment.

Superlative degree of adjective Ordinal numbers

The only paper on this problem was published ten years ago.
(3) With the names of unique objects.
The Universe is thought to contain 1011 kilograms of matter.

(4) With the names of theories and devices modified by a proper name used as an
adjective:
The Dirichlet problem, the Celsius scale
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BUT: when a proper name is used in possessive form, no article is used:
Dirichlet‟s conditions

Note:

The definite article “the” is not used with the first mention of the constructions that
denote part of a whole:
a molecule of hydrogen

Zero article:

- No article is used with plural and uncountable nouns when talking about things in
general

Computers have changed our lives.

I hate burgers

- No article is used with meals:

Have you had lunch yet?

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 Linking Words
When you are writing, it is important that the connections between your ideas are made
very clear. The following linking words or phrases can be used to provide your reader
with indications about how ideas are connected in your writing:

1- Addition: to add to what has been previously stated: In addition, furthermore,

also, and, as well as.
2- Condition: to provide a condition to what has been previously stated: if, in that
case, unless…
3- Sequence: to show sequence: First, firstly, second, secondly, third, thirdly, next,
last, finally.
4- Illustration: to provide examples: for example, for instance, to illustrate, to
demonstrate.
5- Cause: to provide reasons for what has been stated or has occurred: For, because,
since, as, because of, to cause

6- Effect: to provide effect of what has been stated or has occurred: So, as a result, as
a consequence, therefore, thus, consequently, hence, to result from, due to, as a
result/consequence of, to result in, to affect.

7- Contrast: to show how things are different: However, nevertheless, nonetheless,

still, although, even though, though, but, yet, despite, in spite of, in contrast, in
comparison, while, whereas, on the other hand, on the contrary, but.

8- Comparison: to show how things are similar: Similarly, likewise, also, too, as, just
as, like , just like, similar to, be similar to/ the same as, be alike, not only…but
also, to compare to/with

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9- Emphasis: to put forward a point or idea more forcefully: Undoubtedly, indeed,
obviously, generally, admittedly, in theory/fact, particularly, especially, clearly.

10- Summary: to sum up what has been previously stated: in conclusion, in short, to
sum up, in summary, to conclude.
Example:
Insert appropriate connective words in the following sentences?
Our state‟s correctional system is plagued with problems. (a) -------------(example) , high
officials increase their personal wealth by awarding building and catering contracts to
disreputable companies in return for bribes .
(b)---------(addition) , promotions within the system are made on the basis of politics , not
merit. (c)------- (effect) , the system is filled with people at the top who know little about
what they are doing. (d)------(addition) , careless security measures , allowing trusted
inmates to control certain operations of the institution , are part of the growing problem .
But one increasing tendency in particular is doing harm to the system‟s image and
efficiency. This is the tendency of officials who are charged with important tasks and
who make faulty decisions to cover up their mistakes. (e)---------(conclusions) , one
would think that amid all the strife some effort would be made to rectify these problems ,
but a seemingly dogged determination to resist change overshadows the system.

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 Punctuation
Punctuation is simply about a series of conventions that make it easier for readers
to follow your train of thought. The following sections give the rules how to use
punctuations correctly:

1- Full Stops

Full stop is round dot written at the end of sentence and indicates the end of a complete
thought.
Example:
There are several techniques available for enhancing the stability of embankments.

Notes:

• Make sure that the letter following a full stop is always a capital letter.

• Avoid using too many commas in your writing.

2- Commas

Commas are used to divide up groups of words within a sentence. The main function of
the comma is to:

 Break up parts of longer sentences - for example:

After the main points had been presented, the students were asked for their
comments.
The comma in this example neatly divides the meaning into two parts. If there were no
comma, the reader would read, “presented the students...” As a word group, and this
would not make sense without re-reading for clarification.

 Present items in a list. For example:

I would like to watch the video, take notes, and then be ready to ask questions.
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The entree includes chips, salsa, and a beverage.

 Used between independent clauses (complete sentences) joined by a

coordinating conjunction: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so.

My family went to see the live taping of Ru Paul's Drag Race, but I stayed home with the
flu.

 Used with words or phrases that give more information about another
word.

For example:
Therefore, in order to represent structural problems realistically, some forms of
nonlinear relation must be used.

 Divide words which refer to the subject of a sentence. For example:

The President of the Society, Julie Jones, received a standing ovation after her speech.

 Separate introductory words (a group of words before the subject of a

sentence that do not form a complete sentence). For example:

When the rain stops, they will go out into the site.
Since we would be returning late anyway, we stayed to watch the sunset.

 Punctuate certain relative clauses (i.e. parts of a sentence beginning

with „who‟, „which‟, or „whose‟). For example:

The College, which is located in the center of Canterbury, has an excellent academic
reputation.

 Separate paired adjectives that describe a noun. You need comma between
adjectives that could go in any order—they‟re no cumulative and could be separated by

25
the word “and.” Do not use a comma between adjectives that need to be in a particular
order. For example:

They serve cheap delicious meat. (Incorrect)

They serve cheap, delicious meat. (Correct)

3- Colons : should be used only to:

 Introduce a list. For example:

An essay usually includes the following components: an introduction, a main body of

text, and a conclusion.

 To show a link between the units of meaning, like a hinge. For example:

The results of the survey were very clear: there was a need for a change in policy.

 Never use a colon after a verb that directly introduces a list.

The things on my mind are: papers, grades, and finals. (Incorrect)

The things on my mind are the following: papers, grades, and finals. (Correct)

4- Semi-colons are extremely useful in long sentences, but be careful not to over-use
them. They are typically used as follows:
 To provide a break in a sentence, while showing the relationship between the
two parts. For example:

He ran down the stairs; he reached the door; he opened it.

 To express an idea which is too short to merit a new sentence. For example:
Wherever possible, students should try to organize their academic work by using
„planning tools‟; these can help to clarify ideas.
 Help to avoid confusion between items in lists where there are already commas.
For example:

26
She traveled to Sao Paulo, Brazil; Seoul, South Korea; and Nairobi, Kenya.

 In some cases semi-colons are followed by linking words, as in:

They were unsure about the outcome of the assignment they were about to undertake;
nevertheless, they would try their best.

5- Hyphens

Hyphens are used to form compound words or join word units.

 Use hyphens with compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine and with
fractions used as modifiers (adjectives).

Three thousand five hundred and sixty-seven students

Two-thirds majority (vs. “two thirds of the voters”)

 Use hyphens in a compound adjective only when it comes before the word it
modifies. Examples:

A well-liked author (an author who is well liked)

A well-known actor (an actor who is well known)

6- Apostrophes

Apostrophes should be used:

 To show possession (belonging to). For example:

Einstein‟s theory (meaning “The theory of Einstein”)

That pen is Simon‟s.
Jasmine‟s examination papers
The students‟ belongings … (plural noun)
Psychologists‟ theories have suggested … (plural noun)

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 Improve Your Paper by Writing Structured Paragraphs
In academic writing, effective paragraphs serve as building blocks to construct a complex
analysis or argument. Paragraphing helps readers to understand and process your ideas
into meaningful units of thought.

 What do paragraphs do?

Imagine reading this page without paragraph breaks. Paragraphs create order and logic by
helping your reader recognizes the boundaries where one point ends and another begins.

 How long should a paragraph be?

In a first draft, it may make sense to set a goal for length. For example, you can set a goal
of writing four to six sentences per paragraph: in that number of sentences you can
announce an idea, prove that idea with evidence, and explain why this evidence matters
by linking it to the overall goal of your paper.

You will generally read and write longer paragraphs in academic papers. However, too
many long paragraphs can provide readers with too much information to manage at one
time. Readers need planned pauses or breaks when reading long complex papers in order
to understand your presented ideas. Remember this writing mantra: "Give your readers a
break!" or "Good paragraphs give one pause!"

 Paragraph Structure

Most paragraphs in an essay have a three-part structure: introduction, body, and

conclusion. You can see this structure in paragraphs whether they are describing,
comparing, contrasting, or analyzing information. Each part of the paragraph plays an
important role in communicating your meaning to your reader.

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1- Introduction: the first section of a paragraph; should include the topic sentence and
any other sentences at the beginning of the paragraph that give background
information or provide a transition.
2- Body: follows the introduction; discusses the controlling idea, using facts,
arguments, analysis, examples, or other information.
3- Conclusion: the final section; summarizes the connections between the information
discussed in the body of the paragraphs and the paragraph's controlling idea.

Example:

The following paragraph illustrates this pattern of organization. In this paragraph both the
topic sentence and the concluding sentence (printed in boldface) help the reader keep the
paragraph's main point in mind.

Scientists have learned to supplement the sense of sight in numerous ways. In front
of the tiny pupil of the eye they put, on Mount Palomar, a great monocle 200 inches in
diameter, and with it see 2000 times farther into the depths of space. Or they look through
a small pair of lenses arranged as a microscope into a drop of water or blood, and
magnify by as much as 2000 diameters the living creatures there, many of which are
among man's most dangerous enemies. Or, if we want to see distant happenings on earth,
they use some of the previously wasted electromagnetic waves to carry television images
which they re-create as light by whipping tiny crystals on a screen with electrons in a
vacuum. Or they can bring happenings of long ago and far away as colored motion
pictures, by arranging silver atoms and color-absorbing molecules to force light waves
into the patterns of the original reality. Or if we want to see into the center of a steel
casting or the chest of an injured child, they send the information on a beam of
penetrating shortwave X rays, and then convert it back into images we can see on a
screen or photograph. Thus almost every type of electromagnetic radiation yet
discovered has been used to extend our sense of sight in some way.
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Another sample paragraph

Unfortunately, to map the entire reticle with a single measurement, a 12 in. beam
expander is needed. With such a large optical system, the expander must be held rigidly,
not allowing it to tip or tilt. Since the UW-CMC mount must remain vertical to be
effective, it cannot be used in this scenario. Consequently, the application of this mount is
limited. Thus, a number of new designs have been proposed by industry to address
the alignment issues and provide for other options, such as automated handling.

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