MODELING FOR CASTING AND

SOLIDIFICATION PROCESSING
 MATERIALS ENGINEERING

1. Modem Ceramic Engineering: Properties, Processing, and Use in

Design: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, David W. Richer-
son
2. Introduction to Engineering Materials: Behavior, Properties, and
Selection, G. T. Murray
3. Rapidly Solidified Alloys: Processes • Structures • Applications, edited
by Howard H. Uebermann
4. Fiber and Whisker Reinforced Ceramics for Structural Applications,
David Belitskus
5. Thermal Analysis of Materials, Robert F. Speyer
6. Friction and Wear of Ceramics, edited by Said Jahanmir
7. Mechanical Properties of Metallic Composites, edited by Shojiro
Ochiai
8. Chemical Processing of Ceramics, edited by Burtrand I. Lee and
Edward J. A. Pope
9. Handbook of Advanced Materials Testing, edited by Nicholas P.
Cheremisinoff and Paul N. Cheremisinoff
10. Ceramic Processing and Sintering, M. N. Rahaman
11. Composites Engineering Handbook, edited by P. K Mallick
12. Porosity of Ceramics, Roy W. Rice
13. lntermetallic and Ceramic Coatings, edited by Narendra B. Dahotre
and T. S. Sudarshan
14. Adhesion Promotion Techniques: Technological Applications, edited
by K L. Mittal and A. Pizzi
15. Impurities in Engineering Materials: Impact, Reliability, and Control,
edited by Clyde L. Briant
16. Ferroelectric Devices, Kenji Uchino
17. Mechanical Properties of Ceramics and Composites: Grain and Par-
ticle Effects, Roy W. Rice
18. Solid Lubrication Fundamentals and Applications, Kazuhisa Miyoshi
19. Modeling for Casting and Solidification Processing, edited by Kuang-
O(Oscar) Yu

Additional Volumes in Preparation

2002
Foreword

Modeling of casting and solidification processes, as we think of it today, can be

traced back to the precomputer days of the first half of the twentieth century.
To pick just a few examples, the first application of the error function solution
to the solidification of ingots was in 1930. An elegant mathematical solution to
the microsegregation problem was available in the 1940s. Simple fluid flow
analyses were widely employed by foundrymen in the 1950s and thereafter.
Of course, because of analytical and computational limitations, these models
were necessarily highly simplified and therefore of only limited practical value.
With the advent of the computer and its development in the 1960s, the
situation began to change quickly. The 1960s saw the development of quite
detailed models for flow and solidification in complex sand castings and in
continuous castings. From that point on, the steady and rapid advance of
speed and power of computers has changed the world of design and production
of cast metal parts. Today computation is an essential tool in modem foundries
and cast shops for mold and process design and process control.
In a book I coauthored 40 years ago, we wrote that "metal casting has
traditionally been an art and a craft, with secrets of the trade passed jealously
from father to son. Only in the last century have science and engineering made
noticeable in-roads on materials and processes of the foundrymen. But casting
will always be one of the most economical routes from raw material to finished
metal products, and it was inevitable the art of the founder would yield to the
economy and precision of the engineering approach."
Those words were correct then, but this book shows how much truer they
are today. The engineering "rules of thumb" of which we were so proud at
mid-century have yielded to the precision of modem modeling. The guesses
and the trials and errors we made in reaching suitable gating and risering

Ill
lv Foreword

processes have yielded to modem computational packages-with final results

far better optimized than those we achieved with our mid-century "combina-
tion of art and science." Of course, in one sense the metal casting "art" of the
future will survive; in using modeling in new and innovative ways to produce
better components more inexpensively and quickly.
The combination of theory and application presented in this book repre-
sents the "new engineering" of casting processes. It is recommended reading
for the experienced as well as for the newcomer to the metal casting field, to
provide tools for the present as well as an understanding of the direction and
power of this new engineering.

Merton C. Flemings
Toyota Professor of Materials Processing
Department of Materials Science and Engineering
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Cambridge, Massachusetts
Preface

Modeling is a method that uses mathematical equations and computer algo-

rithms to represent certain physical phenomena. The application of modeling
techniques to solve engineering problems provides many advantages over con-
ventional trial-and-error methods. With the rapid advances in computer hard-
ware and software, casting process modeling is being increasingly accepted by
foundries and molten metal processing plants as a viable engineering tool to
solve routine production problems. In order to effectively utilize modeling,
process engineers need to have a thorough understanding of the principles of
both casting/solidification processing and computer/numerical analysis.
Although numerous technical papers regarding casting process modeling
are being published in technical journals and conference proceedings each year,
very few books have attempted to provide a systematic introduction to the
casting process modeling technology. The objective of this book is therefore to
provide a comprehensive technical background as well as practical application
examples regarding the technology. The ultimate goal is to increase the appli-
cation of casting process modeling in production by enhancing the process
engineer's understanding of this technology. It can be used as a reference
book for process engineers in industry as well as casting/solidification research-
ers in academia and research institutes. In addition, it can also be used as a
textbook for graduate and undergraduate students, the source of future process
engineers in casting foundries and molten metal processing plants. This book
includes three parts: Theoretical Background, Application to Shape Castings,
and Application to Ingot Castings and Spray Forming. Presenting such an
extensive amount of information constitutes a tremendous task. The approach
that has been taken in the preparation of the book was to involve many experts

v
vi Preface

with different backgrounds. Indeed, 26 dedicated experts from industry,

research institutes, and academia contributed to this book.
I am grateful to the contributing authors for the time and effort they
devoted to their respective chapters. I also appreciate the contributions of Dr.
Francois Mollard, Mr. Patrick A. Russo, and Mr. Dun-Wei Yu, who assisted
by proofreading and commenting on the text. Last but not least, I would like to
acknowledge my secretary, Ms. Carol Muszik, who patiently prepared the
manuscript.

Kuang-0 (Oscar) Yu
Contents

Foreword Merton C. Flemings iii

Preface v
Contributors xi

1 Introduction
Kuang-0 (Oscar) Yu

PART I Theoretical Background

2 Fundamentals of Casting Process Modeling 17

Daniel L. Winterscheidt and Gene X. Huang

3 Stress Analysis 55
Umesh Chandra and Alauddin Ahmed

4 Defects Formation 95
Vijay Suri and Kuang-0 (Oscar) Yu

5 Microstructure Evolution 123

Doru M. Stefanescu

6 Thermophysical Properties 189

Juan J. Valencia and Kuang-0 (Oscar) Yu

vii
viii Contents

7 Quick Analysis 239

Chungqing Cheng

8 Electronic Data Interchange 263

Gerald M. Radack

PART II Application to Shape Castings

9 Sand Casting 291

Michael L. Tims and Qizhong Diao

10 Lost Foam Casting 317

Chengming Wang

11 Investment Casting 333

Dilip K. Banerjee and Kuang-0 (Oscar) Yu

12 Permanent Mold Casting 373

Chung- Whee Kim

13 Die Casting 391

Horacio Ahuett-Garza, R. Allen Miller, and Carroll E. Mobley

14 Semi-Solid Metalworking 417

Michael L. Tims

PART III Application to Ingot Castings and Spray Forming

15 Continuous Casting 499

Brian G. Thomas

16 Direct Chill Casting 541

Hallvard G. Fjar and Dag Mortensen

17 Vacuum Arc Remelting and Electroslag Remelting 565

Lee A. Bertram, Ramesh S. Minisandram, and Kuang-0 (Oscar) Yu

18 Electron Beam Melting and Plasma Arc Melting 613

Yuan Pang, Shesh Srivatsa, and Kuang-0 (Oscar) Yu
Contents lx

19 Spray Forming 655

Huimin Liu

Index 695
Contributors

Alauddin Ahmed Pratt & Whitney, East Hartford, Connecticut

Horacio Ahuett-Garza* Industrial, Welding, and Systems Engineering
Department, The Ohio State University, Columbus Ohio
Dilip K. Banerjee Global Product Engineering, GE Global Exchange
Services, Gaithersburg, Maryland
Lee A. Bertram Department of Chemical and Materials Process Modeling,
Sandia National Laboratories, Livermore, California
Umesh Chanda Modern Computational Technologies, Inc., Cincinnati, Ohio
Chunqing Cheng NetScreen Technologies, Inc., Sunnyvale, California
Qizhong Diao ASA T Inc., Fremont, California
Hallvard G. Fj~er Materials and Corrosion Technology Department, Institute
for Energy Technology, Kjeller, Norway
Gene X. Huang The Company Procter & Gamble, Cincinnati, Ohio
Chung-Whee Kim EKK Inc., Walled Lake, Michigan
Huimin Liu Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan
R. Allen Miller Industrial, Welding, and Systems Engineering Department,
The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
Ramesh S. Minisandram Research & Development, Allvac, an Allegheny
Technologies Company, Monroe, North Carolina
Carroll E. Mobley Materials Science and Engineering Department, The Ohio
State University, Columbus, Ohio

*Current affiliation: Center for Product Design and Innovation, ITESM Campus Monterrey,
Monterrey, Mexico

xi
xil Contributors

Dag Mortensen Materials and Corrosion Technology Department, Institute

for Energy Technology, Kjeller, Norway
Yuan Pang Concurrent Technologies Corporation, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Gerald M. Radack Concurrent Technologies Corporation, Johnstown,
Pennsylvania
Shesh Srivatsa Materials and Process Engineering Department, GE Aircraft
Engines, Cincinnati, Ohio
Doru M. Stefanescu Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering,
The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama
Vijay Suri ALCOA CSI, Crawfordsville, Indiana
Brian G. Thomas Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering,
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois
Michael L. Tims Concurrent Technologies Corporation, Johnstown,
Pennsylvania
Chengming Wang Concurrent Technologies Corporation, Johnstown,
Pennsylvania
Daniel L. Winterscheidt Concurrent Technologies Corporation, Johnstown,
Pennsylvania
Juan J. Valencia Concurrent Technologies Corporation, Johnstown,
Pennsylvania
Kuang-0 (Oscar) Yu RMI Titanium Company, Niles, Ohio
1
Introduction
Kuang-0 (Oscar) Yu
RMI Titanium Company, Niles, Ohio

I. WHY MODELING?

The production of almost all metallic components involves melting and solidi-
fication processes. When a molten metal is poured into a mold to make a
product with a specific shape, the process is called casting. However, in pro-
cesses such as water, gas, vacuum, and centrifugal atomization, the molten
metal is first disintegrated into small molten droplets which then solidify as
powder.
Casting and solidification processing involves many physical phenomena
such as fluid flow, heat transfer, electromagnetic force, thermal stress, defect
formation, and microstructure evolution. The quality of the final product
depends on the mechanisms of defect formation and microstructure evolution,
which are controlled by heat transfer, fluid flow, and thermal stress. How to
control processing parameters, such as metal superheat, pouring/casting speed,
and mold preheat temperature/cooling condition, to provide proper solidifica-
tion conditions and satisfactory quality castings, has been the subject of inten-
sive investigations.
In production environments, process engineers typically use the trial-and-
error method based on empirical relationships between processing parameters
and the quality of the resultant castings. This method usually leads to long
process development times and high production costs. Process modeling, on
the other hand, enables process engineers to make virtual castings using com-
puter techniques. As a result, the effects of processing parameters on the qual-
ity of the resultant castings can be evaluated without incurring the cost of
actually making castings. The processing parameters can easily be modified
until a set of processing parameters that will result in castings with satisfactory

1
2 Yu

quality is found. By applying casting process modeling, the time and cost of
developing new, and enhancing existing, processes can be significantly reduced.
As mentioned earlier, casting and solidification processing involve many
complex physical phenomena. Developing a comprehensive model to represent
all these phenomena is a very challenging task. From an engineering point of
view, it is not always possible or even necessary to have a comprehensive model
which simulates all the involved physical phenomena. In general, each casting
and solidification processing process has its own unique characteristics which
have a dominant effect on the quality of the resultant product. Thus, develop-
ing a model that provides an effective way to simulate these unique character-
istics is often not only technically sufficient, but also cost effective. In this
introduction chapter, a general description of the various metal manufacturing
processes and their applications is first presented. The modeling approach used
to effectively simulate the unique characteristics of each process is then dis-
cussed.

II. UNDERSTANDING METAL MANUFACTURING

PROCESSES

The knowledge necessary to establish a model that effectively simulates a

casting process is rooted in a general understanding of the various metal man-
ufacturing processes relying on casting as one of their key steps.
There are three basic types of metallic products: cast, wrought, and those
made by powder metallurgy (PM). Cast products are used in their as-cast form
with little or no machining. The most important feature of the shape casting
processes is the capability to produce near net shape components, resulting in
significant savings in machining cost. In addition, castings also permit design
simplification and parts count reduction. However, since no mechanical work
is applied to the final casting to refine its microstructure, mechanical properties
and microstructural uniformity are usually inferior to those of wrought pro-
ducts. Mechanical work such as forging, rolling, and extrusion is used to
change the shape and refine the microstructures of cast products, resulting in
wrought products which typically have finer microstructures and better
mechanical properties than the original cast products. The major disadvan-
tages of wrought products are the high machining cost and low material yield
typical of the conversion of the input stock into the final products. PM pro-
ducts are made by consolidating metal powder into near net shape compo-
nents. Conventional PM components usually have lower densities and
mechanical properties than wrought products. On the other hand, advanced
PM processes can produce fully densed materials which have mechanical prop-
erties that are equivalent to or better than those of wrought products.
Introduction 3

A. Cast Products
Many different casting processes are used to make shaped components; the
following sections briefly describe some of the most common.

1. Sand Casting
Sand casting is the most widely used shape casting process. It uses bonded sand
as the mold material and can produce castings that weigh from only a few
grams to more than a hundred tons. The sand casting process is applicable to a
wide range of metals including aluminum, steel, cast iron, etc. Sand cast pro-
ducts are used by almost all industries, from the high volume, cost sensitive
automobile industry to the high unit cost and top quality aerospace industry.
Sand casting is always performed in air atmosphere, with the sand mold at
room temperature. As a result, sand casting usually results in a relatively rough
surface product; it also has only a limited capability to make thin wall compo-
nents.

2. Investment Casting
The investment casting process uses ceramic molds and can be carried out in
vacuum as well as in air. The ceramic molds may be preheated to very high
temperatures (e.g., up to 1550°C for nickel-base superalloys), allowing for the
producing of thin wall castings. Because of the high ceramic mold preheat
temperatures, radiation heat loss from the mold surfaces strongly affects soli-
dification conditions. The use of the vacuum environment enables the invest-
ment casting of superalloys and titanium alloys, which have a chemical
composition otherwise difficult to control in air. On the other hand, aluminum
alloys, steels, and cobalt alloys are typically cast in air. Investment castings are
mostly used for aerospace and medical implant applications, which tend to
have a relative low production volume but high unit cost. Recently, investment
cast golf club heads have become an important nonaerospace application for
titanium alloys.

3. Lost Foam Casting

The lost foam casting process has features of both investment casting and sand
casting. It uses a coated polystyrene foam pattern imbedded in traditional
unbonded sand. During mold filling, the foam pattern is decomposed by the
heat of the molten metal. The metal replaces the foam pattern and duplicates
all the features of the pattern. The permeable refractory coating on the pattern
allows the gases from the decomposing foam to escape rapidly from the mold,
yielding castings with a smooth surface. The major advantage of the lost foam
casting process is that it can produce castings with a quality similar to that of
4 Yu

investment casting, but at a cost close to that of sand casting. Lost foam
castings (aluminum alloys and cast iron) are mostly used in the automobile
industry.

4. Permanent Mold Casting

Permanent mold casting uses metallic molds; cooling and/or heating channels
are sometimes imbedded in critical locations of the mold to facilitate the con-
trol of the solidification process. Permanent mold casting process is particu-
larly suitable for high volume production of castings with fairly uniform wall
thickness and limited undercuts or intricate internal coring. Compared to sand
casting, permanent mold casting can produce castings with more uniform wall
thickness, closer dimensional tolerances, superior surface finish, and improved
mechanical properties. Alloys that can be cast by the permanent mold casting
process include aluminum, magnesium, zinc, copper, and hypereutectic gray
iron. Because of the high cost of the metallic tooling, the permanent mold
casting process is primarily used for making high-volume components such
as those intended for automobile applications.

5. Die and Squeeze Casting

Die casting is another casting process using metallic dies/molds to make high-
volume components that are particularly suitable for the automobile industry.
However, instead of gravity mold filling as in the permanent mold casting
process, die casting relies on pressure to provide very rapid filling of the
metallic die. The jetting associated with the extremely rapid mold filling process
can cause the entrapment of air in the resultant castings. The entrapped air will
then expand to form bubbles during subsequent heat treatment. Because of
this, die castings are typically not heat treatable and are limited to applications
that do not require high mechanical strength. Recently, squeeze casting, one
special form of die casting, has been developed to overcome this shortcoming
by employing a slower and more controllable mold filling process to avoid the
entrapment of air in the casting. Aluminum, zinc, magnesium, and copper
alloys are most commonly made by either die or squeeze casting process.

6. Semi-Solid Metalworking
Semi-solid metalworking (SSM) also relies on a metallic die/mold; it bears some
similarities to the die casting process. The two most important features of the
SSM process are its reliance on input materials with a unique fine grain micro-
structure, and an operating temperature between the melt liquidus and solidus
temperatures, i.e., in the mushy region. The unique fine grain microstructure of
the input material is largely maintained in the final casting, resulting in
Introduction 5

mechanical properties superior to those of die castings. The major advantage of

the SSM process is that it produces components with complex geometries
similar to die casting, and yet with mechanical properties comparable to
those of wrought products. SSM is a fairly new process and its products are
primarily used in automobile and other high volume-high mechanical strength
applications. Alloys that have been cast by the SSM process include aluminum,
magnesium, and copper.

B. Wrought Products
The majority of metal components are made by making wrought products. For
a long time, the input material for wrought processing was made by the con-
ventional ingot casting process. Since the 1960s, continuous and semicontin-
uous casting processes have been gradually introduced into production. Now,
with very few exceptions, most of input materials for wrought products are cast
by either continuous or semicontinuous casting processes.

1. Conventional Ingot Casting

Ingots made by the conventional metal (mostly cast iron) mold casting process
were the primary source for wrought processing before the 1960s. The produc-
tivity of the conventional ingot casting process is inherently low. Large ingots
are usually octagon shaped and individually cast, whereas small ingots may
have a square cross section and are cast in clusters. A thermally insulated or
heated molten metal reservoir at the top of the ingot (called the hot top) is used
to feed the solidification shrinkage and reduce the size of the shrinkage pipe or
void. The hot top, and the part of the ingot with the shrinkage pipe, are cut ofT
before subsequent forming (forging, rolling, and extrusion) operations, result-
ing in a significant material loss. Severe macrosegregation may also happen,
which has a detrimental effect on ingot quality and hence limits the size of the
ingot that can be cast. Today, the conventional ingot casting process is used
primarily for small quantity production of certain specialty alloys.

2. Continuous Casting
The advantages of continuous casting in primary metals production have been
recognized for more than a century. The dramatic growth of this technology,
however, has only been realized since the 1960s. The principal advantages of
the continuous casting process are high productivity, high material yield, good
product quality, and low energy consumption. The primary purpose of con-
tinuous casting is to bypass conventional ingot casting and to cast a form that
is directly rollable on finishing mills. The cross-sectional shapes of continuously
cast blooms/billets/slabs can be round, square, or rectangular. The principle of
6 Yu

the continuous casting process is to form the cast bloom/billet/slab in a con-

tinuously withdrawn water-cooled copper mold. To prevent sticking of the
frozen casting surface to the copper mold, the mold is normally oscillating
during the casting operation and a lubricant is added to the mold metal inter-
face, resulting in a smooth as-cast surface. Beyond the mold, water spray is
used to speed up the heat removal; this results in a fast cooling rate and a
reduced degree of macrosegregation in the casting. The length of the casting
can, in theory, be infinite. A vertical continuous casting machine is most com-
monly used. The solidifying casting is first curved from a vertical to a hori-
zontal position. The completely solidified casting is then cut to length and
subjected to subsequent rolling operations. Very little material is lost due to
the hot top, and thus the material yield is high. In addition, the production rate
of continuous casting is very high, typically in the hundreds of thousands or
even millions of tons per year for steel. Continuous casting is primarily used for
ferrous alloys, especially low carbon steels. Currently, most of the world's near
800 million tons of steel produced each year is made by the continuous casting
process.

3. Direct Chill Casting

Compared to steel, aluminum and copper have a significantly higher thermal
conductivity and thus solidify much faster. As a result, the curved continuous
casting process cannot be used for aluminum and copper alloys. In addition,
the quantity of metal to be produced for all nonferrous alloys is significantly
lower than for steel. Thus, there is no economical incentive to use expensive
continuous casting machines to cast nonferrous metals. Consequently, the
principal continuous casting process for nonferrous alloys is the direct chill
casting (DC casting) process. The vertical DC casting process is a semicon-
tinuous process widely used for making aluminum and copper alloy billets
and slabs. DC casting is similar to the ferrous continuous casting process,
except that the resultant billets/slabs have a finite length, typically around 8-
10 m. As a result, the slab/billet curving and cutting operations, which are
important components of the ferrous continuous casting process, are not
necessary in the DC casting process. Consequently, the capital cost for DC
casting machines is significantly lower than for continuous casting equipment.
Recently, horizontal DC casting process has been developed to cast large
aluminum alloy slabs for rolling to plate and strip. In general, the withdrawal
speed for DC casting is up to 0.2 m/min, significantly lower than that used
for the continuous casting of steel (typically l m/min). For both DC and
continuous casting processes, metal melting and billet/slab casting are
uncoupled. Consequently, the molten metal superheat and the billet/slab cast-
ing speed can be controlled independently.
Introduction 7

4. Vacuum Arc Remelting and Electroslag Remelting

Vacuum arc remelting (VAR) and electroslag remelting (ESR) are two second-
ary remelting processes widely used for producing ingots of high performance
alloys such as titanium (VAR) and nickel-base superalloys and specialty steels
(VAR and ESR). These two processes are semicontinuous and bear some
similarities with the DC casting process. The major characteristic of VAR
and ESR is the use of a precast or prefabricated electrode as the input material.
This electrode is then melted by vacuum arc (VAR) or slag joule heating
(ESR). Molten metal droplets falling from the electrode tip accumulate in
the water-cooled copper mold or crucible to form an ingot. High power
input results in high electrode melting rate (i.e., high ingot casting rate) and
high molten metal superheat. This coupled relationship between electrode melt-
ing and ingot casting results in a limited processing window yielding ingots
with a desirable structure. Contrary to continuous casting and DC casting
processes, the principal driving force for using VAR and ESR is ingot quality
enhancement, rather than productivity improvement. In fact, the productivity
ofVAR and ESR is quite low. VAR and ESR ingots have a faster cooling rate,
lower inclusion content, lower degree of macrosegregation, better grain struc-
ture, and improved forgeability than ingots made by conventional ingot casting
process. Because of this, many segregation-prone alloys, which could not be
made by conventional ingot casting processes, can now be produced routinely
by VAR and ESR processes. Currently, some nickel-base superalloys and
titanium alloys used for aerospace applications can only be produced by the
VAR process.

5. Electron Beam Melting and Plasma Arc Melting

Electron beam melting (EBM) and plasma arc melting (PAM) are two rela-
tively new secondary remelting processes used to improve the quality of tita-
nium alloys by removing detrimental inclusions. EBM also produces nickel-
base superalloy remelt stock. The heating source for EBM is an electron beam,
and PAM is heated by a plasma arc generated by the ionization of helium and/
or argon gases. Both processes use a water-cooled copper hearth to hold the
molten metal. High density inclusions (HOI) such as tungsten carbide bits are
removed since they sink to the bottom of the molten pool in the hearth.
Refined clean molten metal then flows into an open mold to form a continu-
ously cast ingot. EBM can cast both cylindrical ingots as well as rectangular
slabs, whereas PAM currently can only cast cylindrical ingots. The application
of EBM and PAM processed titanium alloys is primarily focused on the aero-
space industry. EBM is also widely used to recycle commercially pure (CP)
titanium.
8 Yu

C. Powder Metallurgy Products

Conventional and advanced powder metallurgy (PM) products have very dif-
ferent processing routes as well as properties. In addition, their intended mar-
kets are also different. Spray forming is a relatively new process derived from
the advanced PM process.

1. Conventional Powder Metallurgy

The conventional PM process uses sintering to consolidate powders to form
complex shaped components. Because sintering is not a melting and solidifica-
tion process, the density of the resultant PM components is lower than the
alloy theoretical density; these components contain porosity and are not fully
dense. As a result, the mechanical properties of conventional PM products are
lower than those of wrought products made from the same alloys. Sometimes a
close die forging operation is used to forge PM preforms to produce compo-
nents with improved mechanical properties. Powders are made by melt atomi-
zation as well as by hydrometallurgy processes. In general, conventional PM
products are mostly used for high volume, complex shape, and relatively low
mechanical property components. Both ferrous and nonferrous alloys are pro-
cessed by conventional powder metallurgy.

2. Advanced Powder Metallurgy

The need for high mechanical properties is the primary driving force for using
advanced PM products. For jet engine turbine disk applications, conventional
superalloy disk alloys such as Inconel 718 and Waspaloy are produced by the
VAR process. For alloys like INIOO, MERL76, Rene 95, and Rene 88, a higher
content of strengthening elements (aluminum and titanium) is used to develop
superior mechanical strength and temperature capability. However, a higher
strengthening element content also results in a stronger segregation tendency
during solidification. The resulting ingots typically have an unacceptable for-
geability for subsequent open die forging operations. As a result, these alloys
cannot be produced by conventional secondary remelting processes (VAR and
ESR); they have to be produced by advanced PM processes. In the advanced
PM processing route, gas atomized or vacuum atomized powders are consoli-
dated by hot compaction, hot isostatic pressing (HIP), or extrusion to produce
fully dense billet material or disk preform. These billets or disk preforms have a
forgeability that is significantly better than those of the wrought billets and can
be easily close die forged to make the final disks. These disks have a uniform
fine grain structure and no macrosegregation. Consequently, their mechanical
properties are typically better than or equivalent to those of wrought products.
The advanced PM process is primarily used for producing jet engine superalloy
Introduction 9

turbine disk materials, although some tool steels, high strength aluminum
alloys, and titanium alloys are also amenable to this process.

3. Spray Forming
Although the advanced PM process can produce satisfactory products, its
processing steps are complex and its production cost is high. Spray forming
has the potential to make products with mechanical properties that are equiva-
lent to those of advanced PM products, but at lower cost. The principle of
spray forming is to use a mandrel or drum to catch molten metal droplets,
produced by gas atomization, before they are completely solidified. The metal
droplets hit the surface of the mandrel or drum, are flattened, and accumulate
layer by layer to form billets or hollow cylindrical tubes/preforms. The billets
can be used as input material for close die forging to make jet engine turbine
disks. The tubes can be used in the as-sprayed condition whereas hollow
cylindrical preforms can be ring-rolled to form engine frame components.
Although superalloy components are the primary applications for spray form-
ing, other high performance alloy components have also been produced by this
process.

Ill. APPLICATION OF CASTING PROCESS MODELING

The application of casting process modeling in a production environment is not

just a scientific exercise; it is an important technical step which can have a
significant impact on the quality, yield, and hence, cost of the final products.
To be successful in applying casting process modeling, process engineers need
to have a good understanding of currently available technologies, and their
capabilities and limitations, as well as their relevance to practical production
issues. The following sections present general instructions on how to success-
fully apply casting process modeling in a production environment

A. Understanding the Role of Modeling

Modeling is a tool for helping engineers do a better job. As an engineering tool,
modeling provides engineers with a way to understand the process dynamics
and evaluate the quantitative effects of various process variables on the quality
of the resulting products. Furthermore, casting modeling allows process engi-
neers to make virtual castings and to optimize their casting process in terms of
quality and yield without actually making castings. These capabilities make
modeling more powerful than any other tools previously available to process
engineers.
10 Yu

Because of its powerful capabilities, modeling is increasingly accepted as

a technology which can improve quality and decrease cost in foundries and
molten metal processing plants. For shape casting foundries, the combination
of process modeling and rapid prototyping technology makes concurrent pro-
duct and process development technologies a reality. The widespread use of
casting process modeling has already made some positive impact on the pro-
duction floors of foundries and molten metal processing plants. However, the
powerful capabilities of process modeling also sometimes create a false under-
standing of the essence of modeling technology.
As powerful as it is, modeling is still just a tool. It is up to process
engineers, not computers, to make the final decision. Modeling can be used
to help process engineers develop new processes as well as optimize current
production processes. However, the true power of modeling is in enhancing the
engineer's understanding of process dynamics and ability to make a more
intelligent judgment. The other important benefit of modeling is that it requires
engineers to follow a strict discipline to define, as well as control, the process
variables. This situation then results in lower variabilities in process control
and product quality. Modeling should not be seen as providing a magic box
where one can just push some buttons, and good results will automatically
come out. Modeling should also not be treated as a panacea; not all the
metal casting problems can be solved by modeling. The best way to apply
casting process modeling is first to have a good understanding of the problem,
and then to decide whether modeling can help. If the answer is yes, then the
next step is to develop a suitable model to address that particular problem.
The justification for applying casting process modeling in foundries and
molten metal processing plants is to provide process engineers with a better
way to solve the complex technical problems they face in production. Thus, the
usefulness of casting process modeling must be justified by its success in solving
practical production problems. Having the capability to understand the heat
transfer and fluid flow phenomena and to predict the mold filling sequence and
molten metal pool profile is just a first step toward that goal. To be able to
understand why, and predict when, defects will form is a further step in that
direction, but it is still not enough. As one foundry manager once said: "We do
not sell defects; we sell good castings." Process engineers have to demonstrate
that they can use modeling results to develop a strategy for eliminating defects
and producing good products quickly and cost effectively.

B. Possessing the Appropriate Technical Background

Casting and solidification processing involve many physical phenomena, such
as fluid flow (mold filling, natural and forced convection), heat transfer, elec-
tromagnetic field, solidification, defect formation, and microstructure evolu-
Introduction 11

tion. It is obvious that one who wants to perform casting process modeling
needs a good understanding of the physical meaning as well as the mathema-
tical representation of all these phenomena. In addition, one needs some back-
ground in the numerical analysis of differential equations and computer
programming. However, it should be emphasized that, from an application
point of view, process engineers should concentrate their efforts on under-
standing the problem, establishing an appropriate model to represent that
particular problem, making sense out of the model prediction, and developing
a strategy to solve the problem. Thus, process engineers should first have a very
good understanding of the production process they are working on. They need
just enough background in mathematical equations, numerical analysis, and
computer programming techniques to allow them to effectively perform their
own tasks. It is not necessary for process engineers to have a deep technical
background in differential equation solving and computer code writing in
order to perform casting process modeling.

C. Understanding Each Process's Unique Characteristics

Each casting and solidification process has its own unique characteristics that
have a major influence on the quality of the resultant products. Understanding
the unique characteristics of the particular process that one is using is the first
step in establishing a proper model for successfully modeling that process.

1. Differences Between Shape and Ingot Castings

Shape casting processes involve complex shape components and require three-
dimensional models to perform process simulation effectively. Model building
activities, such as accurately, quickly, and cost effectively inputting the com-
plex casting geometry into the model, as well as establishing a suitable finite
element mesh, have a critical impact on the successful application of casting
process modeling on the foundry floor. Electronic data interchange (EOI) and
automated meshing technologies play major roles in these areas. On the other
hand, ingot castings typically have simple geometries such as round, square,
and rectangular cross-sectional shapes. In many instances, ingot casting pro-
cesses can be effectively simulated by using two-dimensional models.
From the technical point of view, the mold filling events have a significant
effect on the solidification conditions and structural integrity of shape castings.
Once the mold is full, however, natural convection in the remaining molten
metal plays only a minimal role in affecting casting quality. Conversely, the
mold filling sequence generally has little effect on the structure of continuously
or semicontinuously cast ingots, whereas the effect of natural convection can
be significant, controlling the macrosegregation severity, especially in large size
12 Yu

ingots. In addition, critical defects are also quite different for shape and ingot
castings. For example, porosity (macroshrinkage and microporosity) is the
most important defect in shape castings, but macrosegregation, which impacts
ingot chemistry uniformity and formability in subsequent forging and rolling
operations, is of primary concern for most ingots. Finally, shape castings are
cast one by one, and always in a transient condition. As a result, true three-
dimensional transient models are required. On the other hand, ingots are cast
either in truly steady state conditions (continuous casting) or in quasi-steady
state conditions (semicontinuous casting processes). In most cases, two-dimen-
sional steady state models are adequate.

2. Differences Among Shape Casting Processes

The characteristics of the various shape casting processes are quite different;
thus, different models are needed to effectively simulate the unique character-
istics of each process. For example, the sand casting mold can be treated as
having a semi-infinite thickness, and the temperature of the mold outer surface
can be considered to be a constant. Thus, the boundary condition for the sand
casting mold can be simply a constant temperature. Conversely, preheat tem-
peratures for investment casting molds are quite high and the radiation heat
transfer rate at the mold surface has a significant effect on the casting solidi-
fication conditions. Consequently, radiation view factor calculation is a very
critical step on modeling the investment casting process. In addition, because
the mold and the molten metal temperatures are quite close to each other, or
even identical in directional solidification and single crystal casting processes,
mold filling analysis is not needed for investment cast columnar grains and
single crystal superalloy turbine airfoils. For metallic mold/die casting pro-
cesses (die/squeeze casting, permanent mold casting, and SSM), since the
mold/die is used repeatedly, the quasi-steady state temperature distribution
in the mold/die has important effects on the solidification condition and quality
of the resultant castings. Consequently, knowing how to establish an accurate
quasi-steady state mold/die temperature distribution is crucial for accurately
modeling metallic mold/die casting processes.

3. Differences Among Ingot Casting Processes

Conventional ingot casting is a discrete process; thus, a true transient model is
needed. On the other hand, the continuous casting process takes place under
truly steady state conditions and hence, a steady state model is commonly used.
For semicontinuous casting processes (DC casting, VAR, ESR, EBM, and
PAM), both steady state and transient phenomena are important. At the top
of the ingot, it is critical to know how to establish an effective hot top proce-
dure to reduce the size of the shrinkage pipe and increase the material yield.
Introduction 13

Thus, a transient model is needed to simulate the hot top procedure. However,
in the middle portion of the ingot, where a quasi-steady state condition is
reached, the shapes of the liquid metal pool and the mushy zone are relatively
constant. Thus, a steady state model can be used to predict the liquid pool and
mushy zone profiles, as well as their impact on the macrosegregation pattern in
the resultant ingot.
In the continuous casting and DC casting processes, the molten metal
superheat and ingot casting speed are not related and can be specified inde-
pendently. On the other hand, in the VAR and ESR processes, electrode melt-
ing and ingot casting rates are coupled and usually cannot be controlled
independently. This situation leads to narrow processing windows to produce
ingots with a desirable structure. In addition, the strong electromagnetic field
in VAR, ESR, and PAM processes has important effects on fluid flow behavior
and macrosegregation formation tendency in these ingots. Because VAR and
ESR processes are primarily used to melt high performance and high segrega-
tion tendency alloys, such as superalloys, titanium alloys, and tool steels,
macrosegregation has a major effect on the quality of the resultant ingots.
Thus, developing a model which can provide an accurate way to evaluate
the ingot macrosegregation formation tendency has very practical benefits
for the VAR and ESR processes.

4. Differences Between Spray Forming and Casting Processes

Spray forming is a free form deposition process and does not produce products
with highly precise geometrical dimensions. Many physical phenomena and
defects (e.g., mold filling, shrinkage pipe and macrosegregation) associated
with regular casting processes are not present in the spray formed products.
Thus, the modeling approach for the spray forming process is quite different
from those of the regular casting processes. The major technical challenge for
modeling the spray forming process is to predict the molten metal droplet size
distribution during gas atomization, the individual droplet cooling/solidifica-
tion rate before it hits the mandrel/drum, and the consolidation condition of
the metal droplets during the deposition process. Porosity formation is primar-
ily due to the entrapment of gas during deposition, not the volumetric change
during solidification.

D. Developing a Suitable Model

A "suitable model" has two different meanings. First, as discussed in the above
sections, a suitable model should include all the technical features necessary to
simulate the unique characteristics of a particular process. Second, a suitable
model must simulate the dominant effects that impact current product quality.
14 Yu

Shape castings typically exhibit many different types of defects. However, in

practice, process engineers can develop a process based on their experience to
produce a particular casting with only one or two defects which are difficult to
eliminate. Thus, a suitable model need only be established to eliminate those
defects without causing any other defects to form. For example, superalloy
single crystal turbine airfoils exhibit many defects such as microporosity, hot
tears, cold cracking, dimensional distortion, equiaxed grains, freckles, and
recrystallized grains. When making turbine airfoils with one particular alloy,
Rene N6, freckles tend to form. The best approach to solve this problem is to
develop a casting process, based on past experience, that can produce castings
without any other types of defects, except freckles. Then a suitable model must
be developed to eliminate the freckle problem without causing any other
defects to form.

E. Ensuring the Model's Accuracy

Model predictions should always be compared with experimental results to
ensure the accuracy of the model. Two methods can be used. In the first
one, melt temperatures recorded by thermocouples as a function of time are
compared with model-predicted cooling curves to verify the casting thermal
history. This method is time consuming, very costly, and hence is not
always feasible. The second method compares model-predicted defect for-
mation tendency with foundry inspection results. This method is easier to
perform and most commonly adopted by foundries. In practice, an
approach commonly employed by production foundries is to first establish
a baseline simulation condition by comparing the model predictions with
foundry experimental results, including both thermocouple data and defect
inspection records. Once an appropriate baseline model is established,
various process parameters are modified to evaluate their effects on the
defect formation tendency. These process parameters are then optimized
to develop a process that produces defect-free castings. Finally, actual cast-
ings are poured and their inspection results are compared to the model
predictions.
It should be noted that only "relatively good" accuracy is needed to
verify the model. It is not necessary to have model predicted cooling curves
perfectly match experimental thermocouple data. The other point worth men-
tioning is that modeling is best used to compare the relative differences
between different sets of processing parameters and to indicate in which
direction they should be modified. Eventually, process engineers need to
evaluate all model-predicted results, make sense out of them, and settle on
the final casting process.
Introduction 15

F. Using Models to Solve Practical Problems

As mentioned earlier, casting process modeling is not just a scientific exercise; it
can have an important impact on a company's production performance. Thus,
the success of casting process modeling should be judged by its ability to solve
practical problems. In general, casting process modeling can be used by process
engineers to develop new processes, as well as optimize existing ones. In prac-
tice, however, there are some differences in this regard between shape casting
processes and ingot casting processes.
For shape casting foundries, each component has its own unique geome-
try configuration and quality requirement, and hence each requires a unique
process to obtain good castings. It is common for a foundry to have 30--50
different parts in production at the same time. As time goes on, some of the old
parts drop out and new parts come in. As a result, developing a new casting
process for a new part happens all the time. Consequently, the application of
casting process modeling in shape casting foundries puts more emphasis on
developing new processes than on enhancing existing ones.
In ingot casting, due to the simple geometry and large volume produc-
tion rate, enhancing existing processes happens more frequently than devel-
oping new processes. For example, Inconel 718 and Waspaloy are two nickel-
base superalloys which are widely used for jet engine turbine disk applica-
tions. For the last 30 years, these two alloys have been produced by the VAR
process. The industry standard process is to melt a 432 mm (17 in.) diameter
electrode in a VAR furnace to make a 508 mm (20 in.) diameter ingot. It can
be seen that the need for developing a new process for this product is mini-
mal. However, there are two separate requirements for enhancing the existing
process. First, since the electrode is produced by the conventional ingot
casting process, longitudinal shrinking pipe and horizontal cracks are some-
times present. During VAR processing, the shrinkage pipe and the cracks can
cause arc instability and result in variability in ingot quality. The combina-
tion of process modeling and experimentation can provide an insight into
understanding and developing a way to minimize this variability. Second, the
current process needs to be modified to make ingots that are larger than the
current 508 mm diameter. However, as the ingot diameter becomes larger, so
does the tendency to form freckle-type defects. Process modeling is an effec-
tive way to simulate ingot solidification conditions and provide information
for developing a modified process. One possible approach is to develop a
modified process for the large diameter ingot, which has a similar Local
Solidification Time (LST) as the currently produced 508 mm diameter
ingot. Because the formation of freckles is related to the ingot LST, similar
LST for both ingot sizes will increase the probability to produce freckle-free,
large diameter ingots.
16 Yu

IV. SUMMARY

A general overview regarding the application of various casting and solidifica-

tion processing processes in metal manufacturing, as well as instructions on
how to effectively model these processes, has been presented. The following
chapters will first introduce the general background on casting process model-
ing. The application of modeling to each specific process will then follow.
References

2 Chapter 2 Fundamentals of Casting

Process Modeling Daniel L. Winterscheidt
and Gene X. Huang

1. FP Incropera, DP Dewitt. Fundamentals of Heat and Mass

Transfer. 2nd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1985.

2. MC Flemings. Solidification Processing. New York:

McGraw-Hill, 1974.

3. OM Stefanescu. Methodologies for modeling of

solidification microstructure and their capabilities.
ISIJ International 35(6):637-650, 1995.

4. VR Voller, CR Swaminathan, BG Thomas. Fixed grid

techniques for phase change problems: a review. Int J
Numer Methods Eng 30:875-898, 1990.

5. CR Swaminathan, VR Voller. A general enthalpy method for

modeling solidification processes. Metallurgical
Transactions 23B:651-664, 1992.

6. DR Poirier, EJ Poirier. Heat transfer fundamentals for

metal casting. The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society,
1992.

7. G Li, BG Thomas. Transient thermal model of the

continuous single-wheel thinstrip casting process. Metall
Trans 27B:509-525, 1996.

8. HS Carslaw, JC Jaeger. Conduction of Heat in Solids.

2nd ed. London, UK: Oxford University, 1959, p. 248.

9. J Szekely. Fluid Flow Phenomena in Metals Processing.

New York: Academic Press, 1979.

10. DR Poirier, GH Geiger. Transport Phenomena in Material

Processing. Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1994.

11. SV Patankar. Numerical heat transfer and fluid flow.

Washington, DC: Hemisphere, 1980.

12. RB Bird, WE Stewart, EN Lightfoot. Transport Phenomena.

New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1960.

13. H Schlichting. Boundary-Layer Theory. 7th ed. New York:

McGraw-Hill, 1979.
14. W Hirt, BD Nichols. Volume of fluid (VOF) method for
the dynamics of free boundaries. J of Computational
Physics 39:201-225, 1981.

54 Wlnterscheidt and Huang

15. J Bear. Dynamics of Fluids in Porous Media. New York:

American Elsevier Publishing Co., 1972.

16. VR Voller, C Prakash. A fixed grid numerical modeling

methodology for convection-diffusion mushy region
phase-change problems. Int J Heat Mass Transfer
30(8):1709-1719, 1987.

17. GH Geiger, DR Poirier. Transport Phenomena in

Metallurgy. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1973.

18. C Hirsch. Numerical Computation of Internal and

External Flows. Volume I. Chichester, UK: John Wiley &
Sons, 1988.

19. C Hirsch. Numerical Computation of Internal and

External Flows. Volume 2. Chichester, UK: John Wiley &
Sons, 1990.

20. DA Anderson, JC Tannehill, RH Pletcher. Computational

Fluid Mechanics and Heat Transfer. New York: Hemisphere
Publishing Corporation, 1984.

21. C Cheng, KO Yu. Innovative approach for modeling the

heat transfer during casting solidification. In: SA
Argyropoulos, F Mucciardi, ed. Computational Fluid
Dynamics and Heat/Mass Transfer Modeling in the
Metallurgical Industry. Metallurgical Society of CIM,
1996, pp. 56--67.
3 Chapter 3 Stress Analysis Umesh Chandra
and Alauddin Ahmed

I. U Chandra. Finite element simulation of the investment

casting process for manufacture of aircraft engine parts.
Proceedings of the Engineering Foundation Conference on
the Modeling of Casting, Welding and Advanced
Solidification Processes V, M Rappaz, MR Ozgu, KW Mahin
(eds.), Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1991, pp. 629-634.

2. Metals Handbook: Casting, 9th ed., vol. 15, DM

Stefanescu (volume chair), Metals Park, OH: ASM
International, 1988.

3. U Chandra. Validation of finite element codes for

prediction of machining distortions in forgings.
Communications in Numerical Methods in Engineering
9:463473, 1993.

4. U Chandra. Computer prediction of hot tears, hot cracks,

residual stresses and distortions in precision castings:
basic concepts and approach. Light Metals 1995,
Proceedings of the 1995 TMS Annual Meeting, J. Evans (ed.),
Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1995, pp. 1107-1117.

5. U Chandra. Computer simulation of manufacturing

processes--casting and welding. Computer Modeling and
Simulation in Engineering 1:127-174, 1996.

6. U Chandra, R Thomas, SC Cheng. Shrinkage, residual

stresses and distortions in castings. Computer Modeling
and Simulation in Engineering 1:369-383, 1996.

7. BG Thomas. Stress modeling of casting process: an

overview. Proceedings of the Engineering Foundation
Conference on the Modeling of Casting, Welding and
Advanced Solidification Processes VI, TS Piwonka, V Voller,
L Katgerman (eds.), Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1993, pp.
519-533.

8. A Ahmed, U Chandra. Prediction of hot tears, residual

stresses, and distortions in castings including the
effects of creep. Computer Modeling and Simulation in
Engineering 2:419-448, 1997.

9. ABAQUS, Version 5.4, Pawtucket, RI: Hibbitt, Karlsson

and Sorensen, Inc., 1994.

10. G Comini, S Del Guidice, R W Lewis, OC Zienkiewicz.

Finite element solution of non-linear heat conduction
problems with special reference to phase change.
International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering
8:613-624, 1974.

II. R W Lewis, K Morgan, RH Gallagher. Finite element

analysis of solidification and welding processes.
Numerical Modeling of Manufacturing Processes, RF Jones,
Jr., H Armen, JT Fong (eds.), ASME, PVP-PB-025, 1977, pp.
67-SO.

12. JN Reddy, DK Gartling. The finite element method in

heat transfer and fiuid dynamics. Boca Raton, FL: CRC
Press, Inc., 1994.

13. A Levy, AB Pifko. On computational strategies for

problems involving plasticity and creep. International
Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering 17:747771,
1981.

90 Chandra and Ahmed

14. MD Snyder, K-J Bathe. A solution procedure for

thermo-elastic-plastic and creep problems. Nuclear
Engineering and Design 64:49-80, 1981.

15. WS Pellini. Strain theory of hot tearing. Foundry

80:124-133, 1952.

16. RA Dodd. Hot tearing of castings: a review of the

literature. Foundry Trade Journal 321-331, 1956.

17. SA Metz, MC Flemings. Hot tearing in cast metals. AFS

Transactions 77:329-334, 1969.

18. J Campbell. Castings. Oxford, UK: Butterworth-Heinmann,

1991.

19. TW Clyne, and GJ Davies. Comparison between

experimental data and theoretical predictions relating to
dependence of solidification cracking on composition.
Solidification and Casting of Metals, London: Metals
Society, 1979, pp. 275--278.

20. F Decultieux, P Vincent-Hernandez, C Levaillant. Hot

tearing test: experimental and FEM modeling. Proceedings
of the Engineering Foundation Conference on the Modeling
of Casting, Welding, and Advanced Solidification Processes
VI, TS Piwonka, V Voller, L Katgerman (eds.), Warrendale,
PA: TMS, 1993, pp. 617624.
21. S Cheng, S Sundarraj, J Jo, U Chandra. Computer
prediction of hot tears in castings. Proceedings of the
National Heat Transfer Conference, vol. 1, V Prasad et
al. (eds.), ASME-HTD vol. 323, 1996, pp. 59-68.

22. DM Stefanescu, G Upadhya, D Bandyopadhyay. Heat

transfer-solidification kinetics modeling of
solidification in castings. Metallurgical Transactions
21A:997-l005, 1990.

23. JJ Jo, ED Peretin, U Chandra. Experimental study of

grain nucleation and growth in Ni-Al-Bronze. Report No.
TR 97-050, Johnstown, PA: Concurrent Technologies
Corporation, 1997.

24. A Ahmed, U Chandra. A solidification model for use in

the prediction of hot tears in castings. Proceedings of
the Engineering Foundation Conference on the Modeling of
Casting, Welding and Advanced Solidification Processes
VIII, BG Thomas, C Beckermann (eds.), Warrendale, PA:
TMS, 1998, pp. 891-898.

25. ARE Singer, SA Cottrell. Properties of the

aluminum-silicon 1035 alloys at temperatures in the region
of the solidus. Journal of the Institute of Metals
73:33--54, 1946.

26. JA Williams, ARE Singer. Deformation, strength, and

fracture above the solidus temperature. Journal of the
Institute of Metals 96:5--12, 1968.

27. AK Dahle. Mushy zone properties and castability of

aluminum foundry alloys. PhD dissertation, The Norwegian
University of Science and Technology, 1996.

28. JAH Hult. Creep in Engineering Structures. Waltham, MA:

Blaisdell, 1966.

29. SS Manson. Thermal Stress and Low-Cycle Fatigue.

NewYork: McGraw-Hill, 1966.

30. U Chandra. Benchmark problems and testing of a finite

element code for solidification in investment castings.
International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering
30:1301-1320, 1990.

31. K Ho, RD Pehlke. Metal-mold interfacial heat transfer.

Metallurgical Transactions B, l6B:585-594, 1985.

Stress Analysis 91
32. B Dorri, U Chandra. Determination of thermal contact
resistance using inverse heat conduction procedure.
Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on
Numerical Methods in Thermal Problems, RW Lewis, JW Chin,
GM Homsy (eds.), Swansea UK: Pineridge Press, 1991, pp.
213-223.

33. N Beck, B Blackwell, CR StClair. Inverse Heat

Conduction: Ill-Posed Problems. New York: John Wiley &
Sons, 1985.

34. D O'Mahoney, DJ Browne. A study of the variation of

heat transfer coefficients in aluminum investment
castings. Modeling of Casting, Welding and Advanced
Solidification Processes VIII, BG Thomas, C Beckermann
(eds.), Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1998, pp. 1031-1038.

35. SA Argyropolous, NJ Goudie, M Trovant. The estimation

of thermal resistance at various interfaces. Fluid Flow
Phenomena in Metals Processing, Proceedings of the 1999
TMS Annual Meeting, N. El-Kaddah, DGC Robertson, ST
Johanesen, VR Voller (eds.), Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1999,
pp. 535--542.

36. A Shapiro. TOPAZa finite element heat conduction code

for analyzing 2-D solids. Livermore, CA: Lawrence
Livermore National Laboratory, 1984.

37. MT Sammonds. Finite element simulation of

solidification in sand mould and gravity die castings.
PhD dissertation, University of Wales, Swansea, UK, 1985.

38. SP Timoshenko, JN Goodier. Theory of Elasticity. New

York: McGraw-Hill, 1970.

39. SK Chan, IS Tuba. A finite element method for contact

problems of solid bodies. Part 1: Theory and validation.
International Journal of Mechanical Science 13:615--625,
1971.

40. SI Oh. Finite element analysis of metal forming

processes with arbitrary shaped dies. International
Journal of Mechanical Science 24:479-493, 1982.

41. JT Oden, EB Pires. Algorithms and numerical results for

finite element approximations of contact problems with
non-classical friction laws. Computers and Structures
19:137-147, 1984.
42. JW Joo, BM K wak. Analysis and application of
elasto-plastic contact problems considering large
deformation. Computers and Structures 24:953-961, 1986.

43. AB Chaudhary, K-J Bathe. A solution method for static

and dynamic analysis of three-dimensional contact problems
with friction. Computers and Structures 24:855--873, 1986.

44. WW Tworzydlo, W Cecot, JT Oden, CH Yew. New

asperity-based models of contact and friction . Contact
Problems and Surface Interaction in Manufacturing and
Tribological Systems, MH Attia, R Komanduri (eds.), ASME,
1993, pp. 87-104.

45. ANSYS--Engineering Analysis System, Version 5.1 ,

Houston, PA: ANSYS, Inc., 1993.

46. R Siegel, JR Howell. Thermal radiation heat transfer.

New York: Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, 1981.

47. AB Shapiro. FACETA radiation view factor computer code

for axisymmetric, 2D planar, and 3D geometries with
shadowing. Livermore, CA: Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory, 1983.

48. JP Holmann. Heat Transfer, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1990.

92 Chandra and Ahmed

49. GK Upadhya, S Das, U Chandra, AJ Paul. Modeling the

investment casting process: a novel approach for view
factor calculations and defect prediction. Applied
Mathematical Modelling 19:354-362, 1995.

50. BG Thomas, DD Goettsch, KO Yu, MJ Heffel, M Robinson, D

Pinella, RG Carlson. Modeling of directional
solidification process. Proceedings of the Engineering
Foundation Conference on the Modeling of Casting, Welding
and Advanced Solidification Processes V, M Rappaz, MR
Ozgu, KW Mahin (eds.), Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1991, pp.
603-610.

51. F Hediger, N Hofmann. Process simulation for

directionally solidified turbine blades of complex
shapes. Proceedings of the Engineering Foundation
Conference on the Modeling of Casting, Welding and Advanced
Solidification Processes V, M Rappaz, MR Ozgu, KW Mahin
(eds.), Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1991, pp. 61 Hil9.

52. JM Bergheau, JB Leblond. Coupling between heat ftow,

metallurgy and stressstrain computations in steels: the
approach developed in the computer code SYSWELD for
welding or quenching. Proceedings of the Engineering
Conference on the Modeling of Casting, Welding and
Advanced Solidification Processes V, M Rappaz, MR Ozgu,
KW Mahin (eds.), Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1991, pp. 203-210.

53. GW Greenwood, RH Johnson. The deformation of metals

under small stresses during phase transformations.
Proceedings of the Royal Society, London, 1965, pp.
403-421.

54. CL Magee. Transformation kinetics, microplasticity and

aging of martensite in FE31 Ni. PhD dissertation, Carnegie
Institute of Technology, Pittsburgh, PA, 1966.

55. R Song, G Dhatt, A Ben Cheikh. Thermo-mechanical finite

element model of casting systems. International Journal
for Numerical Methods in Engineering 30:579-599, 1990.

56. FG Rammerstorfer, DF Fisher, W Mitter, K-J Bathe, MD

Snyder. On thermoelastic-plastic analysis of
heat-treatment processes including creep and phase
changes. Computers and Structures 13:771-779, 1981.

51. DF Watt, L Coon, M Bibby, J Goldak, C Henwood. An

algorithm for modelling microstructural development in
weld heat-affected zones (part A) reaction kinetics. Acta
Metallurgica 36:3029-3035, 1988.

58. C Henwood, M Bibby, J Goldak, D Witt. Coupled transient

heat transfer-microstructure weld computations (part B).
Acta Metallurgica 36:3037-3046, 1988.

59. JB Leblond, J Devaux, JC Devaux. Mathematical modeling

of transformation plasticity in steels I: case of
ideal-plastic phases. International Journal of Plasticity
5:551-572, 1989.

60. JB Leblond. Mathematical modeling of transformation

plasticity in steels II: coupling with strain hardening
phenomena. International Journal of Plasticity 5:573591,
1989.

61. S Das, G Upadhya, U Chandra. Prediction of

macro-residual stresses in quenching using phase
transformation kinetics. Proceedings of First
International Conference on Quenching and Control of
Distortions, G Totten (ed.), Metals Park, OH: ASM
International, 1992, pp. 229-234.
Stress Analysis 93

62. DJ Dammann, VC Prantil, JF Lathrop. A model of phase

transformation plasticity. Proceedings of the Engineering
Foundation Conference on Modeling of Casting, Welding and
Advanced Solidification Processes VII, M Cross, J Campbell
(eds.), Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1995, pp. 275--285.

63. Z Wenyu. Determination of residual stresses in

components of complex shapescorrection of measurement using
finite element method. Material Science and Technology
4:1030-1033, 1988.
4 Chapter 4 Defects Formation Vijay Suri
and Kuang-0 (Oscar) Yu

l. KO Yu, JJ Nichols, M Robinson. Finite-element thermal

modeling of casting microstructures and defects. JOM
6:21-25, 1992.

2. SAE ARP 1947. Determination and acceptance of dendrite

arm spacing of structural aircraft quality D357 aluminum
alloy castings. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive
Engineers, 1996.

3. JM Eridon. Hot isostatic pressing of castings. Metal

Handbook, 9th ed., vol. 15, Casting, ASM International,
1988, pp. 538-544.

ASM Committee on Nondestructive Inspection of Castings.

Testing and inspection of casti g defects. Metal Handbook,
9th ed., vol. 15, Casting, ASM International, 1988, pp.
544-561.

5. MP Kenney, JA Courtois, RD Evans, GM Farrior, CP Kyonka,

AA Koch, KP Young. Semisolid metal casting and forging.
Metal Handbook, 9th ed., vol. 15, Casting, ASM
International, 1988, pp. 327338.

6. CM Wang, AJ Paul, WW Fincher, OJ Huey. Computational

analysis of fluid How and heat transfer during the EPC
process. AFS Trans 897904, 1993.

7. WH Bailey. Refining and casting of large forging

ingots. Ironmaking and Steelmaking 4(2):72, 1977.

8. KO Yu, MJ Beffel, M Robinson, DD Goettsch, BG Thomas, RG

Carlson. Solidification modeling of single crystal
investment castings. AFS Trans 417428, 1990.

9. M McLean. Directionally Solidified Materials for High

Temperature Service. London: The Metals Society, 1983.

10. KO Yu, JA Oti, M Robinson, RG Carlson. Solidification

modeling of complexshaped single crystal turbine airfoils.
Superalloys 1992. SD Antolovich et al. (eds.), Warrendale,
PA: TMS, 1992, pp. 135-144.

ll. John Campbell, Casting, Oxford, UK:

Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd.

12. WS Pellini. Factors which determine riser adequacy and

feeding range. AFS Trans 61:61-80, 1953.
13. Rapid cast takes the guesswork out of casting design.
Concurrent Technologies Corporation, 1992.

14. I Imafuku, K Chijiiwa. A mathematical model for

shrinkage cavity prediction in steel castings. AFS Trans
10:527-540, 1983.

15. VK Suri, AJ Paul. Modeling and prediction of

micro/macro-scale defects in castings. AFS Trans
144:949-954, 1993.

16. R Hummer. Relationship between cooling and dilation

curves of ductile iron melts and their shrinkage tendency.
Cast Metals 1(2):62-68, 1988.

17. N Chvorinov. Giesserei 27:201 208, 1940.

18. GK Upadhya, AJ Paul. A comprehensive casting analysis

model using a geometry based technique followed by a fully
coupled, 3D fluid flow, heat transfer and solidification
kinetics calculations. AFS Trans 100:925-933, 1992.

19. G Upadhya, AJ Paul, JL Hill. Optimal design of gating

and risering in castings: an integrated approach using
empirical heuristics and geometric analysis. In: TS

122 Surl and Yu Piwonka, et al. (eds.). Modeling of

Casting, Welding and Advanced Solidification Processes VI.
Warendale, PA: TMS, 1993, pp. 135-142.

20. G Upadhya, AJ Paul. Rational design of gating and

risering for castings: a new approach using knowledge base
and geometric analysis. AFS Trans 919-925, 1993.

21. DR Irani, V Kondic. Casting and mold design effects on

shrinkage porosity of light alloys. AFS Trans 77:208-211,
1969.

22. E Niyama, T Uchida, M Morikawa, S Siato. Method of

shrinkage prediction and its application to steel casting
practice. AFS lnt Cast Metals J 7:52-63, 1982.

23. TS Piwonka, MC Aemings. Pore formation in

solidification. Trans Met Soc of AIME, Aug/236:1157-1165,
1966.

24. DR Poirier, K Yeum, AL Maples. A thermodynamic

prediction for microporosity formation in aluminum-rich
Al-Cu alloys. Met Trans Novf18A:l979-1987, 1987.
25. K Kubo, RD Pehlke. Mathematical modeling of porosity
formation in solidification. Met Trans, June/168:359-366,
1985.

26. W Kurz, OJ Fisher. Fundamentals of solidification.

Trans Tech Publ, Aedermannsdorf, Switzerland, 1986, pp.
85-87.

27. DR Poirier. Permeability for flow of interdendritic

liquid in columnar-dendritic alloy. Met Trans 188:245-255,
1987.

28. VK Suri, N El-Kaddah, IT Berry. Theoretical and

experimental studies on pore formation during casting
solidification. PhD dissertation, The University of
Alabama, 1993.

29. YW Lee, E Chang, et al. Modeling of feeding behavior of

solidifying Al-7Si-0.3Mg alloy plate castings. Met Trans
218:715-722, 1990.

30. VK Suri, AJ Paul, N EI-Kaddah, IT Berry. Determination

of correlation factors for prediction of shrinkage in
castings. Part 1: Prediction of microporosity in castings:
a generalized criterion. AFS Trans 138:861-867, 1994.
5 Chapter 5 Microstructure Evolution Doru
M. Stefanescu

I. DM Stefanescu. ISIJ International, 35, 6:637, 1995.

2. S Chang, DM Stefanescu. Metall Mater Trans A, 27A:2708,

1996.

3. G Upadhya, AJ Paul. AFS Trans, 102:69, 1994.

4. KC Su, I Ohnaka, I Yanauchi, T Fukusako. In: H

Fredriksson, M Hillert (eds.), The Physical Metallurgy of
Cast Iron. New York: North Holland, 1984, p. 181.

5. DM Stefanescu, C Kanetkar. In: H Fredriksson (ed.),

State of the Art of Computer Simulation of Casting and
Solidification Processes. Les Ulis, France: Les Edition de
Physique, 1986, p. 255.

6. P Thevoz, JL Desbioles, M Rappaz. Metall Trans A,

20A:311, 1989.

7. CY Wang, C Beckermann. Metall Mater Trans A, 27A:2754,

1996.

8. J Ni, C Beckermann. Metall Trans B, 22B:349, 1991.

9. CS Kanetkar, IG Chen, DM Stefanescu, N El-Kaddah. Trans

ISIJ 28:860, 1988.

10. M Rappaz, P Thevoz. Acta Metall 35:1487, 2929, 1987.

11. L Nastac, DM Stefanescu. In: C Beckermann et a1.

(eds.), Micro/Macro Scale Phenomena in Solidification. New
York: ASME, 1992, p. 27.

12. PS Sahni, GS Grest, MP Anderson, DJ Srolovitz. Phys Rev

Lett 50:263, 1983.

13. MP Anderson, DJ Srolovitz, GS Grest, PS Sahni. Acta

Metall 32, 5:783, 1984.

14. HW Hesselbarth, IR Gobel. Acta Metall 39:2135, 1991.

15. M Rappaz, CA Gandin. Acta Metall Mater 41, no. 2:345,

1993.

16. M Rappaz, CA Gandin, C Charbon. In: Solidification and

Properties of Cast Alloys, Proceedings of the Technical
Forum, 61st World Foundry Congress. Beijing:
Giesserei-Verlag, 1995, p. 49.

17. JA Spittle, SGR Brown. Acta Metall 37:1803, 1989.

18. R Xiao, JID Alexander, F Rosenberg. Phys Rev A,

45,1:571, 1992.

19. P Zhu, RW Smith. Acta Metall Mater 40:683, 3369, 1992.

20. W Oldfield. ASM Trans. 59:945, 1966.

21. M Rappaz, CA Gandin, JL Desbiolles, P Thevoz. Metall

Mat Trans 27A:695, 1996.

22. CA Gandin, T Jalanti, M Rappaz. In: BG Thomas, C

Beckermann (eds.), Modeling of Casting, Welding and
Advanced Solidification Processes VIII. Warrendale, PA:
TMS, 1998, p. 363.

23. SY Lee, SM Lee, CP Hong. In: BG Thomas, C Beckermann

(eds.), Modeling of Casting, Welding and Advanced
Solidification Processes VIII. Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1998,
p. 383.

24. DM Stefanescu, H Pang. Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly

37(3-4):229-239, 1998.

25. L Nastac. Acta Metall Mater 47:4253, 1999.

26. L Nastac, DM Stefanescu. Modelling and Simulation in

Mat. Sci. and Eng., Inst. of Physics Publishing 5(4):391,
1997.

27. R Sasikumar, R Sreenivisan. Acta Metall 42(7):2381,

1994.

28. U. Dilthey, V Pavlik. In: BG Thomas, C Beckermann

(eds.), Modeling of Casting, Welding and Advanced
Solidification Processes. VIII. Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1998,
p. 589.

184 Stefanescu

29. F Mampaey. In: M Rappaz, MR Ozgu (eds.), Modeling of

Casting, Welding and Advanced Solidification Processes VI.
Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1991, p. 403.

30. DD Goettsch, JA Dantzig. Metall Mat Trans 25A:1063,

1994.
31. DM Stefanescu, G Upadhya, D Bandyopadhyay. Metall Trans
21A:997, 1990.

32. JD Hunt. Mat Sci Eng 65:75, 1984.

33. H Tian, DM Stefanescu. Metall Trans. A, 23A:681, 1992.

34. RS Steube, A Hellawell. In: C Beckermann et a1. (eds.),

Micro/Macro Scale Phenomena in Solidification. New York:
Am. Soc. Mech. Eng., HTD-vol. 218, AMD-vo1. 139, 1992, p.
73.

35. JAI Ortega, J Beech. In: M Cross, J Campbell (eds.),

Modeling of Casting, Welding and Advanced Solidification
Processes VII. Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1995 p. 117.

36. E Scheil. Z Metallk 34:70, 1942.

37. HD Brody, MC Flemings. Trans Met Soc AIME 236:615, 1966.

38. I Ohnaka. Trans Iron Steel lnst Jpn 26:1045, 1986.

39. TW Oyne, W Kurz. Metall Trans A, 12A:965, 1981.

40. S Kobayashi. Trans Iron Steel Inst Jpn 28:728, 1988.

41. L Nastac, DM Stefanescu. Metall. Trans A,

24A:2107-2118, 1993.

42. AA Wheeler, BT Murray, RJ Schaefer. Physica D 66:243,

1993.

43. J Warren, WJ Boettinger. In: BG Thomas, C Beckerman

(eds.), Modeling of Casting, Welding and Advanced
Solidification Processes VIII. Warrendale PA: TMS, 1998,
pp. 613-620.

44. X Tong, C Beckermann, A Karma. In: M Cross, J Campbell

(eds.), Modeling of Casting, Welding and Advanced
Solidification Processes VII. Warrendale PA: TMS, 1995, p.
601.

45. W Kurz, DJ Fisher. Fundamentals of Solidification. 3rd

ed. Trans Tech Publications, 1989.

46. HL Lukas, J Weiss, ET Hening. CALPHAD 6:229, 1982.

47. WJ Boettinger, UR Kottner, DK Banerjee. In: BG Thomas,

C Beckerman (eds.), Modeling of Casting, Welding and
Advanced Solidification Processes VIII. Warrendale PA:
TMS, 1998, pp. 159--170.

48. L Nastac, JS Chou, Y Pang. Symposium on Liquid Metal

Processing and Casting. Santa Fe, NM, 1999.

49. L Nastac, DM Stefanescu. Metall Trans A, 27A:4061,

4075, 1996.

50. CY Wang, C Beckermann. Metall Trans A, 24A:2787, 1993.

51. CY Wang, C Beckerman. Metall Trans A, 25A:l081, 1994.

52. CY Wang, C Beckermann. Metall Mater Trans A, 27A:2754,

1996.

53. H Jacobi, K Schwerdtfeger. Metall Trans 7A:81l, 1976.

54. YK Chuang, D Reininsch, K Schwerdfeger. Metall Trans

6A:235, 1975.

55. H Fredriksson, J Stjerndahl. Metall Trans B, 6B:661,

1975.

56. J Zou, AA Tseng. Metall Trans A, 23A:457, 1992.

57. AA Howe. Applied Scientific Research 44:51, 1987.

58. MC Schneider, C Beckermann. ISIJ International

35(6):665, 1995.

59. M Wintz, M Bobadilla, J Lehmann, H Gaye. ISIJ

International 35(6):715, 1995.

Microstructure Evolution 185

60. H Tian, DM Stefanescu. In: TS Piwonka, V Voller, L

Katgerman (eds.), Modeling of Casting, Welding and
Advanced Solidification Processes VI. Warrendale PA: TMS,
1993, p. 639.

61. F Mampaey. Proc. 62nd World Foundry Congress,

Philadelphia, paper 4.

62. I Minkoff. The Physical Metallurgy of Cast Iron. New

York: John Wiley & Sons, 1983.

63. R Elliott. Cast Iron Technology. London: Butterworth,

1988.

64. DM Stefanescu. In: ASM Handbook, vol. 15, Casting.

Metals Park, Ohio: ASM International, 1988, pp. 168-181.

65. A Rickert, S Engler. In: H Fredriksson, M Hillert

(eds.), The Physical Metallurgy of Cast Iron. Proceedings
of the Materials Research Society. North Holland, 34,
1985, p. 165.

66. DK Bandyopadhyay, DM Stefanescu, I Minkoff, SK Biswal.

In: G Ohira, T Kusakawa, E Niyama (eds.), Physical
Metallurgy of Cast Iron IV. Pittsburgh, PA.: Mat. Res.
Soc. Proc., 1989, p. 27.

67. E Fras, W Kapturkiewicz, AA Burbielko. In: TS Piwonka,

V Voller, L Katgerman (eds.), Modeling of Casting,
Welding and Advanced Solidification Processes VI.
Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1993, p. 261.

68. J Zou, M Rappaz. In: VR Voller et al. (eds.), Materials

Processing in the Computer Age. Warrendale, PA: The
Minerals, Metals Materials Soc, 1991, p. 335.

69. A V Catalina, DM Stefanescu. Metall Trans A, 27 A:4205,

1996.

70. B Leube, L Amberg, R Mai. In: BG Thomas, C Beckerman

(eds.), Modeling of Casting, Welding and Advanced
Solidification Processes VIII. Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1998,
p. 463.

71. F Mampaey. 55th International Foundry Congress. Moscow:

CIATF, 1988, paper 2.

72. T Skaland, F Grong, T Grong. Metall Trans 24A:232l,

1993.

73. SE Wetterfall, H Fredriksson, M Hillert. J Iron and

Steel Inst, p. 323, 1972.

74. KC Su, I Ohnaka, I Yamauchi, T Fukusako. In: H

Fredriksson, M Hillert (eds.), The Physical Metallurgy of
Cast Iron. Proceedings of the Materials Research Society.
North Holland, 34, 1985, p. 181.

75. IL Svensson, M Wessen. In: BG Thomas, C Beckerman

(eds.), Modeling of Casting, Welding and Advanced
Solidification Processes VIII. Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1998,
p. 443.

76. S Chang, D Shangguan, DM Stefanescu. Metall Trans

23A:l333, 1992.
77. Campbell PC, EB Hawbolt, JK Brimacombe. Metall Trans A,
22A:2791, 1991.

78. J Lacaze, M Castro, C Selig, G Lesoult. In: M Rappaz,

MR Ozgu, KW Mahin (eds.), Modeling of Casting, Welding and
Advanced Solidification Processes V. Warrendale, PA: TMS,
1991 , p. 473.

79. H Fredriksson, I Svensson. In: DM Stefanescu, GJ

Abbaschian, RJ Bayuzick (eds.), Solidification Processing
of Eutectic Alloys. Warrendale, PA: Metallurgical Soc,
1988, p. 153.

80. H Fredriksson, IT Thorgrimsson, I Svensson. In: H

Fredriksson (ed.), State of the Art of Computer Simulation
of Casting and Solidification Processes. Les Ulis, France:
Les Edition de Physique, 1986, p. 267.

186 Stefanescu

81. G Upadhya, DK Banerjee, DM Stefanescu, JL Hill. AFS

Trans, 62:699, 1990.

82. S Hiratsuka, E Niyama, K Anzai, H Horie, T Kowata, M

Nakamura. In: BC Liu, T Jing (eds.), Proceedings of the
3rd Pacific Rim Int. Conf. on Modeling of Casting and
Solidification Processes. 1996, p. 130.

83. L Nastac, DM Stefanescu. Trans AFS 103:329, 1995.

84. DM Stefanescu, CS Kanetkar. In: DJ Srolovitz (ed.),

Computer Simulation of Microstructural Evolution.
Warrendale, PA: Metallurgical Soc, 1985, p. 171.

85. A Catalina, X Guo, DM Stefanescu, L Chuzhoy, MA

Pershing, GL Biltgen. In: BG Thomas, C Beckerman (eds.),
Modeling of Casting, Welding and Advanced Solidification
Processes VIII. Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1998, p. 455.

86. D Venugopalan. Met Trans 21A:913, 1990.

87. V Gerval, J Lacaze. In: J Beech, H Jones (eds.),

Solidification Processing 1997. Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1997,
p. 506.

88. M Wessen, I Svensson. Met Trans 27A:2209, 1996.

89. H Nakae, T Katsuyama, N Hashihara. In: 62nd World

Foundry Congress. Philadelphia, PA: AFS, 1996.
90. IL Svensson, M Wessen, A Gonzalez. In: TS Piwonka, V
Voller, L Katgerman (eds.), Modeling of Casting, Welding
and Advanced Solidification Processes VI. Warrendale, PA:
TMS, 1993, p. 29.

91. DJ Fisher, W Kurz. Acta Met 28:777, 1980.

92. C Degand, DM Stefanescu, G Laslaz. In: I Ohnaka, DM

Stefanescu (eds.), Solidification Science and Processing.
Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1996, p. 55.

93. P Magnin, R Trivedi. Acta Met Mat 39(4):453, 1991.

94. WA Tiller. In: Solidification. American Society for

Metals, 1969, p. 84.

95. WJ Boettinger, UR Kattner, SR Coriell, YA Chang, B

Mueller. In: M Cross, J Campbell (eds.), Modeling of
Casting, Welding and Advanced Solidification Processes
VII. Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1995, p. 649.

96. C Charbon, M Rappaz. Advanced Materials Research.

4-5:453, 1997.

97. IS Cho HF Shen, CP Hong. In: BC Liu, T Jing (eds.),

Proceedings of the 3rd Pacific Rim Int. Conf. on Modeling
of Casting and Solidification Processes, 1996, p.l9.

98. JL Desbiolles, CA Gandin, JF Joyeux, M Rappaz, P

Thevoz. In: BG Thomas, C Beckerman (eds.), Modeling of
Casting, Welding and Advanced Solidification Processes
VIII. Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1998, p. 433.

99. GK Upadhya, KO Yu, MA Layton, AJ Paul. In: M Cross, J

Campbell (eds.), Modeling of Casting, Welding and
Advanced Solidification Processes VII. Warrendale, PA:
TMS, 1995, p. 517.

100. PR Sahm. In: C Kim, CW Kim (eds.), Numerical

Simulation of Casting Solidification in Automotive
Applications. Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1991, p. 45.

101. I Maxwell, A Hellawell. Acta Metall 23:229, 1975.

102. JA Sarreal, GJ Abbaschian. Metall Trans A, 17A:2863,

1986.

103. DM Stefanescu, PA Curreri, MR Fiske. Metall Trans

17A:ll21, 1986.
104. G Upadhya, DK Banerjee, DM Stefanescu, JL Hill. Trans
AFS 98:699, 1990.

Microstructure Evolution 187

105. MF Basdogan, V Kondic, GHJ Bennett. Trans AFS 90:263,

1982.

106. KD Lakeland. BCIRA J 12:634, 1964.

107. H Nieswaag, AJ ZuithotT. In: B Lux, I Minkoff, F

Mollard (eds.), Metallurgy of Cast Iron. Switzerland:
Georgi Publishing, 1975, p. 327.

108. R Boeri, F Weinberg. Trans AFS 89:179, 1989.

6 Chapter 6 Thermophysical Properties
Juan J. Valencia,Kuang-o (Oscar) Yu

I. JJ Valencia. Symposium on Thermophysical Properties:

Metalworking Industry Needs and Resources, Concurrent
Technologies Corporation, Oct. 22-23, 1996. Unpublished
work.

2. A Overfelt. Thermophysical property sensitivity effects

in steel solidification. Proceedings of a Workshop on the
Thermophysical Properties of Molten Materials, NASA Lewis
Research Center, Cleveland, OH, Oct. 2(}-23, 1992, pp.
35-50.

3. YS Touloukian, CY Ho, et al. Thermophysical Properties

Research Center Data Book, 3 vols., Purdue University,
1960-1966, 3322 pp.

4. YS Touloukian, ed. Thermophysical Properties of High

Temperature Solid Materials, 6 vols. (9 books). New York:
MacMillan, 1967, 8549 pp.

5. YS Touloukian, JK Gerritsen, NY Moore, eds.

Thermophysical Properties Literature Retrieval Guide,
Basic Edition, 3 vols., New York: Plenum Press, 1967, 2936
pp.

6. YS Touloukian, CY Ho, eds. Thermophysical Properties of

Matter-The TPRC Data Series, 14 vols., (15 books), New
York: IF A/Plenum Data Co., 197(}-1979, 16,810 pp.

7. YS Touloukian, JK Gerritsen, WH Shafer, eds.

Thermophysical Properties Literature Retrieval Guide,
Supplement I (1964-1970), 6 vols., New York: IFI/ Plenum
Data Co., 1973, 2225 pp.

8. YS Touloukian, CY Ho, eds. Thermophysical Properties of

Selected Aerospace Materials. Part I Thermal Radiative
Properties; Part II Thermophysical Properties of Seven
Materials, Purdue University, TEPIAC/CINDAS, Pt I, 1976,
1058 pp: Pt II, 1977, 242 pp.

9. JK Gerritsen, V Ramdas, TM Putnam, eds. Thermophysical

Properties Literature Retrieval Guide, Supplement II
(19711977), 6 vols., New York: IFI/Plenum Data Co., 1979,
1493 pp.

10. JF Chaney, TM Putnam, CR Rodriguez, MH Wu, eds.

Thermophysical Properties Literature Retrieval Guide
(1900--1980), 7 vols., New York: IFI/ Plenum Data Co.,
1981 , 4801 pp.

II. YS Touloukian, CY Ho, eds. McGraw-Hiii/CINDAS Data

Series on Materials Properties, 4 vols., New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1981, 1525 pp.

12. Thermophysical Properties of Materials:

Computer-Readable Bibliographic Files, Computer Magnetic
Tapes, TEPIAC/CINDAS, 1981.

13. J Miettien. Metall Trans 23A:II55-1170, 1992.

14. J Miettien, S Louhenkilpi. Calculation of

thermophysical properties of carbon and low alloy steels
for modeling of solidification processes. Met Trans
25B:909-916, 1994.

15. Y A Chang. A thermodynamic approach to obtain materials

properties for engineering applications. Proceedings of a
Workshop on the Thermophysical Properties of Molten
Materials, NASA Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, OH, Oct.
2(}-23, 1992, pp. 177-20 I.

16. C Kittel. Introduction to Solid State Physics. New

York: Wiley, 1971.

234 Valencia and Yu

17. Compendium of Tbermophysical Property Measurement

Methods, Vol. 1: Survey of Measurement Techniques (KD
Maglic, A Cezairliyan, VE Peletsky, eds.), New York:
Plenum Press, 1984.

18. C Papesch, JJ Valencia. Effect of heating and cooling

rate on an aluminum bronze alloy. NCEMT Report WO 0029
and 0022, Concurrent Technologies Corporation, Johnstown
PA, March 1997.

19. CJ Smithels. Metals Reference Book, 7th ed., General

Physical Properties, Table 14.1 The Physical Properties of
Pure Metals (EA Brandon, GB Brook, eds.)
Butterworth-Heinemann, 1992, p. 14-l.

20. GH Geiger, DR Poirier. Transport Phenomena in

Metallurgy. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co.,
1973. Data from Appendix II and III, pp. 575-587.

21. RD Pehlke, A Jeyarajan, H Wada. Summary of thermal

properties for casting alloys and mold materials. National
Science Foundation, Applied Research Division, December
1982.

22. KA Jackson. Liquid metals and solidification.

Cleveland, OH: ASM, 1958, p. 174.

23. G Lang. Density of liquid elements. CRC Handbook of

Chemistry and Physics, 75th ed. (DR Lide, HPR
Fredererikse, eds.). CRC Press, 1994--1995, pp.
4-1264-134.

24. AF Crawley. Density of liquid metals and alloys.

International Metallurgical Reviews, Review 180, The
Metals Society, 19:32-48, 1974.

25. EE Shpil'rain, KA Yakimovich, AG Mozgovoi. Apparatus

for continuous measurement of temperature dependence of
density of molten metals by the method of a suspended
pycnometer at high temperatures and pressures. Compendium
of Tbermophysical Property Measurement Methods 2:601-624,
1984.

26. SD Mark, SD Emanuelson. A thermal expansion apparatus

with a silicon carbide dilatometer for temperatures to
1500°C. Ceramic Bulletin 37/4:193--196, 1958.

27. LD Lucas. Physicochemical Measurements in Metals

Research, Part 2 (RA Rapp, ed.). New York: Wiley
Interscience, 1970, p. 219.

28. P Parlouer. Calorimetry and dilatometry at very high

temperatures. Recent Developments in Instrumentation and
Applications, Rev Int Hautes Temper et Refract
28:101-117, 1992-1993.

29. L Darken, R Gurry. Physical Chemistry of Metals. New

York: McGraw-Hill, 1953, pp. 125-126.

30. I Takamichi, RIL Guthrie. The Physical Properties of

Liquid Metals, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988, p. 188.

31. WK Rhim, AJ Rulison. Measuring surface tension and

viscosity of a levitated drop. Report of National
Aeronautics and Space Administration Contract No. NAS
7-918, 1996, pp. 1-6.

32. I Egry, G Lohofer, P Neuhaus, S Sauerland. Surface

tension measurements of liquid metals using levitation,
microgravity, and image processing. Int J Tbermophysics
13/1:65-74, 1992.
33. Y Bayazitoglu, GF Mitchell. Experiments in acoustic
levitation: surface tension measurements of deformed
droplets. J Tbermophysics and Heat Transfer 9/ 4:694--701,
1995.

Thermophyslcal Properties 235

34. S-L Chen, W Oldfield, YA Chang, MK Thomas. Metall and

Mater Trans 25A:l525-1533, 1994.

35. F Zhang, Y A Chang, JS Chou. A thermodynamic approach

to estimate titanium thermophysical properties.
Proceedings of 1997 International Symposium on Liquid
Metal Processing and Casting, (A Mitchel, P Auburtin,
eds.). American Vacuum Society, 1997, pp. 35-59.

36. KS Yeum, R Speiser, DR Poirier. Metall Trans

20B:693-703, 1989.

37. H-K Lee, JP Hajra, Z Frohberg. Metalkde 83:638--643,

1992.

38. JA V Buttler. Proc Roy Soc Al35:348, 1932.

39. J-S Chou, L Nastac, CA Papesch, JJ Valencia, Y Pang.

Thermophysical and solidification properties of titanium
alloys. National Center for Excellence in Metalworking
Technology, Report TR No. 98-87, June 30, 1999.

40. F Zhang, S-L Chen, Y A Chang. Modeling and simulation

in metallurgical engineering and materials science.
Proceedings of the International Conference, MSMM'96 (Z-S
Yu, ed.). Beijing, China, 1996, pp. 191196.

41. JL Murray. Phase Diagrams of Binary Titanium Alloys.

Metals Park, OH: ASM International, 1987.

42. JL Murray. Bull Alloy Phase Diagr 2:185-192, 1981.

43. N Saunders, VG Rivlin. Mater Sci Techn 2:521, 1986.

44. L Kaufman, H Nesor. Metall Trans 5:1623-1629, 1974.

45. UR Kattner, Burton. Phase Diagrams of Binary Titanium

Alloys. Metals Park, OH: ASM International, 1987.

46. K Frisk, P Gustafson. CALPHAD 12:247-254, 1988.

47. K-J Zeng, H Marko, L Kaj. CALPHAD 17:101-107, 1993.

48. J-0 Anderson, N Lange. Metall Trans 19A:l385-1394, 1988.

49. AD Pelton. J Nuclear Materials 201:218-224, 1993.

50. W Huang. Z Metallkde 82:391-401, 1991.

51. EN da C Andrade. Philos Mag 17:497, 698, 1934.

52. ET Turkdogan. Physical Chemistry of High Temperature

Technology. New York: Academic Press, 1980, p. 109.

53. T Chapman. AIChE J 12:395, 1966.

54. J Lenard-Jones, AF Devonshire. Proc Roy Soc Al65:1,

1938.

55. RC Ling. J Chern Phys 25:609, 1956.

56. JR Wilson. Metall Rev 10:381, 1965.

57. LJ Wittenberg. Viscosity of liquid metals. In:

Physicochemical Measurements in Metal Research, vol. IV,
part 2 (RA Rapp, ed.). New York: Wiley Interscience, 1970,
p. 193.

58. NF Mott. Proc Roy Soc A146:465, 1934.

59. TE Faber. Introduction to the Theory of Liquid Metals.

New York: Cambridge University Press, 1972.

60. JM Ziman. Advanced Physics 13:89, 1964.

61. R Evans, DA Greenwood, P Lloyd. Phys Lett 35A:57, 1971.

62. R Evans, BL Gyorffy, N Szabo, JM Ziman. Proceedings of

the 2nd International Conference on Liquid Metals, Tokyo
(S Takeuchi, ed.). London: Taylor and Francis, 1973.

236 Valencia and Yu

63. Y Waseda. The Structure of Non-crystalline Materials:

Liquids and Amorphous Solids. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1980.

64. S Takeuchi, H Endo. J Japan lnst Metals 26:498, 1962.

65. JL Tomlinson, BD Lichter. Trans Met Soc AIME 245:2261,

1969.

66. L Lorentz. Ann Phys Chern 147:429, 1982.

67. GT Meaden. Electrical Resistance of Metals. New York:
Plenum, 1965.

68. KC Mills, BJ Monaghan, BJ Keene. Thermal conductivity

of liquid metals. Proceedings of a Workshop on the
Thermophysical Properties of Molten Materials, NASA Lewis
Research Center, Cleveland, OH, Oct. 2o-23, 1992, pp.
519-529.

69. WJ Parker, RJ Jenkins, CP Butler, GL Abbott. Flash

method of determining thermal diffusivity, heat capacity,
and thermal conductivity. J of Applied Physics
32/9:1679-1684, 1961.

70. RD Cowan. Pulse method of measuring thermal diffusivity

at high temperatures. J Applied Physics 34/4:926-927,
1963.

71. JT Schriempf. A laser flash technique for determining

thermal diffusivity of liquid metals at elevated
temperatures. High Temperatures High Pressures 4:411--416,
1972.

72. KD Maglic, RE Taylor. The apparatus for thermal

diffusivity measurement by the laser pulse method.
Compendium of Thermophysical Property Measurement Methods
2:281-314, 1984.

73. RE Taylor, KD Maglic. Pulse method for thermal

diffusivity measurement. In: Compendium of Thermophysical
Property Measurement Methods 1: Survey of Measurement
Techniques, 1984, pp. 305-336.

74. Y Qingzhao, W Likun. Laser pulse method of determining

thermal diffusivity, heat capacity, and thermal
conductivity. FATPC, pp. 325-330, 1986.

75. Y Maeda, H Sagara, RP Tye, M Masuda, H Ohta, Y Waseda.

A high-temperature system based on the laser flash method
to measure the thermal diffusivity of melts. Int J
Thermophysics 17/1:253--261, 1996.

76. CJ Smithels. Radiating properties of metals. In: Metals

Reference Book, 7th ed. (EA Brandes, GB Brook, eds.),
Butterworth-Heinemann, 1992, pp. 17-1-17-12.

77. J Szekely, NJ Themelis. Rate Phenomena in Process

Metallurgy. New York: Wiley lnterscience, 1971, chap 9,
pp. 251-300.
78. EM Sparrow, RC Cess. Radiation Heat Transfer. Belmont,
CA: Brooks/Cole, 1966.

79. HC Hottel, AF Sarofim. Radiative Transfer. NewYork:

McGraw-Hill, 1967.

80. TJ Love. Radiative Heat Transfer. Columbus, OH:

Merrill, 1968.

81. CJ Smithels. Metals Reference Book, 7th ed., Diffusion

in Metals (EA Brandes, GB Brook, eds.),
Butterworth-Heinemann, 1992, pp. 13-1-13-118.

82. J Crank. The Mathematics of Diffusion, 2nd ed. London:

Oxford University Press, 1975.

83. W Jost. Diffusion in Solids, Liquids, Gases. New York:

Academic Press, 1960.

84. PJ Shewmon. Diffusion in Solids. New York: McGraw-Hill,

1963.

85. DA Porter, KE Easterling. Phase Transformations in

Metals and Alloys. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold
Company, 1981, chap. 2, pp. 6o-106.

Thermophysical Properties 237

86. BS Chandrasekhar. Rev Mod Phys 15:1, 1943.

87. C Zener. In: Imperfections in Nearly Perfect Crystals

(W Shockley, ed.). New York: Wiley, 1952, p. 289.

88. AM Brown, MF Ashby. Correlation for diffusion

constants. Acta Metallurgica 28:1085, 1980.

89. LS Darken. Trans Met Soc AIME 175:184, 1948.

90. HC Longuet, JA Pole. J Chern Phys 25:884, 1956.

91. BJ Alder, TE Weinwright. Phys Rev Lett 18:988, 1967.

92. NH Nachtrieb. Physicochemical Methods Measurements in

Metals Research (PD Adams, HA Davies, SG Epstein, eds.).
London: Taylor and Francis, 1967, p. 309.

93. HA Walls. Physicochemical Methods Measurements in

Metals Research (RA Rapp, ed.). New York: Wiley
Interscience, 1970, p. 459.
94. CT Vadovic, CP Colver. Phil Mag 21:971, 1970.

95. TE Faber. Introduction to Theory of Liquid Metals. New

York: Cambridge University Press, 1972.

96. P Protopapas, HC Andersen, NAD Parlee. J Chern Phys

59:15, 1973.

97. RA Swalin. Acta Met 7:736, 1959.

98. SM Breitling, H Eyring. In: Liquid Metals: Chemistry

and Physics (SZ Beer, ed.). New York: Marcel Dekker,
1972, chap. 5.

99. I Takamichi, RIL Guthrie. The Physical Properties of

Liquid Metals. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988, pp. 201,
217.

100. ET Turkdogan. Physical Chemistry of High Temperature

Technology. New York: Academic Press, 1980, pp. 115-118.

101. P Protopapas, NAD Parlee. High Temp Sci 8:141 , 1976.

102. M Shimoji. Liquid metals: an introduction to the

physics and chemistry of metals in the liquid state. New
York: Academic Press, 1976, p. 222.
7 Chapter 7 Quick Analysis Chungqing Cheng

I. CM Adams. Thermal considerations in freezing. Liquid

Metals and Solidification, ASM, Cleveland, Ohio, 1958.

2. CM Adams, HF Taylor. Trans AFS 65:170--176, 1957.

3. GH Geiger, DR Poirier. Transport Phenomena in

Metallurgy. Reading, PA: Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company, 1982, pp. 329-360.

4. N Chvorinov. Theory of solidification of castings. Die

Giesserei 27:17-24, 1940.

262 Cheng

5. SJ Neises, JJ Uicker, RW Heine. Geometric modeling of

directional solidification based on section modulus. AFS
Transactions 95:25-30, 1987.

6. R Kotschi, L Plutshak. An easy and inexpensive technique

to study solidification of castings in three dimensions.
AFS Transactions 89:601-610, 1981.

7. G Upadhya, CM Wang, AJ Paul. Solidification modeling: a

geometry based approach for defect prediction in castings.
Light Metals 1992, Proceedings of Light Metals Division
at l2lst TMS Annual Meeting in San Diego, CA (ER Cutshall,
ed.), pp. 995-998, 1992.

8. R Yagel, SC Lu, AB Rebello, RA Miller. Volume-based

reasoning and visualization of diecastability. Proceedings
of Visualization '95 in Atlanta, GA (GM Neilson and D
Silver, eds.), 1995, pp. 359-362.

9. JH Hill, IT Berry, S Guleyupoglu. Knowledge-based design

of rigging systems for light alloy castings. AFS
Transactions 99:91-96, 1991.

10. C Cheng, KO Yu. Innovative approach for modeling the

heat transfer during casting solidification. Proceedings
of the International Symposium on Computational Fluid
Dynamics And Heat/Mass Transfer Modeling In: The
Metallurgical Industry in Montreal, Quebec, Canada (SA
Argyropoulos and F Mucciardi, eds.), 1996, pp. 56-67.

II . C Cheng. Quick and approximate methods and quick

analysis software. NCEMT Report, July 16, 1997.

12. RAPID/CAST, Concurrent Technologies Corporation,

Johnstown, PA.

13. G Upadhya. Producibility validation of low loss launch

valve plug casting. NCEMT Report, August 30, 1995.

14. T Uchida, M Morikawa, S Saito. A method of shrinkage

prediction and its application to steel casting practice. E
Niyama, AFS Int Cast Metals Inst J 7:52-63, 1983.

15. YW Lee, E Chang, CF Chieu. Modeling of feeding behavior

of solidifying AI-7Si0.3Mg alloy plate casting. Met Trans
218:357-362, 1990.

16. VK Suri, C Cheng, AJ Paul. Casting porosity prediction:

a comparison of some criteria functions with experimental
observations. TMS Annual Meeting, San Francisco, CA,
February 1994.

17. R Choo, G Upadhya, C Cheng, VK Suri. MK-82 cast ductile

iron test cylinder and bomb body casting analyses. NCEMT
(National Center for Excellence in Metalworking
Technology) Report, July 19, 1995.

18. C Wang. PIM software. NCEMT (National Center for

Excellence in Metalworking Technology) Report, July 16,
1997.
8 Chapter 8 Electronic Data Interchange
Gerald M. Radack

1. I Flores. The Logic of Computer Arithmetic. Englewood

Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1963.

2. ME Mortenson. Computer Graphics: An Introduction to the

Mathematics and Geometry. New York: Industrial Press,
1989.

3. ME Mortenson. Geometric Modeling, 2nd ed. New York:

Wiley, 1997.

4. PR Wilson. STEP Interoperability Methodology for Solids

Data Version 1. NISTIR 5794, National Institute of
Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 1996.

5. JE Hopcroft, PJ Kahn. A paradigm for robust geometric

algorithms. Algorithmica 7:339-380, 1992.

6. CM Hoffman. The problems of accuracy and robustness in

geometric computation. Computer 22(3):31--41, March 1989.

7. G Held. Data Compression: Techniques and Applications,

Hardware and Software Considerations, 2nd ed. New York:
Wiley, 1987.

8. S Bloor and J Owen. Product Data Exchange. London: UCL

Press, 1995.

9. J Fowler. STEP for Data Management, Exchange and

Sharing. Twickenham, UK: Technology Appraisals, 1995.

10. J Owen. STEP: An Introduction. Winchester, UK:

Information Geometers, 1993.

11. GM Radack, CY Wang, AJ Paul, GK Sigworth. New STEP

Standard Streamlines Exchange of Casting Data, Modem
Casting 87(4):40--42, April 1997.

12. Product data representation and exchange: Application

protocol: Exchange of design and manufacturing product
information for cast parts. Working draft of ISO
10303-223, ISO TCI84/SC4fWG3 N728, 1998.
9 Chapter 9 Sand Casting Michael L. Tims
and Qizhong Diao

l. RD Pehlke, A Jeyarajan, H Wada. Summary of thennal

properties for casting alloys and mold materials. NTIS
Report NSF/MEA-82028, December 1982.

2. FP Incropera, DP DeWitt. Fundamentals of Heat Transfer.

New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1981.

3. J Campbell. Castings. Oxford, UK: Butterworth-Heinemann

Ltd., 1995.

4. DR Poirier, GH Geiger. Transport Phenomena in Materials

Processing. Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1994.

5. ML Tims. A one-dimensional analysis of casting mold

parameters. Proceedings of Modeling of Casting, Welding
and Advanced Solidification Processes-VI, Palm Coast, FL,
March 1993. Warrendale, PA: TMS, pp. 701-708.
10 Chapter 10 Lost Foam Casting Chengming
Wang

l. S Shivkumar, 8 Gallois. Physico-chemical aspects of the

full mold casting of aluminum alloys. Part II: Metal flow
in simple patterns. AFS Transactions, 1987.

2. HL Tsai, TS Chen. Modeling of evaporative pattern

process, part 1: metal flow and heat transfer during the
filling stage. AFS Transaction, 1988, pp. 881-890.

3. MJ Lessiter. Lots of activity taking place among lost

foam job shops. Modern Casting, April 1997, pp. 28-31.

4. MJ Lessiter. Today's lost foam technology differs from

yesteryear. Modern Casting, April 1997, pp. 32-35.

5. CM Wang, AJ Paul, WW Fincher, OJ Huey. Computational

analysis of fluid flow and heat transfer during the EPC
process. AFS Transaction, 1993, pp. 897904.

6. S Shivkumar. Fundamental characteristics of metal flow

in the full-mold casting of aluminum alloys. PhD thesis,
Stevens Institute of Technology, 1987.

Lost Foam Casting 331

7. GH Geiger, DR Poirier. Transport Phenomena in

Metallurgy. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company, Inc., 1980, p. 396.

8. SSS Abayarathna, HL Tsai. Modeling of evaporative

pattern process. Part II: Determination of possible carbon
pickup. AFS Transaction, 1989, pp. 645-652.

9. SSS Abayarathna, HL Tsai. Modeling of evaporative

pattern process. Part III: Heat/mass transfer in sand mold
and its effect on casting solidification. AFS
Transaction, 1989, pp. 653--660.
11 Chapter 11 Investment Casting Dilip K.
Banerjee and Kuang-0 (Oscar) Yu

l. RA Horton. Metals Handbook, Voll5, Materials Park, OH:

ASM International, pp. 253-269.

2. KO Yu, JJ Nicholas, L Hosamani. Solidification modeling

of Alloy 718 structural castings. Superalloys 718, 625,
706 and Various Derivatives (EA Loria, ed.). Warrendale,
PA: TMS, 1994, pp. 177-188.

3. JA Oti, KO Yu. Production processing of investment cast

complex shaped NiAl single crystal airfoils. Proceedings
of the International Symposium on Structural
Intermetallics, Seven Springs, 1993, pp. 505-512.

4. DJ Chronister, SW Scott, DR Stickle. Induction melting

of titanium, zirconium, and reactive alloys. Proceedings
of Vacuum Metallurgy Conference (LW Lherbier, GK Bhat,
eds.). Iron and Steel Society, 1986, pp. 7-10.

5. S Shendye. Thermally controlled solidification.

Manufacturing Technology for Aerospace Materials: A
Technology Demonstration and Information Exchange,
Arlington, VA, April20--2l, 1999.

6. ProCAST Reference Manual, UES, Inc., Dayton, OH, 1999.

7. BG Thomas, DD Goettsch, KO Yu, MJ BefTel, M Robinson, D

Pinella RG Carlson. Modeling the directional
solidification process. Modeling of Casting, Welding, and
Advanced Solidification Processes-V, Davos, Switzerland (M

Investment Casting 371 Rappaz, MR Ozgu, KW Mahin, eds.).

Warrendale, PA: The Metallurgical Society, vol. 5, 1990,
pp. 603-610.

8. KO Yu, JA Oti, WS Walston. Solidification modeling of

NiAI single crystal castings. High-Temperature Ordered
Intermetallic Alloys V, vol. 288, Proceedings of Materials
Research Society 1992 Fall Meeting, Boston, 1992, pp.
915--920.

9. M Fackeldey, M Diemer, M Meyer ter Vehn, PR Sahm. Recent

advances in the application of a combined heat, stress
and microstructure simulation on the casting process of a
single crystal turbine blade. Solidification Processing,
Proceedings of the 4th Decennial International Conference
on Solidification Processing (J Beech, H Jones, eds. ).
July 7-10, 1997, University of Sheffield, UK, pp. 41--44.
10. KO Yu, MJ Beffel, M Robinson, DD Goettsch, BG Thomas,
RG Carlson. Solidification modeling of single crystal
investment casting. AFS Transactions, 1990, pp. 417-428.

II . BA Mueller, RK Foran, A Hines, D Hirvo, T Simon, JS

Tu. Investment casting applications of process modeling.
Solidification Processing, Proceedings of the 4th
Decennial International Conference on Solidification
Processing (J Beech, H Jones, eds.). July 7-10, 1997,
University of Sheffield, UK, pp. 170-174.

12. KO Yu, JJ Nichols, M Robinson. Finite-element thermal

modeling of casting microstructures and defects. JOM
6:21-25, 1992.

13. SAE ARP 1947. Determination and acceptance of dendrite

arm spacing of structural aircraft quality D357 aluminum
alloy castings. Society of Automotive Engineers,
Warrendale, PA, 1996.

14. KO Yu, M Robinson. Monocrystal turbine blade scale-up.

AFML F33615-80-C5008, Final Report, April 1987.

15. KO Yu, JA Oti, M Robinson, RG Carlson. Solidification

modeling of complexshaped single crystal turbine airfoi ls.
Superalloys 1992 (SD Antolovich et al, eds.). Warrendale,
PA: TMS, 1992, pp. 135--144.

16. JS Tu, RK Foran. The application of defect maps in the

process modeling of single-crystal investment casting. JOM
6:26-30, 1992.

17. HD Bordy, AF Giamei. Effect of hafnium additions on the

solidification behavior of directionally solidified
superalloys. AFWAL-TR-81-4123, Contract No.
F33615-75-C-5204, Final Report, October 1981.

18. M McLean. Directionally solidified materials for high

temperature service. The Metals Society, London, 1983.

19. Y Saito, G Goldbeck-Wood, H Muller-Krumbhaar. Phys Rev

38A:2148, 1988.

20. JD Warren, WJ Boettinger. Acta Metall Mater 43:689,

1995.

21. CA Gandin, M Rappaz, JL Desbiolles, E Lopez, M

Swierkosz, P Thevoz. 3D modeling of dendritic grain
structure in a turbine blade investment cast part.
Solidification Processing 1997 (J Beech, H Jones, eds.).
University of Sheffield, UK, pp. 289-294.

22. KO Yu. Correlation of microstructural morphology and

defects occurrence with solidification conditions in
investment cast Rene NS single-crystal cylinders.
Appendix of Phase IXAdvanced Turbine Airfoil Casting
Technology, Task 2: Casting Simulation, AFW AL, No.
F33615-85-C-50 14, Fifth Interim Technical Report,
February 1988-July 1988.

372 Banerjee and Yu

23. SM Copley et al. The origin of freckles in

unidirectionally solidified castings. Metall Trans I
:2193--2204, 1970.

24. MC Schneider, JP Gu, C Beckermann, WJ Boettinger, UR

Kattner. Modeling of microand macrosegregation and freckle
formation in single-crystal nickel-base superalloy
directional solidification. Metall & Mater Trans
28A:I517-1531, 1997.

25. TM Pollock, WH Murphy. The breakdown of single crystal

solidification in high refractory nickel-base alloys.
Metall & Mater Trans 27A:I081-1094, 1996.

26. SD Felicelli, DR Poirier, JC Heinrich. Modeling freckle

formation in three dimensions during solidification of
multicomponent alloys. Metall and Matis Trans 298:847-855,
1998.

27. R Mehrabian, M Keane, MC Flemings. Interdendritic fluid

flow and macrosegregation: influence of gravity. Meta II
Trans I: 1209-1220, 1970.

28. S Kou, DR Poirier, MC Flemings. Macrosegregation in

electroslag remelted ingots. Elec Furnace Proc 35:221-228,
1977.

29. J Szekely, AS Jassal. Experimental and analytical study

of the solidification of a binary dendritic system. Metall
Trans 98:389-398, 1978.

30. DR Poirier, JC Heinrich, SD Felicelli . Simulation of

transport phenomena in directionally solidified castings.
Proceedings of the Julian Szekely Memorial Symposium on
Materials Processing (HY Sohn, JW Evans, D Apelian, eds.).
Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1997, pp. 393--410.
31. SD Felicelli, JC Heinrich, DR Poirier. Numerical model
for dendritic solidification of binary alloys. Numer Heat
Transfer, Part 8, 23:461--481, 1993.

32. SD Felicelli. PhD dissertation, The University of

Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 1991.

33. SD Felicelli, DR Poirier, JC Heinrich. Macrosegregation

patterns in multicomponent Ni-base alloys. J Crystal Growth
177:145-161, 1997.

34. SD Felicelli, JC Heinrich, DR Poirier.

Three-dimensional simulations of freckles in binary
alloys. J Crystal Growth 191:879-888, 1998.

35. M Rappaz, JL Desbiolles, JM Drezet, CA Gandin, A Jacot,

P Thevoz. Application of inverse methods to the
estimation of boundary conditions and properties. Modeling
of Casting, Welding, and Advanced Solidification Processes
VII (M Cross, J Campbell, eds.). Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1995,
pp. 449--457.
12 Chapter 12 Permanent Mold Casting
Chung- Whee Kim

I. N Ozisik. Heat Conduction. New York: Wiley-Interscience,

1980, pp. 335-339.

2. C-W Kim. A cyclic analysis of permanent mold casting.

In: Modeling of Casting and Advanced Solidification
Processes VI, Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1993, pp. 749756.

3. C Mitcham. Process modeling of an aluminum alternator

cover for Delphi E & E. Rosemont, IL: North American Die
Casting Association, November 21, 1996.

4. C Mitcham. Process modeling of an Aluminum generator

frame: EKK. Die Casting Engineer 41/3: May/June 1997.

5. S Mahaney, C-W Kim. Modeling of die cast process: a

finite element method approach. Die Casting Engineer 40:
November/December 1996.
13 Chapter 13 Die Casting Horacio
Ahuett-Garza, R. Allen Miller, and
Carroll E. Mobley

I. T Maier, J Kolakowski, J Wallace. Die Casting of Copper

Alloys. AFS Transactions 83:279-294, 1975.

2. D Caulk. Opportunities and challenges in die casting

analysis. Keynote speech presented at Flow
Modeling(fhennal Simulation for Die Casting Forum.
Chicago, IL, 1996.

3. Nadca Computer Modeling Task Group. Presented at Flow

Modeling(fhermal Simulation for Die Casting Forum.
Chicago, IL, 1996.

416 Ahuett-Garza, Miller, and Mobley

4. MR Barone, DA Caulk. dieCAS-thennal analysis software

for die casting: modeling approach. Presented at NADCA
International Congress and Exposition, Cleveland, OH,
1993.

5. MR Barone, DA Caulk, DE Siefker. dieCAS-thennal analysis

software for die casting: results and application.
Presented at NADCA International Die Casting Congress and
Exposition, Cleveland, OH, 1993.

6. MR Barone, E Kock. A method for analyzing the effect of

flow on heat transfer in die casting. International
Journal for Numerical Methods in Heat and Fluid Flow
3:457-472, 1993.

7. HT Siauw, TT Nguyen. A computer-aided thennal analysis

package for pressure die casting dies. Presented at NADCA
15th International Die Casting Congress and Exposition,
St. Louis, MO, 1989.

8. WT Andresen. Computer simulation and analysis of liquid

metal flow and thennal conditions in die casting dies.
Presented at SDCE 14th International Congress and
Exposition, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, 1987.

9. TH Siauw, AJ Davis. Flow analysis in tapered runners.

Presented at lOth SDCE International Die Casting
Exposition and Congress, St. Louis, MO, 1979.

10. L Kallien, JC Stunn. Simulation aided design for die

casting tools. Presented at NADCA Congress and Exposition,
Detroit, Ml, 1991.
II. RL Smith, DE Phenicie, AK Agarwal, HL Kallien.
Optimizing production of a die casting by numerical
simulation of die filling and solidification. Die Casting
Engineer 37:40-48, 1993.

12. D Frayce, CA Loong. Mathematical modelling of the die

casting process. Presented at Light Metals, 1991.

13. GA Prince, CR Ramsey. Introduction to die movement and

distortion: a case study. Presented at NADCA
International Die Castung Congress and Exposition,
Indianapolis, IN, 1995.

14. J Papai, C Mobley. Die thennal fields and heat fluxes

during die casting of 380 aluminum alloy in H-13 steel
dies. Presented at NADCA Die Casting Congress and
Exposition, Detroit, MI, 1991.

15. DA Caulk. A method for analyzing heat conduction with

high frequency periodic boundary conditions. Transactions
of ASME, J Heat Transfer 112:280-287, 1990.

16. MR Barone, DA Caulk. A new method for thennal analysis

of die casting. Transactions of the ASME, J Heat Transfer
115:284-293, 1993.

17. K Chijiiwa, K Shirahige. Behavior of molten metal with

respect to the pressure in cavity of mold in aluminum die
casting. J Faculty of Engineering, The University of
Tokyo, 26:27-36, 1981.

18. KH Hegde. Finite element analysis of deflections in die

casting dies. Masters thesis, Mechanical Engineering
Department. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University, 1995, p.
148.

19. MAGMAsoft, MAGMAsoft Advanced User's Workshop II,

Schaumburg, IL, 1997.
14 Chapter 14 Semi-Solid Metalworking
Michael L. Tims

I. SB Brown, MC Flemings. Net-shape forming via semi-solid

processing. Adv Matis and Procs 36--40, January 1993.

2. MC Flemings. Behavior of metal alloys in the semi-solid

state. Met Trans B 22B:269-293, June 1991.

3. MP Kenney, JA Courtois, RD Evans, GM Farrior, CP

Kyonka, AA Koch, KP Young. Semi-solid metal casting and
forging. In: ASM Metals Handbook, Vol. 15: Casting. Metals
Park, OH: ASM International, 1988, pp. 327338.

4. SB Brown and MC Flemings, eds. Proc 2nd Int Conf on

Semi-solid Processing of Alloys and Composites, Cambridge,
MA, June 10-12, 1992.

5. M Kiuchi, ed. Proc of 3rd Int Conf on Processing of

Semi-solid Alloys and Composites, Tokyo, June 13-15, 1994.

6. DH Kirkwood, P. Kapranos, eds. Proc 4th Int Conf on

Semi-solid Processing of Alloys and Composites, Sheffield,
June 19-21, Exeter, UK: SRP Ltd.

7. AK Bhasin, JJ Moore, KP Young, S Midson, eds. Proc 5th

Int Conf on Semi-solid Processing of Alloys and
Composites, Golden, CO, June 23-25, 1998.

8. NADCA Product Specification Standards for Semi-solid

and Squeeze Casting Processes. Rosemont, IL: North
American Die Casting Association, 1997.

9. DB Spencer, R Mehrabian, MC Flemings. Rheological

behavior of Sn-15 pet Pb in the crystallization range. Met
Trans 3:1925-1932, July 1972.

10. V Laxmanan, MC Flemings. Deformation of semi-solid

Sn-15 pet Pb alloy. Met Trans A IIA:l927-1937, Dec 1980.

II. PA Joly, R Mehrabian. The rheology of a partially solid

alloy. J Mat Sci II : 13931418, 1976.

12. I Diewwanit, MC Flemings. Semi-solid forming of

hypereutectic Al-Si alloys. In: WHale, ed. Light Metals
1996, Warrendale, PA: TMS, pp. 787-793.

13. NH Nicholas, MR Trichka, KP Young. Application of

semi-solid metal forming to the production of small
components. Proc 5th Int Conf on Semi-solid Processing of
Alloys and Composites, Golden, CO, June 23-25, 1998, pp.
79-86.

14. XP Niu, BH Hu, SW Hao, FC Yee, I Pinwill. Semi-solid

forming of cast and wrought aluminum alloys. Proc 5th Int
Conf on Semi-solid Processing of Alloys and Composites,
Golden, CO, June 23-25, 1998, pp. 141-148.

15. CM Wang, GH Nickodemus, TP Creeden. Determining optimal

semi-solid forming process parameters by simulation
technique. Proc 5th Int Conf on Semi-solid Processing of
Alloys and Composites, Golden, CO, June 23-25, 1998, pp.
327-334.

16. LS Tumg, KK Wang. Modelling the flow and solidification

for semi-solid Sn-Pb alloy. Trans 15th Die Casting
Congress, St. Louis, MO, Oct 16-19, 1989, Paper No.
G-T89-043.

Semi-Solid Metalworking 493

17. P Kapranos, DH Kirkwood, PH Mani. Semi-solid metal

processing of ductile iron. Proc 5th Int Conf on
Semi-solid Processing of Alloys and Composites, Golden,
CO, June 23--25, 1998, pp. 431--438.

18. FR Dax. Semi-solid metalworking technology for titanium

fluid handling components. TR No. 95-109D, Concurrent
Technologies Corp, Johnstown, PA, Jan 7, 1996.

19. J Boylan. Semi-solid formed aluminum. Adv Matis and

Procs 27-28, Oct 1997.

20. G Chiarmetta. Thixoforming and weight

reduction-industrial application of SeSoF. Proc 5th Int
Conf on Semi-solid Processing of Alloys and Composites,
Golden, CO, June 23--25, 1998, pp. 87-95.

21. RF Decker, RD Carnahan, E Babij, J Mihelich, G.

Spalding, L Thompson. Magnesium semi-solid metal forming.
Adv Matis and Procs 41--42, February 1996.

22. RE Taylor, H Groot, J Ferrier. Thermophysical

properties of A356-MHD. Purdue Univ, West Lafayette, IN,
Report to Concurrent Technologies Corp, Feb 1994.

23. KP Young. Semi-solid metal cast automotive components:

new markets for die casting. Trans 17th Int Die Casting
Congress, Cleveland, OH, Oct 18-21, 1993, pp. 387-393.
24. KP Young, R Fitze. Semi-solid metal cast aluminium
automotive components. Proc 3rd Int Conf on Processing of
Semi-solid Alloys and Composites, Tokyo, June 13--15,
1994, pp. 155-177.

25. E Tzimas, A Zavaliangos, A Lawley, C Pumberger.

Physical mechanisms of the flow resistance of semi-solid
materials at a high volume fraction of solid. Proc 4th Int
Conf on Semi-solid Processing of Alloys and Composites,
Sheffield, June 1921, 1996, pp. 40--46.

26. GK Sigworth. Defect formation during semi-solid

casting. Int J Cast Metals Res 9:113-123, 1996.

27. SB Brown. Semi-solid processing: new advances in net

shape forming. In: WHale, ed. Light Metals 1996,
Warrendale, PA: TMS, pp. 763--766.

28. G Wan, PR Sahm. Particle characteristics and coarsening

mechanisms in semisolid processing. Proc 2nd Int Conf on
Semi-solid Processing of Alloys and Composites, Cambridge,
MA, June 10-12, 1992, pp. 328-335.

29. SP Midson, K Brissing. Semi-solid casting of aluminum

alloys: a status report. Modem Casting 41--43, February
1997.

30. MF Rothman, ed. High-Temperature Property Data: Ferrous

Alloys. Metals Park, OH: ASM International, 1989.

31. ASM Metals Handbook, Vol. 3: Properties and Selection:

Stainless Steels, Tool Materials and Special-Purpose
Metals. Metals Park, OH: ASM International, 1980.

32. N Wang, H Peng, KK Wang. Rheomolding-a one-step process

for producing semi-solid metal castings with lowest
porosity. In: WHale, ed. Light Metals 1996, Warrendale,
PA: TMS, pp. 781786.

33. NL Bradley, PS Frederick, DF Pawlowski, WJ Schafer.

Injection molding of thixotropic magnesium: machine
development. Trans 15th Die Casting Congress, St. Louis,
MO, Oct 16-19, 1989, Paper No G-T89-112.

494 Tims

34. H Peng, SP Wang, N Wang, KK Wang. Rheomolding-injection

molding of semisolid metals. Proc 3rd lnt Conf on
Processing of Semi-solid Alloys and Composites, Tokyo,
June 13-15, 1994, pp. 191200.
35. GK Sigworth. Rheological properties of metal alloys in
the semi-solid state. Canadian Met Qtr 35:101-122,
April-June 1996.

36. A Einstein. Inaugural Dissertation, Bern, 1905.

37. DG Thomas. J Colloid Sci. 20:267, 1965.

38. D Ghosh, R Fan, C VanSchilt. Thixotropic properties of

semi-solid magnesium alloys AZ9lD and AM50. Proc 3rd Int
Conf on Processing of Semi-solid Alloys and Composites,
Tokyo, June 13-15, 1994, pp. 85-94.

39. SP Wang, KK Wang, LS Turng. Die-casting of semi-solid

metals. Proc 2nd Int Conf on Semi-solid Processing of
Alloys and Composites, Cambridge, MA, June Io-12, 1992,
pp. 336-345.

40. OJ Ilegbusi. Application of a time-dependent

constitutive model to rheocast systems. J Matis Engr and
Perf 5:117-123, February 1996.

41. OJ Ilegbusi, J Szekely. The role of constitutive

relationships in predicting the behavior of rheocast
systems. Proc 2nd Int Conf on Semi-solid Processing of
Alloys and Composites, Cambridge, MA, June Io-12, 1992, pp.
364-375.

42. WR Loue, M Suery, JL Querbes. Microstructure and

rheology of partially remelted AlSi-alloys. Proc 2nd Int
Conf on Semi-solid Processing of Alloys and Composites,
Cambridge, MA, June Io-12, 1992, pp. 266-275.

43. S Okano. Research activities in Rheo-Technology Ltd.

Proc 3rd Int Conf on Processing of Semi-solid Alloys and
Composites, Tokyo, June 13-15, 1994, pp. 7-18.

44. TZ Kattamis, AI Nakhla. Rheological, microstructural

and constitutional studies of semi-solid Al-4.5%Cu-l.5%Mg
alloy. Proc 2nd Int Conf on Semi-solid Processing of
Alloys and Composites, Cambridge, MA, June Io-12, 1992, pp.
237-247.

45. TZ Kattamis, TJ Piccone. Rheology of semisolid

Al-4.5%Cu-l.5%Mg alloy. Matis Sci and Engr A Al31
:265-272, 1991.

46. MR Barkhudarov, CL Bronisz, CW Hirt. Three-dimensional

thixotropic flow model. Proc 4th Int Conf on Semi-solid
Processing of Alloys and Composites, Sheffield, June
19-21, 1996, pp. Ilo-114.

47. P Kapranos, DH Kirkwood, MR Barkhudarov. Modeling of

structural breakdown during rapid compression of
semi-solid alloy slugs. Proc 5th Int Conf on Semi-solid
Processing of Alloys and Composites, Golden, CO, June
23-25, 1998, pp. ll-19.

48. CJ Quaak, MG Horsten, WH Kool. Rheological behaviour of

partially solidified aluminum matrix composites. Matis
Sci and Engr A Al83:247256, 1994.

49. GH Nickodemus, CM Wang, ML Tims, JJ Fisher, JJ

Cardarella. Rheology of materials for semi-solid
metalworking applications. Proc 5th Int Conf on Semisolid
Processing of Alloys and Composites, Golden, CO, June
23-25, 1998, pp. 2934.

Semi-Solid Metalworking 495

50. AN Alexandrou. Constitutive modeling of semi-solid

materials. Proc 4th Int Conf on Semi-solid Processing of
Alloys and Composites, Sheffield, June 19-21, 1996, pp.
132-136.

51. AN Alexandrou, A Ahmed. Processing of semi-solid

materials: final report. Worcester Polytechnic Institute,
Worcester, MA, Report to Concurrent Technologies Corp, Jan
10, 1996.

52. SB Brown. An internal variable constitutive model for

semi-solid slurries. Modeling of Casting, Welding and
Advanced Solidification Processes V, Warrendale, PA: TMS,
1991, pp. 31-38.

53. P Kumar, CL Martin, S Brown. Flow behavior of

semi-solid alloy slurries. Proc 2nd Int Conf on
Semi-solid Processing of Alloys and Composites, Cambridge,
MA, June IIH2, 1992, pp. 248-262.

54. P Kumar, CL Martin, S Brown. Predicting the

constitutive flow behavior of semisolid metal alloy
slurries. Proc 3rd Int Conf on Processing of Semi-solid
Alloys and Composites, Tokyo, June 13-15, 1994, pp.
37-46.

55. P Kumar, CL Martin, S Brown. Shear rate thickening flow

behavior of semi-solid slurries. Met Trans A
24A:II07-III6, May 1993.
56. P Kumar, CL Martin, S Brown. Constitutive modeling and
characterization of the flow behavior of semi-solid metal
alloy slurries-!. The flow response. Acta Met
42:3595-3602, 1994.

57. CL Martin, P Kumar, S Brown. Constitutive modeling and

characterization of the flow behavior of semi-solid metal
alloy slurries-H. Structural evolution under shear
deformation. Acta Met 42:3603-3614, 1994.

58. A Zavaliangos, A Lawley. Numerical simulation of

thixoforming. J Matis Engr and Perf 4:40-47, February
1995.

59. M Mada, F Ajersch. Rheological model of semi-solid

A356-SiC composite alloys-Part 1: Dissociation of
agglomerate structures during shear. Matis Sci and Engr A
A212:157-170, July 15, 1996.

60. M Mada, F Ajersch. Rheological model of semi-solid

A356-SiC composite alloys-Part II: Reconstitution of
agglomerate structures at rest. Matis Sci and Engr A
A212:171-177, July 15, 1996.

61. M Modigell, J Koke, J Petera. Two-phase model for metal

alloys in the semi-solid state. Proc 5th Int Conf on
Semi-solid Processing of Alloys and Composites, Golden,
CO, June 23-25, 1998, pp. 317-326.

62. M Suery, CL Martin, L Salvo. Overview of the

rheological behaviour of globular and dendritic slurries.
Proc 4th Int Conf on Semi-solid Processing of Alloys and
Composites, Sheffield, June 19-21, 1996, pp. 21-29.

63. CJ Quaak, L Katgerman, WH Kool. Viscosity evolution of

partially solidified aluminum slurries after a shear rate
jump. Proc 4th Int Conf on Semi-solid Processing of
Alloys and Composites, Sheffield, June 19-21, 1996, pp.
35-39.

64. M Mada, F Ajersch. Viscosity measurements of A356-15%

Si semi-solid alloys using a squeezing flow viscometer.
Proc 2nd Int Conf on Semi-solid Processing of Alloys and
Composites, Cambridge, MA, June 10-12, 1992, pp. 276-289.

496 Tims

65. J Xu, S Cheng, S Hsu, ML Tims, FR Dax. A two-step

approach for the simulation of semi-solid metalworking.
Proc Int Symp on Recent Advs in Constitutive Laws for Engr
Matis, Mauna Lani, HI, July 3o-Aug 3, 1995.

66. W Yunhua, G Zhiqiang, Z Mingfang, S Huaqin. An improved

net inflow FEM simulation on the squeezing process of
semi-solid ZAI2 alloy. Proc 5th Int Conf on Semi-solid
Processing of Alloys and Composites, Golden, CO, June
23-25, 1998, pp. 699-704.

67. CG Kang, YH Moon. Finite element simulation of the

semi-solid forming based on the deformation models of the
spheroidal structure. Proc 5th Int Conf on Semisolid
Processing of Alloys and Composites, Golden, CO, June
23-25, 1998, pp. 573-580.

68. V DePierre, F Gurney, AT Male. Mathematical calibration

of the ring test with bulge formation, Wright-Patterson
AFB, OH, AFML-TR-72-37, March 1972.

69. AT Male, MG Cockcroft. A method for the determination

of the coefficient of friction of metals under conditions
of bulk plastic deformation. J Inst Metals 93:38--46,
1964-1965.

70. AT Male, V DePierre. The use of the ring compression

test for defining realistic metal processing parameters,
Wright-Patterson AFB, OH, AFML-TR-70-129, June 1970.

71. G Garmong, NE Paton, JC Chesnutt, LF Nevarez. An

evaluation of the ring test for strain-rate-sensitive
materials. Met Trans A 8A:2026--2027, December 1977.

72. M Suery, MC Flemings. Effect of strain rate on

deformation behavior of semisolid dendritic alloys. Met
Trans A 13A:I809-1819, October 1982.

73. DA Pinsky, PO Charreyron, MC Flemings. Compression of

semi-solid dendritic Sn-Pb alloys at low strain rates.
Met Trans B 15B:I73-l81, March 1984.

74. C Yoshida, M Moritaka, S Shinya, S Yahata, K

Takebayashi, A Nanba. Semisolid forging of aluminum alloy.
Proc 2nd Int Conf on Semi-solid Processing of Alloys and
Composites, Cambridge, MA, June Jo-12, 1992, pp. 95-102.

75. ML Tims, J Xu, G Nickodemus, FR Dax. Computer based

numerical analysis of semi-solid metalworking. Proc 4th
Int Conf on Semi-solid Processing of Alloys and
Composites, Sheffield, June 19-21, 1996, pp. J2o-J25.
76. A Zavaliangos, E Tzimas. A two-phase model of the
mechanical behavior of semisolid metallic alloys at high
volume fractions of solid. Proc 5th Int Conf on Semisolid
Processing of Alloys and Composites, Golden, CO, June
23-25, 1998, pp. 705-712.

77. L Salvo, M Suery, Y DeCharentenay, W Loue.

Microstructural evolution and rheological behaviour in
the semi-solid state of a new AI-Si based alloy. Proc 4th
Int Conf on Semi-solid Processing of Alloys and
Composites, Sheffield, June 19-21, 1996, pp. Io-15.

78. DR Poirier, S Ganesan, M Andres, P Ocansey. Isothermal

coarsening of dendritic equiaxial grains in Al-15.6wt.%Cu
alloy. Matis Sci and Engr A Al48:289-297, Dec 14, 1991.

79. GK Sigworth, Grain growth in SSM materials, Concurrent

Technologies Corp, Johnstown, PA, 1994.

Semi-Solid Metalworking 497

80. DS Han, G Durrant, B Cantor. Semi-solid deformation

of2014 AI alloys. Proc 5th Int Conf on Semi-solid
Processing of Alloys and Composites, Golden, CO, June
23-25, 1998, pp. 43-50.

81. GK Sigworth. Technical articles on the rheology of

suspensions. CTC/GKSM0052-94, Concurrent Technologies Corp,
Johnstown, PA, Jan 9, 1994.

82. D Leighton, A Acrivos. The shear induced migration of

particles in concentrated suspensions. J Fluid Mechs
181:415-439, 1987.

83. S Toyoshima. A FEM simulation of densification in

forming processes for semisolid materials. Proc 3rd Int
Conf on Processing of Semi-solid Alloys and Composites,
Tokyo, June 13-15, 1994, pp. 47-62.

84. JS Gunasekera. Development of a constitutive model for

mushy (semi-solid) materials. Proc 2nd Int Conf on
Semi-solid Processing of Alloys and Composites, Cambridge,
MA, June 10-12, 1992, pp. 211-222.

85. E Tzimas, A Zavaliangos, A Lawley. Mechanical behavior

of spray cast alloys in the semi-solid regime under
unconstrained compression. In: W Hale, ed. Light Metals
1996, Warrendale, PA: TMS, pp. 799-806.

86. CL Martin, SB Brown, D Fa vier, M Suery. Mechanical

behavior of coarse dendritic semi-solid Sn-Pb alloys under
various stress states. Proc 3rd Int Conf on Processing of
Semi-solid Alloys and Composites, Tokyo, June 13-15, 1994,
pp. 27-36.

87. S Sannes, H Gjestland, L Amberg, JK Solberg. Yield

point behaviour of semisolid Mg alloys. Proc 3rd Int Conf
on Processing of Semi-solid Alloys and Composites, Tokyo,
June 13-15, 1994, pp. 271-280.

88. TG Nguyen, D Favier, M Suery. Theoretical and

experimental study of the isothermal mechanical behaviour
of alloys in the semi-solid state. Int J Plasticity
10:663-693, 1994.

89. JC Gebelin, D Favier, M Suery, C Guarneri. A FEM

simulation of semi-solid materials behaviour. Proc 4th Int
Conf on Semi-solid Processing of Alloys and Composites,
Sheffield, June 19-21, 1996, pp. 126--131.

90. CL Martin, D Favier, M Suery. Experimental measure of

the bulk deformation and liquid pressure of a semi-solid
specimen under drained and undrained conditions. Proc 4th
Int Conf on Semi-solid Processing of Alloys and
Composites, Sheffield, June 19-21, 1996, pp. 51-57.

91. Y Shirai, T Moriya, C Yoshida, S Okano. Heat transfer

properties and solidification structure in the initial
solidification of semi-solid metals. Proc 4th Int Conf on
Semi-solid Processing of Alloys and Composites, Sheffield,
June 19-21, 1996, pp. 97-102.

92. KC Bearden. Computer simulation of the induction

heating process used in the semi-solid metalworking
process. TR No. 00496, Concurrent Technologies Corp,
Johnstown, PA, March 29, 1995.

93. CA Tudbury. Basics of Induction Heating, vol. I, New

York: John Rider, 1960.

94. S Zinn, SL Semiatin. Elements of Induction Heating:

Design, Control, and Applications. Metals Park, OH: ASM
International, 1988.

498 Tlms

95. JA Dantzig, SP Midson. Billet heating for semi-solid

forming. Proc 2nd Int Conf on Semi-solid Processing of
Alloys and Composites, Cambridge, MA, June 10-12, 1992,
pp. 105-118.
96. RC Gibson. Computer model SCEDDY ensures uniform
partial melting of slugs for SSM applications. Proc 4th
Int Conf on Semi-solid Processing of Alloys and
Composites, Sheffield, June 19-21, 1996, pp. 137-141.

97. DK Moyer. Semi-solid metalworking technology for

titanium fluid handling components-report on induction
heating analysis: induction heating development and
analysis for titanium alloys. TR No. 96-175, Concurrent
Technologies Corp, Johnstown, PA, March 31, 1997.

98. P Kapranos, RC Gibson, DH Kirkwood, CM Sellars,

Induction heating and partial melting of high melting
point thixoformable alloys. Proc 4th Int Conf on
Semi-solid processing of Alloys and Composites, Sheffield,
June 19-21, 1996, pp. 148-152.

99. R Sebus, G Henneberger. Optimisation of coil-design for

inductive heating in the semi-solid state. Proc 5th Int
Conf on Semi-solid Processing of Alloys and Composites,
Golden, CO, June 23-25, 1998, pp. 481-487.

100. ML Tims. Semi-solid metalworking-billet handling

thermal response model: final report. TR No. 95-0820,
Concurrent Technologies Corp, Johnstown, PA, Dec 14, 1995.

101. ML Tims, TP Creeden. Semi-solid

metalworking-application of SSM process analysis models:
comparison with part manufacturing experience. TR No.
95-161, Concurrent Technologies Corp, Johnstown, PA, Dec
31, 1995.

102. TP Creeden, RS Corrente, ML Tims, FR Dax. Tooling

design for semi-solid metalworking. Trans 18th lnt Die
Casting Congress, Indianapolis, IN, Nov 1995, p. 373.
15 Chapter 15 Continuous Casting Brian G.
Thomas

I. WH Emling, T A Waugaman, SL Feldbauer, A W Cram b.

Subsurface mold slag entrainment in ultra-low carbon
steels. In: Steelmaking Conference Proceedings, 77,
Chicago, IL. Warrendale, PA: ISS, 1994, pp 371-379.

2. DE Hershey, BG Thomas, FM Najjar. Turbulent flow through

bifurcated nozzles. International Journal for Numerical
Methods in Fluids 17:23-47, 1993.

3. BG Thomas, A Dennisov, H Bai. Behavior of argon bubbles

during continuous casting of steel. In: Steelmaking
Conference Proceedings, 80, Chicago, IL. Warrendale, PA:
ISS, 1997, pp. 375-384.

4. FLUENT. Report, Fluent, Inc., Lebanon, NH, 1996.

536 Thomas

5. M Hurty. Experimental and theoretical analysis of gas

and metal flows in submerged entry nozzles in continuous
casting. In: PTD Conference Proceedings, 13, Nashville,
TN. Warrendale, PA: ISS, 1995, pp. 287-292.

6. FM Najjar, BG Thomas, DE Hershey. Turbulent flow

simulations in bifurcated nozzles: effects of design and
casting operation. Metall Trans 8, 268(4):749-765, 1995.

7. D Hershey. Turbulent flow of molten steel through

submerged bifurcated nozzles in the continuous casting
process. Masters thesis, University of Illinois, 1992.

8. MS Engleman. FIDAP. Fluid Dynamics International, Inc.,

500 Davis Ave., Suite 400, Evanston, IL 6020 I, 1994.

9. BG Thomas, X Huang, RC Sussman. Simulation of argon gas

flow effects in a continuous slab caster. Metall Trans 8,
258(4):527-547, 1994.

10. N Bessho, R Yoda, H Yamasaki, T Fujii, T Nozaki, S

Takatori. Numerical analysis of fluid flow in the
continuous casting mold by a bubble dispersion model. Iron
Steelmaker 18(4):39-44, 1991.

II. K Takatani, K Nakai, N Kasai, T Watanabe, H Nakajima.

Analysis of heat transfer and fluid flow in the
continuous casting mold with electromagnetic brake. ISIJ
International 29(12):1063-1068, 1989.
12. P Gardin, J Galpin, M Regnier, J Radot. Liquid steel
flow control inside continuous casting mold using a static
magnetic field . IEEE Trans on Magnetics 31(3):2088-2091,
1995.

13. M Zeze, H Tanaka, E Takeuchi, S Mizoguchi. Continuous

casting of clad steel slab with level magnetic field
brake. In: Steelmaking Conference Proceedings, 79,
Pittsburgh, PA. Warrendale, PA: ISS, 1996, pp. 225-230.

14. A Idogawa, M Sugizawa, S Takeuchi, K Sorimachi, T

Fujii. Control of molten steel flow in continuous casting
mold by two static magnetic fields imposed on whole width.
Mat Sci & Eng AI73:293-297, 1993.

15. N Saluja, OJ Ilegbusi, J Szekely. Three-dimensional

flow and free surface phenomena in electromagnetically
stirred molds in continuous casting. In: Proc Sixth
Intemat. Iron Steel Congress, 4, Nagoya, JP. Tokyo: ISIJ,
1990, pp. 338-346.

16. Y Kishida, K Takeda, I Miyoshino, E Takeuchi.

Anisotropic effect of magnetohydrodynamics on metal
solidification. ISIJ International 30( I ):34-40, 1990.

17. JP Birat and J Chone. Electromagnetic stirring on

billet, bloom, and slab continuous casters: state of the
art in 1982. Ironmaking and Steelmaking 10(6):269-281,
1983.

18. D Gupta, AK Lahiri. A water model study of the flow

asymmetry Inside a continuous slab casting mold. Metall and
Materials Trans 278(5):757-764, 1996.

19. T Honeyands, J Herbertson. Flow dynamics in thin slab

caster moulds. Steel Research 66(7):287-293, 1995.

20. X Huang, BG Thomas. Modeling transient flow phenomena

in continuous casting of steel. In: 35th Conference of
Metallurgists, 238, C. Twigge-Molecey, ed., Montreal,
Canada: CIM, 1996, pp. 339-356.

21. BM Gebert, MR Davidson, MJ Rudman. Calculated

oscillations of a confined submerged liquid jet. In:
Inter Conf on CFD in Mineral & Metal Processing and Power
Generation, MP Schwarz, ed., Melbourne, Australia: CSIRO,
1997, pp. 411-417.

Continuous Casting 537

22. J Herbertson, OL He, PJ Flint, RB Mahapatra. In: 74th
Steelmaking Conference Proceedings, 74. Warrendale, PA:
ISS, 1991, pp. 171-185.

23. X Huang, BG Thomas, FM Najjar. Modeling superheat

removal during continuous casting of steel slabs. Metall
Trans B, 238(6):339-356, 1992.

24. BG Thomas, FM Najjar. Finite-element modeling of

turbulent fluid flow and heat transfer in continuous
casting. Applied Mathematical Modeling 15:226--243, 1991.

25. BG Thomas, A Moitra, R McDavid. Simulation

oflongitudinal ofT-corner depressions in continuously-cast
steel slabs. ISS Trans, 23(4):57-70, 1996.

26. BG Thomas, D Lui, B Ho. Effect of transverse and

oscillation marks on heat transfer in the continuous
casting mold. In: Applications of Sensors in Materials
Processing, V Viswanathan, ed., Orlando, FL. Warrendale,
PA: TMS, 1997, pp. 117-142.

27. C Offerman. Internal structure in continuously cast

slabs by the metal flow in the mould. Scandanavian J
Metall 10:25--28, 1981.

28. X Huang, BG Thomas. Unpublished research report,

University of Illinois, 1996.

29. GA Panaras, A Theodorakakos, G Bergeles. Numerical

investigation of the free surface in a continuous steel
casting mold model. Metall Mater Trans B.
298(5):1117-1126,1998.

30. T Teshima, M Osame, K Okimoto, Y Nimura. Improvements

of surface property of steel at high casting speed. In:
Steelmaking Conference Proceedings, 71. Warrendale, PA:
Iron and Steel Society, 1988, pp. 111-118.

31. BG Thomas, H Zhu. Thermal distortion of solidifying

shell in continuous casting of steel. In: Proceedings of
Internat. Symposia on Advanced Materials and Tech. for
21st Century, I. Ohnaka and D. Stefanescu, eds., Honolulu,
HI. Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1996, pp. 197-208.

32. R McDavid, BG Thomas. Flow and thermal behavior of the

top-surface flux/ powder layers in continuous casting
molds. Metall Trans B, 278(4):672--{)85, 1996.
33. Y Miki, BG Thomas, A Denissov, Y Shimada. Model of
inclusion removal during RH degassing of steel. Iron and
Steelmaker 24(8):31-38, 1997.

34. X Huang, BG Thomas. Intermixing model of continuous

casting during a grade transition. Me tall Trans B, 278(
4):617--{)32, 1996.

35. X Huang, BG Thomas. Modeling of steel grade transition

in continuous slab casting processes. Metall Trans
248:379-393, 1993.

36. BG Thomas. Modeling study of intermixing in tundish and

strand during a continuous-casting grade transition. ISS
Trans 24( 12):83-96, 1996.

37. B Ho. Characterization of interfacial heat transfer in

the continuous slab casting process. Masters thesis,
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1992.

38. BG Thomas, B Ho, G Li. CONID User's Manual. Report,

University of Illinois, 1994.

39. BG Thomas, B Ho. Spread sheet model of continuous

casting. J. Engineering Industry 118(1 ):37-44, 1996.

40. WH Emling, S Dawson. Mold instrumentation for breakout

detection and control. In: Steelmaking Conference
Proceedings, 74. Warrendale, PA: Iron and Steel Society,
1991, pp. 197-217.

41. JK Brimacombe. Empowerment with knowledge-toward the

intelligent mold for the continuous casting of steel
billets. Metall Trans B, 248:917-935, 1993.

538 Thomas

42. A Moitra, BG Thomas. Application of a thermo-mechanical

finite element model of steel shell behavior in the
continuous slab casting mold. In: Steelmaking Proceedings,
76. Dallas, TX: Iron and Steel Society, 1993, pp. 657-667.

43. MS Jenkins, BG Thomas, WC Chen, RB Mahapatra.

Investigation of strand surface defects using mold
instrumentation and modelling. In: Steelmaking Conference
Proceedings, 77. Warrendale, PA: Iron and Steel Society,
1994, pp. 337-345.

44. BG Thomas, G Li, A Moitra, D Habing. Analysis of

thermal and mechanical behavior of copper molds during
continuous casting of steel slabs. Iron and Steelmaker
(ISS Transactions) 25(10):125-143, 1998.

45. IV Samarasekera, DL Anderson, JK Brimacombe. The

thermal distortion of continuous casting billet molds.
Metall Trans B, 13B(March):91-104, 1982.

46. A Moitra, BG Thomas, W Storkman. Thermo-mechanical

model of steel shell behavior in the continuous casting
mold. Proceedings of TMS Annual Meeting, San Diego, CA,
1992. Warrendale, PA: The Minerals, Metals, and Materials
Society.

47. A Moitra. Thermo-mechanical model of steel shell

behavior in continuous casting. PhD thesis, University of
Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1993.

48. H Zhu. Coupled thermal-mechanical fixed-grid

finite-element model with application to initial
solidification. PhD thesis, University of Illinois, 1997.

49. P Kozlowski, BG Thomas, J Azzi, H Wang. Simple

constitutive equations for steel at high temperature.
Metall Trans A, 23A(3):903-918, 1992.

SO. PJ Wray. Effect of carbon content on the plastic flow

of plain carbon steels at elevated temperatures. Metall
Trans A, 13A(l):l25-l34, 1982.

51. T Suzuki, KH Tacke, K Wunnenberg, K Schwerdtfeger.

Creep properties of steel at continuous casting
temperatures. Ironmaking and Steelmaking, 15(2):90-100,
1988.

52. PJ Wray. Plastic deformation of delta-ferritic iron at

intermediate strain rates. 7A(Nov.): 1621-1627, 1976.

53. H Zhu, BG Thomas. Evaluation of finite element methods

for simulation of stresses during solidification. Report,
University of Illinois, 1994.

54. BG Thomas, A Moitra, DJ Habing, JA Azzi. A finite

element model for thermal distortion of continuous slab
casting molds. Proceedings of the 1st European Conference
on Continuous Casting, Florence, Italy, 1991 ,
Associazione Italiana di Metallurgia 2, pp. 2.417-2.426.

55. BG Thomas, A Moitra, WR Storkman. Optimizing taper in

continuous slab casting molds using mathematical models.
In: Proceedings, 6th International Iron and Steel
Congress, 3, Nagoya, Japan. Tokyo: Iron and Steel Inst.
Japan, 1990, pp. 348-355.

56. GD Lawson, SC Sander, WH Emling, A Moitra, BG Thomas.

Prevention of shell thinning breakouts associated with
widening width changes. In: Steelmaking Conference
Proceedings, 77. Warrendale, PA: Iron and Steel Society,
1994, pp. 329-336.

57. K Kinoshita, H Kitaoka, T Emi. Influence of casting

conditions on the solidification of steel melt in
continuous casting mold. Tetsu-to-Hagane 67(1 ):93-102,
1981.

Continuous Casting 539

58. K Sorimachi, M Shiraishi, K Kinoshita. Continuous

casting of high carbon steel slabs at Chiba Works. 2nd
Process Tech. Div. Conference, Chicago, IL, i981, pp.
188-193.

59. WR Storkman, BG Thomas. Mathematical models of

continuous slab casting to optimize mold taper. Modeling
of Casting and Welding Processes, Palm Coast, FL, 1988,
Engineering Foundation, 4, pp. 287-297.

60. RB Mahapatra, JK Brimacombe, IV Samarasekera. Mold

behavior and its influence on product quality in the
continuous casting of slabs: Part II. Mold heat transfer,
mold flux behavior, formation of oscillation marks,
longitudinal off-corner depressions, and subsurface cracks.
Metall Trans B, 22B(December):875-888, 1991.

61. BG Thomas, JT Parkman. Simulation of thermal mechanical

behavior during initial solidification. Thermec 97
lnternat. Conf. on Thermomechanical Processing of Steel
and Other Materials, Wollongong, Australia, 1997.
Warrendale, PA: TMS, pp. 2279--2285.

62. C Bernhard, H Hiebler, M Wolf. Simulation of shell

strength properties by the SSCT test. ISIJ International
36:Sl63-SI66, 1996.

63. A Yamanaka, K Nakajima, K Okamura. Critical strain for

internal crack formation in continuous casting. Ironmaking
and Steelmaking 22(6):508-512, 1995.

64. IV Samarasekera, BG Thomas, JK Brimacombe. The

frontiers of continuous casting. Julian Szekely Memorial
Symposium on Materials Processing, MIT, Boston, MA, 1997.
Warrendale, PA: TMS.

65. BG Thomas. Mathematical modeling of the continuous slab

casting mold, a state of the art review. In: Mold
Operation for Quality and Productivity, A. Cramb, ed.,
Warrendale, PA: Iron and Steel Society, 1991, pp. 69--82.
16 Chapter 16 Direct Chill Casting
Hallvard G. Fjar and Dag Mortensen

1. ASM Specialty Handbook: Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys.

ASM International, 1993, pp. 60-87.

2. JW Evans, R Kageyama, Deepak, DP Cook, DC Prasso, S

Nishioka. Electromagnetic casting. Proceedings of the
seventh conference on Modeling of Casting, Welding and
Advanced Solidification Processes, London. Warrendale, PA:
TMS, 1995, pp. 779-792.

3. A Hakonsen, OR Myhr. Dimensionless diagrams for the

temperature distribution in direct chill continuous
casting. Cast Metals 8(3):147-157, 1995.

4. HG Fjrer, A Hakonsen. The mechanism of pull-in during DC

casting of aluminium sheet ingots. In: Light Metals.
Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1997, pp. 683-690.

5. A Hakonsen. A model to predict the steady state pull-in

during DC-casting of aluminium sheet ingots. In: Light
Metals. Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1997, pp. 675-682.

6. JB Wiskel, SL Cockcroft. Heat-flow-based analysis of

surface crack formation during start-up of the direct
chill casting process: Part I. Development of the inverse
heat-transfer model. Metall and Mater Trans 278:119-128,
1996.

7. J-M Drezet. Direct chill and electromagnetic casting of

aluminium alloys: thermomechanical effects and
solidification aspects. PhD thesis, EPLF, Lausanne,
Switzerland, 1996, pp. 107-112.

8. J-M Drezet, M Rappaz. Modeling of ingot distortions

during direct chill casting of aluminium alloys. Metall
and Mater Trans 27A:3214-3225, 1996.

9. J Du, BS-J. Kang, K -M. Chang, J Harrisl. Computational

modeling of DC casting of aluminum alloy using finite
element method. In: Light Metals. Warrendale, PA: TMS,
1998, pp. 1025-1030.

10. B Hannart, F Cialti, R Schalkwijk. Laboratory thermal

stresses in DC casting of aluminum slabs: application of a
finite element method. In: Light Metals. Warrendale, PA:
TMS, 1994, pp. 879-887.

11. SC Flood, L Katgerman, AH Langille, S Rogers, CM Read.

Modeling of fluid flow and stress phenomena during DC
casting of aluminium alloys. In: Light Metals. Warrendale,
PA: TMS, 1989, pp. 943-947.

12. Ch RafTourt, Y Fautrelle, JL Meyer, B Hannart. Thermal

and fluid flow calculations in an aluminium slab DC
casting. Modeling of Casting, Welding and Advanced
Solidification Processes-V, ed. M Rappaz, MR Ozgii, KW
Mahin. Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1991, pp. 691-698.

13. C Devadas, JF Grandfield. Experiences with modeling DC

casting of aluminium. In: Light Metals. Warrendale, PA:
TMS, 1991, pp. 883-892.

14. GU Griin, I Eick, D Vogelsang. 3D-modeling of flow &

heat transfer for DCcasting of rolling ingots. In: Light
Metals. Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1994, pp. 863869.

15. JB Wiskel. Thermal analysis of the startup phase for DC

casting of an AA5182 aluminium ingot. PhD thesis, The
University Of British Columbia, Canada, 1995.

16. D Mortensen. A mathematical model of the heat and fluid

flows in direct-chill casting of aluminium sheet ingots
and billets. Metall and Mater Trans 30B: 119133, 1999.

Direct Chill Casting 561

17. HG Fjzr, A Mo. ALSPEN-a mathematical model for thermal

stresses in direct chill casting of aluminium billets.
Metall Trans 218:1049-1061, 1990.

18. HG Fjzr, EK Jensen. Mathematical modeling of butt curl

deformation of sheet ingots. Comparison with experimental
results for different starting block shapes. In: Light
Metals. Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1995, pp. 951-959.

19. W Schneider, EK Jensen. Investigations about starting

cracks in De-casting of 6063-type billets. Part I:
experimental results. In: Light Metals. Warrendale, PA:
TMS-AIME, 1990, pp. 931-936.

20. EK Jensen, W Schneider. Investigations about starting

cracks in DC-casting of 6063-type billets. Part II:
modeling results. In: Light Metals. Warrendale, PA:
TMS-AIME, 1990, pp. 937-943.

21. HG Fjzr, A Mo. Influence of starter block shape on

center crack formation in DC casting of aluminium
billets. Mathematical Predictions. Stranggiepen, Deutsche
Gesellshaft fiir Materialkunde, Oberursel, Germany, 1991,
pp. 127-134.

22. N8 Bryson. Increasing the productivity of aluminium DC

casting. In: Light Metals. Warrendale, PA: TMS-AIME,
1972, pp. 429-435.

23. HG Fjzr, EK Jensen, A Mo. Mathematical modeling of heat

transfer and thermal stresses in aluminium billet casting.
Influence of the direct water cooling conditions.
Proceedings of the 5th International Aluminum Extrusion
Technology Seminar, The Aluminum Association,I992,
1:113-120.

24. ML Nedreberg. Thermal stress and the hot tearing during

the DC casting of AlMgSi billets. PhD thesis, University
of Oslo, Dept of Physics, 1991.

25. JWB Magnin, L Katgerman, B Hannart. Physical and

numerical modeling of thermal stress generation during DC
casting of aluminium alloys. Proceedings of the seventh
conference on Modeling of Casting, Welding and Advanced
Solidification Processes, London. Warrendale, PA: TMS,
1995, pp. 303-310.

26. M Rappaz, J-M Drezet, M Gremaud. A new hot-tearing

criterion. Metall and Mater Trans 30A:449-455, 1999.

27. I Farup, A Mo. Two-phase modeling of mushy zone

parameters associated with hot tearing. Accepted for
publication in Metall and Mater Trans 1999.

28. W Droste, W Schneider. Laboratory investigation about

the influence of starting conditions on butt curl and butt
swell of DC cast sheet ingots. In: Light Metals.
Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1991, pp. 945-951.

29. H Yu. A process to reduce DC ingot butt curl and swell.

In: Light Metals. Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1980, pp. 613-628.

30. FA Sergerie, NB Bryson. Reduction of ingot bottom

"bowing and bumping" in large sheet ingot casting. In:
Light Metals. Warrendale, PA: TMS-AIME, 1974, pp. 587-590.

31. W Schneider, EK Jensen, 8 Carrupt. Development of a new

starting block shape for DC casting of aluminium sheet
ingots. Part I: Experimental results. In: Light Metals.
Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1995, pp. 961-967.

32. EK Jensen, W Schneider. Development of a new starting

block shape for the DC casting of aluminium sheet ingots.
Part II: Modeling results. In: Light Metals. Warrendale,
PA: TMS, 1995, pp. 969--978.

562 Fjaer and Mortensen

33. HG Fja:r, EK Jensen. Mathematical modeling of butt curl

deformation of sheet ingots. Comparison with experimental
results for different starting block shapes. In: Light
Metals. Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1995, pp. 951-959.

34. PA Davidson, SC Flood. Natural convection in an

aluminium ingot: a mathematical model. Metall Trans
25B:293-302, 1994.

35. JM Reese. Characterization of the flow in the molten

metal sump during direct chill aluminium casting. Metall
Trans 28B:491-499, 1997.

36. SC Flood, L Katgerman, VR Voller. The calculation of

macrosegregation and heat and fluid flows in the DC
casting of aluminium alloys. Modeling of Casting, Welding
and Advanced Solidification Processes V, M Rappaz, MR
Ozgil, KW Mahin, eds. Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1991, pp.
683---{)90.

37. AV Reddy, C Beckermann. Simulation of the effects of

thermosolutal convection, shrinkage induced flow and
solid transport on macrosegregation and equiaxed grain
size distribution in a DC continuous cast AI-Cu round
ingot. Materials Processing in the Computer Age II, VR
Voller, SP Marsh, N EI-Kaddah, eds. Warrendale, PA: TMS,
1994, pp. 89-102.

38. A Hiikonsen, D Mortensen. A FEM model for the

calculation of heat and fluid flows in DC casting of
aluminium slabs. Modeling of Casting, Welding and Advanced
Solidification Processes VII, M Cross, J Campbell, eds.
Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1995, pp. 763-770.

39. GU Griin, W Schneider. Influence of fluid flow field

and pouring temperature on thermal gradients in the mushy
zone during level pour casting of billets. In: Light
Metals. Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1997, pp. 1059-1064.

40. A Mo, T Rusten, HJ Thevik. Modeling of surface

segregation development during DC casting of rolling slab
ingots. In: Light Metals. Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1997, pp.
667-t>74.
41. AV Reddy, C Beckermann. Modeling of macrosegregation
due to thermosolutal convection and contraction-driven
flow in direct chill continuous casting of an AICu round
ingot. Metall Trans 28B:479-489, 1997.

42. BQ Li, JC Liu, JA Brock. Numerical simulation of

transient fluid flow and solidification phenomena during
continuous casting of aluminium. EPD Congress 1993, JP
Hager, ed. Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1992, pp. 841-857.

43. BQ Li, PN Anyalebechi. A micro/macro model for fluid

flow evolution and microstructure formation in
solidification processes. Int J Heat Mass Transfer
38:23672381, 1995.

44. BR Henriksen, EK Jensen, D Mortensen. The modeling of

transient heat and fluid flows in the start-up phase of
the DC casting process. Modeling of Casting, Welding and
Advanced Solidification Processes VIII, BG Thomas, C
Beckermann, eds. Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1998, pp.
623---{)30.

45. L Maenner, 8 Magnin, Y Caratini. A comprehensive

approach to water cooling in DC casting. In: Light Metals.
Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1997, pp. 701-707.

46. JF Grandfield, A Hoadley, S Instone. Water cooling in

direct chill casting. Part I, Boiling theory and control.
In: Light Metals. Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1997, pp.
691-t>99.

Direct Chill Casting 563

47. JF Grandfield, K Goodall, P Misic, X Zhang. Water

cooling in direct chill casting: Part 2, Effect on billet
heat flow and solidification. In: Light Metals. Warrendale,
PA: TMS, 1997, pp. 1081-1090.

48. WJ Bergmann. Solidification in continuous casting of

aluminium. Metall Trans 1:3361-3364, 1970.

49. S Benum, A Hakonsen, JE Hafsas, J Sivertsen. Mechanisms

of surface formation during direct chill (DC) casting of
extrusion ingots. In: Light Metals. Warrendale, PA: TMS,
1999, pp. 737-742.

50. JM Drezet, G-U Griin, M Gremaud. Determination of

thermal properties and boundary conditions in the DC
casting process using inverse stationary methods. In:
Light Metals. Warrendale, PA: TMS, 2000.
51. HG Fja:r, D Mortensen, A Hakonsen, EA Serheim. Coupled
stress, thermal and fluid flow modeling of the start-up
phase of aluminium sheet ingot casting. In: Light Metals.
Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1999, pp. 743-748.

52. WD Bennon, FP Incropera. A continuum model for

momentum, heat and species transport in binary
solid-liquid phase change systems-1. Model formulation. Int
J Heat Mass Transfer 30:2161-2170, 1987.

53. VR Voller, C Prakash. A fixed grid numerical modeling

methodology for convection-diffusion mushy region
phase-change problems. Int J Heat Mass Transfer
30:1709-1719, 1987.

54. BE Launder, Bl Sharma. Application of the

energy-dissipation model of turbulence to the calculation
of flow near a spinning disc. Letters in Heat and Mass
Transfer 1:131-138, 1974.

55. A Geist, et al. PVM: parallel virtual machine, a users

guide and tutorial for networked parallel computing. MIT
Press, 1994.

56. TG Kim, Y-S Choi, Z-H Lee. Heat transfer coefficients

between a hollow cylinder casting and metal mold. Modeling
of casting, Welding and Advanced Solidification Processes
VIII, BG Thomas, C Beckermann, eds. Warrendale, PA: TMS,
1998, pp. 1023-1030.

57. S Gradahl, ST Johansen. Maleprogram for Valseblokk, Del

Ill. SINTEF-report F93198, Trondheim, 1993.

58. AL Dons, EK Jensen, Y Langsrud, E Tmmborg, S

Brusethaug. The alstruc microstructure solidification model
for industrial aluminium alloy. Metall and Mater Trans
30A: 2135-2146, 1999.
18 Chapter 18 Electron Beam Melting and
Plasma Arc Melting Yuan Pang, Shesh
Srivatsa, and Kuang-0 (Oscar) Yu

1. CE Shamblen, GB Hunter, WH Buttrill, EL Raymond.

Manufacturing technology for premium quality titanium
alloys for gas turbine engine rotating components. Phase I
Final Report, Vol. 1: Technical Program, WL-TR-928078, GE
Aircraft Engines, Cincinnati, OH, 1993.

2. CE Sham bien. Manufacturing technology for premium

quality titanium alloys for gas turbine engine rotating
components. Phase II Final Report, WL-TR-95-8025, GE
Aircraft Engines, Cincinnati, OH, 1995.

3. Y Pang, C Wang. Titanium alloy hearth melting process

technology enhancement NCEMT Final Report TR No. 00-50
(Contract No. N00140-92-C-BC49), Concurrent Technologies
Corporation, Johnstown, PA, 2000.

4. DJ Tilly, CE Shamblen, WH Buttrill. Premium quality Ti

alloy production: HM+VAR status. Proceedings of the 1997
International Symposium on Liquid Metal Processing and
Casting. A Mitchell, P Auburtin, eds., Vacuum Metallurgy
Division, American Vacuum Society, Santa Fe, NM, 1997, pp.
85-96.

5. CE Shamblen, DJ Tilly. Inclusion free titanium material

efforts. Proceedings of the Electron Beam Melting and
Refining Conference-State of the Art 1997. R Bakish, ed.,
Bakish Materials Corporation, Reno, NV, 1997, pp. 39-45.

6. WR Chinnis. Present status of PAM development.

Proceedings of the Electron Beam Melting and Refining
Conference-State of the Art 1997. R Bakish, ed., Bakish
Materials Corporation, Reno, NV, 1997, pp. 277-282.

7. CE Shamblen. Second Titanium Hard Alpha Workshop. GE

Aircraft Engines, Evendale, OH, Jan. 31, 2000.

8. KO Yu. Plasma arc melting for titanium alloys.

Proceedings of the Technical Program from the 1998
International Conference, International Titanium
Association, Monte Carlo, Monaco, 1998, pp. 371-385.

9. KO Yu. PAM processing titanium alloys. Proceedings of

Manufacturing Technology for Aerospace Materials: A
Technology Demonstration and Information Exchange.
Concurrent Technologies Corporation, Arlington, VA. 1999,
pp. 58-74.
10. S Schiller, U Heisig, S Panzer. Electron beam
technology. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1982, 508 p.

II. KM Kelkar, SV Patankar, SK Srivatsa. Mathematical

modeling of the electron beam cold hearth refining of
titanium alloys. Proceedings of the Electron Beam Melting
and Refining Conference-State of the Art 1997. R Bakish,
ed., Bakish Materials Corporation, Englewood, NJ, 1997,
pp. 238-251.

12. G Li, Y Pang. Plasma torch model development,

validation, and sensitivity study. NCEMT Report TR No.
98-89 (Contract No. N00140-92-C-BC49), Concurrent
Technologies Corporation, Johnstown, PA, 1999.

13. Y Pang, G Li, RTC Choo, KO Yu. Modeling of an

industrial plasma torch for titanium alloy processing.
33rd Annual Meeting of the Society of Engineering
Science, Tempe, AZ, 1996.

652 Pang, Srlvatsa, and Yu

14. Y Pang. Thermodynamic and transport properties of

helium plasmas. NCEMT Report TR No. 00-25 (Contract No.
N00140-92-C-BC49), Concurrent Technologies Corporation,
Johnstown, PA, 2000.

I 5. F Zhang, Y A Chang, JS Chou. A thermodynamic approach

to estimate titanium thermophysical properties. Proceedings
of the I 997 International Symposium on Liquid Metal
Processing and Casting. A Mitchell, P Auburtin, eds.,
Vacuum Metallurgy Division, American Vacuum Society, Santa
Fe, NM, 1997, pp. 35-59.

16. JS Chou, L Nastac, CA Papesch, JJ Valencia, Y Pang.

Thermophysical and solidification properties of titanium
alloys. NCEMT Report TR No. 98-87 (Contract No.
N00140-92-C-BC49), Concurrent Technologies Corporation,
Johnstown, PA, 1999.

I 7. Y A Chang. Numerical calculation of solidification

properties for titanium alloys. A report to Concurrent
Technologies Corporation, I 996.

18. S Srivatsa, K Kelkar. Mathematical modeling of the

electron beam cold hearth refining of titanium alloys.
2000 TMS Annual Meeting, Nashville, TN, March 1316, 2000.

19. JP Bellot, E Hess, D Ablitzer, A Mitchell. Dissolution

of hard-alpha defects dragged in a bath of liquid
titanium. Proceedings of the I 994 International Symposium
on Liquid Metal Processing and Casting. A Mitchell, J
Frernihough, eds., Vacuum Metallurgy Division, American
Vacuum Society, Santa Fe, NM, 1994, pp. 155-166.

20. JP Bellot, E Hess, S Hans, D Ablitzer. A comprehensive

simulation of electron beam cold hearth refining of
titanium alloys. Proceedings of the I 997 International
Symposium on Liquid Metal Processing and Casting. A
Mitchell, P Auburtin, eds., Vacuum Metallurgy Division,
American Vacuum Society, Santa Fe, NM, 1997, pp. 166-178.

21. JP Bellot, A Jardy, D Ablitzer. Mathematical modeling

of the refining and solidification of titanium alloys
during EBM. Proceedings of the Electron Beam Melting and
Refining Conference State of the Art 1997. R Bakish, ed.,
Bakish Materials Corporation, Englewood, NJ, 1997, pp.
223-237.

22. AD Brent, VR Voller, KJ Reid. Enthalpy-porosity

technique for modeling convection-diffusion phase change.
Numerical Heat Transfer 13:297-318, 1988.

23. X Huang. Hearth model software. NCEMT Report TR No.

96-040 (Contract No. N00140-92-C-BC49), Concurrent
Technologies Corporation, Johnstown, PA, 1996.

24. X Huang, JS Chou, KO Yu, DJ Tilly. Computer simulation

of the refining hearth in a plasma arc melting process.
Proceedings of the 1997 International Symposium on Liquid
Metal Processing and Casting. A Mitchell, P Auburtin,
eds., Vacuum Metallurgy Division, American Vacuum Society,
Santa Fe, NM, 1997, pp. 179203.

25. X Huang, JS Chou, KO Yu, DJ Tilly, V Suri. Physical

modeling of the refining hearth in the plasma arc melting
process. Proceedings of the 7th International Symposium on
Physical Simulation of Casting, Hot Rolling, and Welding.
HG Suzuki, T Sakai, F Matsuda, eds., ISIJ, Japan, 1997,
pp. 489-502.

Electron Beam Melting and Plasma Arc Melting 653

26. Y Pang. Hearth model development, validation, and

sensitivity study. NCEMT Report TR No. 00-55 (Contract
No. N00140-92-C-BC49), Concurrent Technologies
Corporation, Johnstown, PA, 2000.

27. W Shyy, Y Pang, GB Hunter, DY Wei, MH Chen. Effect of

turbulent heat transfer on continuous ingot
solidification. J Engineering Materials and Technology
Trans ASME 115:8-16, 1993.

28. W Shyy, Y Pang, GB Hunter, DY Wei, MH Chen. Modeling of

turbulent transport and solidification during continuous
ingot casting. International J Heat and Mass Transfer
35(5):1229-1245, 1992.

29. W Shyy, Y Pang, DY Wei, MH Chen. Effect of surface

tension and buoyancy on continuous ingot solidification.
AIAA 28th Aerospace Meeting, Paper No. 910506, 1991.

30. RC Sussman, M Bum, X Huang, BG Thomas. Inclusion

particle behavior in a continuous slab casting mold. Iron
and Steelmaker 20(2):14-16, 1993.

31. CE Shamblen, GB Hunter. Titanium base alloys clean melt

process development. Proceedings of the 1989 Vacuum
Metallurgy Conference on the Melting and Processing of
Specialty Materials, Iron and Steel Society, Inc.,
Warrendale, PA, 1989, pp. 3--11.

32. KW Westerberg, TC Meier, MA McClelland, DG Braun, LV

Berzins, TM Anklam. Analysis of the E-beam evaporation of
titanium and Ti-6AI-4V. Proceedings of the Electron Beam
Melting and Refining Conference State of the Art 1997. R
Bakish, ed., Bakish Materials Corporation, Englewood, NJ,
1997, pp. 208-221.

33. L Nastac, S Sundarraj, KO Yu, Y Pang. Stochastic

modeling of grain structure formation during
solidification of superalloy and Ti alloy remelt ingots.
Proceedings of the 1997 International Symposium on Liquid
Metal Processing and Casting. A Mitchell, P Auburtin,
eds., Vacuum Metallurgy Division, American Vacuum Society,
Santa Fe, NM, 1997, pp. 145-165.

34. S Sundarraj, L Nastac, Y Pang, KO Yu. Numerical

modeling of macrosegregation during ingot casting in the
plasma arc melting process. Proceedings of the 8th
International Conference on Modeling of Casting, Welding
and Advanced Solidification Processes. BG Thomas, C
Beckermann, eds., The Engineering Foundation, San Diego,
CA, 1998, pp. 297-304.
19 Chapter 19 Spray Forming Huimin Liu

l. AG Leatham, RG Brooks, JS Coombs, AGW Ogilvy. The past,

present and future developments of the Osprey preform
process. Proceedings 1st International Conference on Spray
Forming, Osprey Metals, Ltd., Neath, UK, 1991.

2. AG Leatham, Y Kawashima. The past, present and future

developments of the Osprey preform process. Proceedings
2nd Japan International SAMPE Symposium, Chiba, Japan,
December 11-14, 1991, pp. 369-377.

3. JB Brennan. Formation of metal strip under controlled

pressure. USA Patent No. 2,639,490 (1958); Apparatus and
method for producing metal strip. USA Patent No. 2,864,137
(1958).

4. ARE Singer. The principles of spray rolling of metals.

Metals and Materials 4:246257, 1970.

5. ARE Singer. The challenge of spray forming. Powder

Metall 25( 4): 195-200, 1982.

6. ARE Singer, R W Evans. Incremental solidification and

forming. Metals Techno) 10(2):61--68, 1983.

7. ARE Singer. Simultaneous spray deposition and peening of

metals. Metals Technol 11:99-104, 1984.

8. ARE Singer. Metal matrix composites made by spray

forming. Mater Sci Eng Al35:13-17, 1991.

9. AP Newbery, B Cantor, RM Jordan, ARE Singer. Arc spray

forming of nickel aluminides. Scripta Metall et Mater
27(7):915-918, 1992.

10. AP Newbery, RM Jordan, ARE Singer, B Cantor. Electric

arc spray forming of an NhAl based alloy. Scripta Metall
et Mater 35(1):47-51, 1996.

11. RE Lewis, A Lawley. Spray forming of metallic

materials: an overv;ew. In: Powder Metallurgy in Aerospace
and Defense Technologies, FH Froes, ed., Princeton, NJ:
MPIF, 1991, pp. 173-184.

12. AG Leatham, AGW Ogilvy, L Elias. The Osprey process:

current status and future possibilities. In: Powder
Metallurgy in Aerospace, Defense and Demanding
Applications, FH Froes, ed., Princeton, NJ: MPIF, 1993,
pp. 165-175.
13. AG Leatham, A Lawley. The Osprey process: principles
and applications. Intern J Powder Metall 29(4):321-329,
1993.

14. H Liu. Science and Engineering of Droplets:

Fundamentals and Applications. Norwich, NY: William Andrew
Publishing, 2000.

15. DRG Davies, ARE Singer. Spray forming by centrifugal

spray deposition. In: Advances in Powder Metallurgy and
Particulate Materials, vol. I, JM Capus, RM German, eds.,
Princeton, NJ: APMI International, 1992, pp. 301-317.

16. H Liu, EJ Lavernia, RH Rangel. An analysis of freeze-up

phenomena during gas atomization of metals. Intern J Heat
Mass Transfer 38(12):2183-2193, 1995.

17. H Liu, DS Dandy. Modeling of liquid metal flow and heat

transfer in delivery tube during gas atomization. Mater
Sci Eng A197:199-208, 1995.

690 Liu

18. RD Payne, MA Matteson, AL Moran. Application of neural

networks in spray forming technology. Intern J Powder
Metall 29(4):345-351, 1993.

19. P Mathur, D Apelian, A Lawley. Analysis of the spray

deposition process. Acta Meta II Mater 37(2):429-443,
1989.

20. H Liu, RH Rangel, EJ La vernia. Modeling of reactive

atomization and deposition processing of Ni 3 Al. Acta
Metall Mater 42(10):3277-3289, 1994.

21. H Liu, RH Rangel, EJ Lavernia. Modeling of droplet-gas

interactions in spray atomization ofTa-2.5W alloy. Mater
Sci Eng Al91(1-2):171-184, 1995.

22. S Annavarapu, RD Doherty. Evolution of microstructure

in spray casting. Intern J Powder Metall 29(4):331-343,
1993.

23. S Annavarapu, D Apelian, A Lawley. Spray casting of

steel strip-process analysis. Metall Trans 21A:32373256,
1990.

24. SJ Savage, FH Froes. Production of rapidly solidified

metals and alloys. J Met 36(4):20--33, 1984.
25. J Baram. Structure and properties of a rapidly
solidified AI-Li-Mn-Zr alloy for high-temperature
applications, 2. Spray atomization and deposition
processing. Metall Trans 22A(l0):2515-2522, 1991.

26. H Liu, B Seuren. Spray atomization and deposition of

steel. Second National Symposium, Society for the
Advancement of Material and Process Engineering, eV,
Wuppetal, Germany, Nov. 4, 1988.

27. K Bauckhage, H Liu, B Seuren, V Uhlenwinkel. Spray

forming of liquid steel, local size and velocity
distribution of particle in the spray cone and their
reference to varying process parameters. Proceedings
Powder Metallurgy Conference, PM'90, London, July 2--6,
1990, Institute of Metals, London, pp. 207215.

28. H Liu, B Seuren, V Uhlenwinkel. On-line and in-line

measurements in the spray compacting of liquid steel.
Proceedings of 5th International Conference on Liquid
Atomization and Spray Systems, K Bauckhage, ed., Bremen,
Germany, July 1-4, 1989.

29. H Liu. Numerical modeling of the temperature and

velocity fields of gas/droplets in a spray atomization
deposition facility for steel. Ph.D. thesis, University of
Bremen, Bremen, Germany, February 1990.

30. P Mathur, S Annavarapu, D Apelian, A Lawley. Spray

casting-an integral model for process understanding and
control. Mater Sci Eng Al42(2):261 -276, 1991.

31. RP Singh, A Lawley, S Friedman, YV Murty.

Microstructure and properties of spray cast Cu-Zr alloys.
Mater Sci Eng Al45(2):243-255, 1991.

32. RH Bricknell. The structure and properties of a

nickel-base superalloy produced by Osprey
atomization-deposition. Metall Trans 17A:583-591, 1986.

33. T Harada, T Ando, RC Ohandley, NJ Grant. A

microstructural study of a Nd 15 Fe 77 B 8 magnetic alloy
produced by liquid dynamic compaction (LDC). Mater Sci
Eng Al33:780--784, 1991.

34. BP Bewlay, B Cantor. Gas velocity measurements from a

close-coupled spray deposition atomizer. Mater Sci Eng
A118:207222, 1989.
35. DG Morris, MA Morris. Rapid solidification of Ni 3 Al
by Osprey deposition. J Mater Res 6(2):361-365, 1991.

Spray Forming 691

36. X Zeng, H Liu, M Chu, EJ Lavernia. An experimental

investigation of reactive atomization and deposition
processing of Ni 3 Al/Y 2 0 3 using Nr0 2 atomization.
Metall Trans 23A:3394-3399, 1992.

37. H Liu, X Zeng, EJ Lavemia. Processing map for reactive

atomization and deposition processing. Scripta Metall et
Mater 29:1341-1344, 1993.

38. X Zeng, H Liu, EJ Lavemia. Reactive spray processing of

metal matrix composites. Proceedings of 9th International
Conference on Composite Materials, A Miravete, ed.,
Madrid, Spain, July 12-16, 1993, pp. 731-738.

39. A Lawley, D Apelian. Spray forming of metal matrix

composites. Powder Metall 37(2):123-128, 1994.

40. A Leatham. Spray forming technology. Adv Mater &

Processes 150(2):31-34, 1996.

41. JB See, JC Runkle, TB King. The disintegration of

liquid lead streams by nitrogen jets. Metall Trans
4:2669--2673, 1973.

42. JB See, GH Johnston. Interactions between nitrogen jets

and liquid lead and tin streams. Powder Techno)
21:119--133, 1978.

43. SP Mehrotra. Mathematical modeling of gas atomization

process for metal powder production, part I. Powder Metall
Intern 13(2):80-84, 1981.

44. SP Mehrotra. Mathematical modeling of gas atomization

process for metal powder production, part 2. Powder Metall
Intern 13(3): 132-135, 1981.

45. H Lubanska. Correlation of spray ring data for gas

atomization of liquid metals. J Metals 22:45-49, 1970.

46. A Onal. Flow separation and liquid rundown in a

gas-atomization process. Metall Trans 208:613-622, 1989.

47. IE Anderson, RS Figliola. Observations of gas

atomization process dynamics. In: Modem Developments in
Powder Metallurgy 20, PU Gumrneson, DA Gustafson, eds.,
Princeton, NJ: APMI International, 1988, pp. 205--223.

48. J Mi, RS Figliola, IE Anderson. A numerical simulation

of gas flow field effects on high pressure gas atomization
due to operating pressure variation. Mater Sci Eng
A208:20-29, 1996.

49. OW Kuntz, JL Payne. Simulation of powder metal

fabrication with high pressure gas atomization. In:
Advances in Powder Metallurgy and Particulate Materials,
Part I, M Phillips, J Porter, eds., Princeton, NJ: APMI
International, 1995, pp. 6377.

50. H Liu. Numerical simulation of gas atomization in spray

forming process. 1997 TMS Annual Meeting & Exhibition,
Orlando, FL, Feb. 9--13, 1997.

51. H Liu, EJ Lavernia, RH Rangel. Numerical simulation of

substrate impact and freezing of droplets in plasma spray
processes. J Phys D: Appl Phys 26:1900-1908, 1993.

52. H Liu, EJ La vernia, RH Rangel. Numerical simulation of

impingement of molten Ti, Ni and W droplets on a flat
substrate in plasma spray processes. J Thermal Spray
Technology 2(4):369--378, 1993.

53. H Liu, A Sickinger, E Miihlberger, EJ Lavernia, RH

Rangel. Deformation and interaction behavior of molten
droplets impinging on a flat substrate in plasma spray
process. Conference Proceedings Thermal Spray Coatings, CC
Berndt, TF

692 Llu Bernecki, eds., ASM International, Anaheim, CA,

June 7-11, 1993, pp. 457462.

54. H Liu, EJ Lavernia, RH Rangel. Numerical investigation

of micro-pore formation during substrate impact of molten
droplets in plasma spray processes. Atomization and Sprays
4(4):369-384, 1994.

55. W Cai, H Liu, A Sickinger, E Miihlberger, D Bailey, EJ

Lavernia. Low-pressure plasma deposition of tungsten. J
Thermal Spray Technology 3(2):135-141, 1994.

56. H Liu, A Sickinger, E Miihlberger, EJ Lavemia, RH

Rangel. Numerical investigation of micro-pore formation
during substrate impact of molten droplets in spraying
processes. Conference Proceedings Thermal Spray Industrial
Applications, CC Berndt, S Sampath, eds., ASM
International, Boston, MA, June 20-24, 1994, pp. 375-380.
57. H Liu, W Cai, RH Rangel, EJ Lavernia. Numerical and
experimental study of porosity evolution during plasma
spray deposition of W. NATO Workshop on Science and
Technology of Rapid Solidification and Processing, MA
Otooni, ed., West Point, NY, June 21-24, 1994, pp.
73-107.

58. H Liu, EJ Lavernia, RH Rangel. Modeling of molten

droplet impingement on a non-flat surface. Acta Metall
Mater 43(5):2053-2072, 1995.

59. H Liu, EJ Lavernia, RH Rangel. Modeling of molten

droplet impingement on a non-flat surface. ASME Winter
Annual Meeting, Symposium on Multiphase Flow and Heat
Transfer in Materials Processing, M Chen, ed., Chicago, IL,
November 6-12, 1994, pp. l-5.

60. H Liu. Influence of droplet/substrate interactions in

thermal spraying on microstructure of thermal coatings. 95'
Beijing International Conference for Surf. Sci. and Eng.,
R Zhu, ed., International Academic Publishers, Beijing,
China, May 1519, 1995, pp. 130-134.

61. JP Delplanque, EJ Lavernia, RH Rangel. Numerical

investigation of multi-phase flow induced porosity
formation in spray deposited materials. 1997 TMS Annual
Meeting & Exhibition, Orlando, FL, Feb. 9-13, 1997.

62. U Fritscbing, V Uhlenwinkel, K Bauckhage, U Urlau. Gas

und Partikel stromungen im Diisennahbereich einer
Zweistoffdiise-Modelluntersuchungen zur Zerstaubung von
Metallschmelzen. Chemic Ingenieur Technik 62(2):146-147,
1990.

63. U Fritscbing, H Liu, K Bauckhage. Numerical modeling in

the metal spray compacting process. Proceedings of 7th
International Conference on Liquid Atomization and Spray
Systems, HG Semerjian, ed., Gaithersburg, MD, July 15-18,
1991, pp. 491-498.

64. SD Ridder, SA Osella, PI Espina, FS Biancaniello.

Intelligent control of particle size distribution during
gas atomization. Intern J Powder Metall 28(2):133-147,
1992.

65. V Uhlenwinkel, U Fritscbing, K Bauckhage, U Urlau.

Stromungsuntersuchungen im Diisennahbereich einer
Zweistoffdiise-Modelluntersuchungen fiir die Zerstaubung
von Metallschmelzen. Chemic Ingenieur Tecbnik
62(3):228-229, 1990.

Spray Forming 693

66. J Ting, R Terpstra, IE Anderson, RS Figliola, J Mi. A

novel high pressure gas atomizing nozzle for liquid metal
atomization. In: Advances in Powder Metallurgy &
Particulate Materials, vol. I, part I, TM Cadle, KS
Narasimhan, eds., Princeton, NJ: MPIF and APMI
International, 1996, pp. 97-108.

67. SA Miller, RS Miller. Real time visualization of

close-coupled gas atomization. In: Advances in Powder
Metallurgy & Particulate Materials, vol. I, JM Capus, RM
German, eds., Princeton, NJ: APMI International, 1992, pp.
113-125.

68. SP Mates, GS Settles. A flow visualization study of

the gas dynamics of liquid metal atomization nozzles. In:
Advances in Powder Metallurgy & Particulate Materials,
part I, M Phillips, J Porter, eds., Princeton, NJ: APMI
International, 1995, pp. 15-29.

69. 8P Bewlay, 8 Cantor. Modeling of spray deposition:

measurements of particle size, gas velocity, particle
velocity, and spray temperature in gas-atomized sprays.
Metall Trans 218:899-912, 1990.

70. 8P Bewlay, 8 Cantor. The relationship between thermal

history and microstructure in spray-deposited tin-lead
alloys. J Mater Res 6(7):1433-1454, 1991.

71. G Schulz. Laminar sonic and supersonic gas flow

atomization the NANOV AL process. In: Advances in Powder
Metallurgy & Particulate Materials, vol. l, part l, TM
Cadle, KS Narasimhan, eds., Princeton, NJ: MPIF and APMI
International, 1996, pp. 43-54.

72. SM Sheikhaliev, JJ Dunkley. A novel internal mixing gas

atomiser for fine powder production. In: Advances in
Powder Metallurgy & Particulate Materials, vol. l, part l,
TM Cadle, KS Narasimhan, eds., Princeton, NJ: MPIF and APMI
International, 1996, pp. 161-170.

73. C San Marchi, H Liu, A Siclcinger, E Miihlberger, EJ

Lavernia, RH Rangel. Numerical analysis of the
solidification of a single droplet by spray processing. J
Mat Sci 28:3313-3321, 1993.

74. K 8auclchage, H Liu, U Fritsching. Models for the

transport phenomena in a new spray compacting process.
Proceedings of 4th International Conference on Liquid
Atomization and Spray Systems, Tohoku Univ. Sendai, Japan,
August 22-24, 1988, The Fuel Society of Japan, pp.
425-430.

75. C Tornberg. Particle size prediction in an atomization

system. In: Advances in Powder Metallurgy & Particulate
Materials, vol. 1, JM Capus, RM German, eds., Princeton,
NJ: APMI International, 1992, pp. 137150.

76. KP Rao, SP Mehrotra. Effect of process variables on

atomization of metals and alloys. In: Modern Developments
in Powder Metallurgy, Principles and Processes, vol. 12.
Princeton, NJ: MPIF and APMI International, 1981, pp.
113-130.

77. FS 8iancaniello, JJ Conway, PI Espina, GE Mattingly,

SD Ridder. Particle size measurement of
inert-gas-atomized powder. Mater Sci Eng Al24:9-14, 1990.

78. H Eroglu, N Chigier, Z Farago. Coaxial atomizer liquid

intact lengths. Phys Fluids A 3(2):303308, 1991.

79. KE Knoll, PE Sojka. Flat-sheet twin-fluid atomization

of high-viscosity fluids. Part 1: Newtonian liquids.
Atomization and Sprays 2:17-36, 1992.

694 Llu

80. PK Wu, GA Ruff, GM Faeth. Primary breakup in liquid-gas

mixing layers. Atomization and Sprays 1:421-440, 1991.

81. P J Thomas. On the influence of the basset history

force on the motion of a particle through a fluid. Phys
Fluids A 4(9):2090-2093, 1992.

82. C8 Henderson. Drag coefficients of spheres in continuum

and farefied flows. AIAA J 14(6):707-708, 1976.

83. LP Hsiang, GM Faeth. Near-limit drop deformation and

secondary breakup. Intern J Multiphase Flow
18(5):635--652, 1992.

84. GM Trapaga. Gas-particle-deposit interactions during

plasma spraying and spray forming processes. Sc.D. thesis,
MIT, Cambridge, MA, September 1990.

85. PS Grant, 8 Cantor, L Katgerman. Modeling of droplet

dynamic and thermal histories during spray forming-1.
Individual droplet behavior; II. Effect of process
parameters. Acta Metall Mater 41(11):3097-3118, 1993.

86. V Uhlenwinkel, K 8auckhage. Mass flux profile and local

particle size in the spray cone during spray forming of
steel, copper and tin. Proceedings of 2nd International
Conference on Spray Forming, Osprey Metals Ltd., Swansea,
UK, 1993, pp. 25-34.

87. CY A Tsao, NJ Grant. Modeling of the liquid dynamic

compaction spray process. Intern J Powder Metall
30(3):323-333, 1994.

88. C Cai. A modeling study for design and control of

spray forming. PhD thesis, Drexel University,
Philadelphia, PA, June 1995.

89. V Uhlenwinkel, C Kramer, K 8auckhage, J Ulrich.

Experimental investigation of the sticking efficiency
during spray forming. In: Advances in Powder Metallurgy &
Particulate Materials, vol. 1, part 9, TM Cadle, KS
Narasimhan, eds., Princeton, NJ: MPIF and APMI
International, 1996, pp. 29-40.

90. M Berg, J Ulrich. Experimental based detection of the

splash limits for the normal and oblique impact of molten
metal particles on different surfaces. 1997 TMS Annual
Meeting & Exhibition, Orlando, FL, Feb. 9-13, 1997.

91. FH Harlow, JP Shannon. The splash of a liquid drop. J

Appl Phys 38(10):38553866, 1967.

92. M Kitaura, M Yao, J Senda, H Fujimoto. Numerical

calculation on deforming behavior of a single droplet
impinging upon a flat surface. Proceedings of 13th
Japanese Conference on Atomization of Liquids, 1984, pp.
73-78.

93. J Madejski. Solidification of droplets on a cold

surface. Intern J Heat Mass Transfer 19:1009-1011, 1976.

94. G Trapaga, J Szekely. Mathematical modeling of the

isothermal impingement of liquid droplets in spraying
processes. Metall Trans 228:901-914, 1991.

95. G Trapaga, EF Matthys, JJ Valencia, J Szekely. Fluid

flow, heat transfer, and solidification of molten metal
droplets impinging on substrates---<:omparison of
numerical and experimental results. Metall Trans
238:701-718, 1992.