UGANDA TECHNICAL COLLEGE-ELGON

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND BUILDING ENGINEERING

COURSE:
(NDBCE, NDWSE & NDA)

YEAR I SEMESTER I

COURSE: ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

CU: 3

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INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Civil engineering is concerned with the design, construction, supervision, maintenance, repair and
demolition or recycling of the various components of the buildings, bridges, canals, roads, dams,
tunnel etc. there is therefore need to have good knowledge of materials to be used. The design,
construction, maintenance, repair and demolition or recycling in engineering forms the life cycle
of a structure or building. Normally the key element in the filed practice is to deal with different
types of materials and their properties. Engineers must be able to select and use materials and
analyses their failure under varying conditions. This entails drawing up detail specifications,
selecting the materials and testing them for acceptance etc.

A number of decisions must be made when selecting materials to be incorporated into a design
which includes whether:

The materials can consistently be formed into the correct shape and dimensional tolerance

The required properties can be achieved and maintained during use

A material is compatible with and can be easily joined to other parts of an assembly (the assembly
in this context being an engineering structure).

A material can be economically made into a useful part.

Its manufacture cannot cause environmental problems.

The materials specified then for use in the construction industry:

Must have the correct properties for production and for subsequent use.

Must not fail in use, producing a liability i.e. The material must not fail under loads imposed on
the structure and must not deflect excessively.

The material must not degrade significantly during the intended life of the structure. The other
criterion could be water tightness, speed of construction, aesthetic considerations.

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The cost of the processed material must be acceptable. The estimated cost of the structure must
not exceed the available money. Usually the cheapest design is chosen, however a correct
interpretation of capital and running costs is necessary or the effects of delays in the construction
caused by uncertain delivery times of the chosen material. An alternative criterion is the energy
cost of producing and placing the material. Energy costs must include the cost of manufacturing,
transportation and fabrication.

The choices of materials must be compatible with the environmental standards from raw materials
sources through manufacturing through product usage and to eventual discard.

It is therefore very important for the engineer to:

Become aware of the types of material available.

Understand their general behavior and capabilities

Recognized their effects on the environment and vice versa

If he / she are to effectively participate in the design of reliable and economical building and
civil engineering components, structures, systems and processes that use the wide spectrum of
materials

Engineering materials deals with the study of materials in respect of the following:

Sources, composition and testing;

Manufacturing methods and testing;

Utility in the various fields of engineering and technology;

Modern techniques being developed for handling and using materials;

Classification of engineering materials;

The engineering materials can be classified as follows;

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 1. Civil engineering materials Examples: clay and its products, cement, lime, concrete,
mortar, timber etc.
2. Electrical engineering materials Examples copper, aluminium, iron and steel etc
3. Mechanical engineering materials Examples Cast iron, steel, lubricating materials etc.
Properties of materials

The following properties of materials will be discussed; physical and mechanical properties of
engineering materials.

Physical Properties of Engineering Materials:

These properties concerned with such properties as melting, temperature, electrical conductivity,
thermal conductivity, density, corrosion resistance, magnetic properties, etc.

1. Density:
Density is defined as mass per unit volume for a material. The derived unit usually used by
engineers is the kg/m3. Relative density is the density of the material compared with the density
of the water at 4°C.
The formulae of density and relative density are:
Density (p) = Mass (m)/volume (V)

Relative density (d) = Density of the material/Density of pure water at 4°C

2. Electrical Conductivity:
Figure shows a piece of electrical cable. In this example copper wire has been chosen for the
conductor or core of the cable because copper has the property of very good electrical
conductivity.

3. Melting Temperature of Material:

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The melting temperatures and the recrystallization temperatures have a great effect on the
materials and the alloys of the materials properties and as a result on its applications.

4. Semiconductors:
In between conductors and insulators lies a range of materials known as semiconductors. These
can be good or bad conductors depending upon their temperatures. The conductivity of
semiconductor materials increases rapidly for relatively small temperature increases. This enables
them to be used as temperature sensors in electronic thermometers.

Semiconductor materials are capable of having their conductors properties changed during
manufacture. Examples of semiconductor materials are silicon and germanium. They are used
extensively in the electronics industry in the manufacture of solid-state devices such as diodes,
thermistors, transistors and integrated circuits.

5. Thermal Conductivity:
This is the ability of the material to transmit heat energy by conduction. Figure shows a soldering
iron. The bit is made from copper which is a good conductor of heat and so will allow the heat
energy stored in it to travel easily down to the tip and into the work being soldered. The wooden
handle remains cool as it has a low thermal conductivity and resists the flow of heat energy.

6. Fusibility:
This is the ease with which materials will melt. It can be seen from figure that solder melts easily
and so has the property of high fusibility. On the other hand, fire bricks used for furnace linings
only melt at very high temperatures and so have the properties of low fusibility.

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Such materials which only melt a very high temperatures are called refractory materials. These
must not be confused with materials which have a low thermal conductivity and used as thermal
insulators. Although expanded polystyrene is an excellent thermal insulator, it has a very low
melting point (high fusibility) and in no way can it be considered a refractory material.

7. Reluctance (as Magnetic Properties):

Just as some materials are good or bad conductors of electricity, some materials can be good or
bad conductors of magnetism. The resistance of magnetic circuit is referred to as reluctance.

The good magnetic conductors have low reluctance and examples are the ferromagnetic materials
which get their name from the fact that they are made from iron, steel and associated alloying
elements such as cobalt and nickel. All other materials are non-magnetic and offer a high
reluctance to the magnetic flux felid.

8. Temperature Stability:
Any changes in temperature can have very significant effects on the structure and properties of
materials. However, there are several effects can appear with changes in temperature such as
creep.For example gas-turbine blades. The creep rate increases if the temperature is raised, but
becomes less if the temperature is lowered.

Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials:

These properties are concerned with the following properties:
1. Tensile Strength:

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It is the ability of a material to withstand tensile (stretching) loads without breaking. As the force
of gravity acting on the load is trying to stretch the rod, the rod is said to be in tension. Therefore,
the material from which the rod is made needs to have sufficient tensile strength to resist the pull
of the load. Strength is the ability of a material to resist applied forces without fracturing.

2. Toughness:
It is the ability of the materials to withstand bending or it is the application of shear stresses
without fracture, so the rubbers and most plastic materials do not shatter, therefore they are tough.
For example, if a rod is made of high-carbon steel then it will be bend without breaking under the
impact of the hammer, while if a rod is made of glass then it will broke by impact loading.

3. Malleability:
It is the capacity of substance to withstand deformation under compression without rupture or the
malleable material allows a useful amount of plastic deformation to occur under compressive
loading before fracture occurs. Such a material is required for manipulation by such processes as
forging, rolling and rivet heading.

4. Hardness:
It is the ability of a material to withstand scratching (abrasion) or indentation by another hard
body, it is an indication of the wear resistance of the material.

The ball only makes a small indentation in the hard material but it makes a very much deeper
impression in the softer material.

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5. Ductility:
It refer to the capacity of substance to undergo deformation under tension without rupture as in
wire drawing (as shown in figure), tube drawing operation. For more ductile material εp > 15%,
for less ductile material εp > 5.1 εp < 15%.

6. Stiffness:
It is the measure of a material‘s ability not to deflect under an applied load.

For example, steel is very much stronger than cast iron, then the cast iron is preferred for machine
beds and frames because it is more rigid and less likely to deflect with consequent loss of
alignment and accuracy.

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7. Brittleness:
It is the property of a material that shows little or no plastic deformation before fracture when a
force is applied. Also it is usually said as the opposite of ductility and malleability.

For brittle material εD < 5%.

8. Elasticity:

It is the ability of a material to deform under load and return to its original size and shape when
the load is removed. If it is made from an elastic material it will be the same length before and
after the load is applied, despite the fact that it will be longer whilst the load is being applied. All
materials possess elasticity to some degree and each has its own elastic limits.

9. Plasticity:

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This property is opposite to elasticity, while the ductility and malleability are particular cases of
the property of the plasticity. It is the state of a material which has been loaded beyond it elastic
limit so as to cause the material to deform permanently.

Under such conditions the material takes a permanent set and will not return to its original size
and shape when the load is removed. When a piece of mild steel is bent at right angles into the
shape of a bracket, it shows the property of plasticity since it does not spring back strength again.

10. Creep:
The permanent deformation (strain) of a material under steady load as a function of time is called
creep. Length of our waist belt increases after some duration is due to creep effect.

11. Fatigue:
The behavior of materials under fluctuating and reversing loads (or stresses) is termed as fatigue.
This behaviour is different from that under the steady load. Fatigue is, however, not a dynamic
effect. The rate of loading is usually not a factor is fatigue behavior. Fatigue behavior is
experienced by all materials whether metals, plastics, concretes, or composites.

Main Effects of Fatigue:

i. Loss of ductility,

ii. Loss of strength, and

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iii. Enhanced uncertainty in strength and the service life of

materials.

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CHAPTER ONE

1.0. Soils

Introduction

Every work of construction in civil engineering is built on soil or rock and in many instances are
also the raw materials of construction. The study of soil and rock materials is an important part of
a wider area of study often geotechnical engineering. There is no clear dividing line between the
areas of study of soil as a material and soil mechanics, and both are equally important.

Soil is the relatively loose mass of mineral and organic materials and sediments found above the
bedrock, which can be relatively easily broken down into its constituent mineral or organic
particles.

Fig. 1-1: Soil layers

Soil consists of layers of minerals constituents of variable thickness, which differ from the parent
materials in the morphological, physical, chemical and mineralogical characteristics, as shown in
Fig. 2-1. It is thus a natural product of weathering of rocks and decomposition of organic matter.

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It is an accumulation of individual particles that are bonded together by mechanical or attractive
means, the strength of the bonds being a small fraction of the mineral particles. The particles may
range from colloidal size to small boulders.
Soil can also be referred to as regolith, or loose rock material.

1.1 SOIL FORMATION

Soil formation is the process by which soil is created. The formation of soil happens over a very
long period of time. Soil is formed from the weathering of rocks and minerals.
1.1.2 WEATHERING
Weathering is the process of breaking down rocks. Weathering occurs in situ or ―with no
movement‖, and thus should not be confused with erosion, which involves the movement of rocks
and minerals by agents such as water, ice, wind, and gravity.
Two important classifications of weathering processes exist – Physical and Chemical Weathering
Physical weathering
Involves the breakdown of rocks and soils through direct contact with atmospheric conditions,
such as heat, water, ice and pressure, without any change in chemical condition. The soil formed
due to physical weathering will be cohesion less (sand and gravel).
In summary, the physical agencies causing mechanical weathering of rocks are; (i)
Daily and seasonal temperature changes.
(ii) Flowing water, glaciers and wind, which produce impact and abrasive action on rock.
(iii) Splitting action of ice.
(iv) Growth of roots of plants in rock fissures and to a minor degree burrowingactivities of small
animals like earthworms.
Chemical weathering
Chemical weathering changes the composition of rocks by decomposing the parent minerals,
transforming them into new compounds such as clay silica particles, carbonates and iron oxides.
The decomposition of rock is the result of the following reactions;
(i) Oxidation
(ii) Carbonation
(iii) Hydration
(iv) Leaching
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i) Oxidation
Within the weathering environment, oxidation of a variety of metals occurs. The most commonly
observed is the oxidation of Fe2+ (iron) and combination with oxygen and water to form Fe3+
hydroxides and oxides such as goethite, limonite and hematite. This gives the affected rocks a
reddish-brown coloration on the surface which crumbles easily and weakens the rock. This process
is better known as ‗rusting‘.
ii) Carbonation
Carbonation of rock material is caused by carbon dioxide in the presence of water. Lime stones are
very much affected by carbonation.
iii) Hydration
Mineral hydration is a form of chemical weathering that involves the rigid attachment of H+ and
OH- ions to the atoms and molecules of a mineral. When rock minerals take up water, the increased
volume creates physical stresses within the rock. For example iron oxides are converted to iron
hydroxides and the hydration of anhydrite forms gypsum. Another example of hydration is the
chemical decomposition of mineral feldspar in granite to form kaolite.
iv) Leaching
Leaching is the process in which percolating water washes out water-soluble salts from the soil.
Soil produced by chemical weathering of rocks will be cohesive (silt and clay).

Formulation, exploration and sampling soils

In civil engineering usage, the term soil describes the uncemented or weakly cemented material
overlaying the harder rock on the planet‘s surface. Soils exist in great variety and are the
accumulated result of May separate factors and process. Their characteristics depend on the parent
rocks from which they are derived; on the means of these rocks and the weathering of the soils
itself at its various stages of formation; on the means of transport bringing the soil in its present
location; on the manner of deposition of the soil; on its history of loading, drainage, wetting and
drying and on many other processes.

The parent rocks themselves occur in great variety. The rock may have formed by the cooling and
hardening of a molten material, this group being termed igneous rocks. The igneous rocks include

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granites, basalts and gabbros. On other hand, the rock may have formed from the accumulation of
transported and deposited weathered rock fragments, subsequently consolidated to give relatively
hard rocks; water has always been the transporting agent. These are the sedimentary rocks which
include the sandstones, limestone, shale, and conglomerates. Some of these igneous and
sedimentary rocks have been altered over ages by heat or pressure or both. The result is the
metamorphic rocks-very different from the original materials. Metamorphic rocks include schist,
gneiss, slate and marble. The processes of metamorphism and weathering and aeons of time have
transformed some of the rock materials into the infinite variety of soils seen today.

Types of soils

Residual soils

When rocks are weathered and the product accumulates in place, without transport occurring the
products are described as residual soils. In a sense the humus bearing top soils and weathered
subsoils of any formation are residual soils but the term is usually used for rock products such as
laterites. Significant thicknesses of these soils are found in various parts of the world and from
their distribution it appears that the warm humid regions are not favorable to the kind of weathering
that produces residual soils.

Transported soils.

Glacially transported soils; this is common in cold hilly countries like Britain and the
Scandinavian countries where glacier (ice) runs down slopes wearing away the surface particles
and depositing them down the streams or low lying areas. Some of the glacial debris transported
will melt to water before final deposition and as a result of this is likely to be sorted in\to size
groups of sands and gravels stratified after the manner of the river deposits.

Water transported soils; soils formed by water-borne material tend to very erratically in physical
properties from place to place and depth, a consequence of the continual changes occurring in the
streams and rivers which formed them. Fast - flowing steep streams in mountain areas transport al
but the stages rock fragments down steam and the fragments become progressively broken up,
worn and deposited. As the steepness of the steam diminishes the larger particles being transported
are left behind. On reaching the plains and estuaries only the finer sizes remain in transport.

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Seasonal extremes of flood and drought , meandering ad braiding of stream channels all lead to
wide variations in the erosion and deposition patterns of waterborne deposits and hence in the
engineering and other characteristics of the soils forming these deposits.

The mechanical process of abrasion and grinding accounts for most of the reduction in particle
sizes from the fragments of the parent rocks.

Soils transported by man; in the consideration of soils in relation to engineering works man
himself should be included as an agent of transportation. Soils which have been excavated from
one place and transported to and placed in another place are described as fills. Fills may be
materials other than soils.

Exploration and sampling.

To consider soils among the other civil engineering materials it is necessary to distinguish the
principal soil groups one from another as with other materials, to establish parameters by which
the behavior of soils can be described quantitatively. Engineering characteristics such as
permeability, compressibility and strength usually differ in value from point to point in a soil mass
and at any one point these characteristics differ with the direction in which they are measured.
Soils showing this behavior are described as anisotropic. If the characteristics were practically
unvarying in value through out a soil, it would be described as isotropic.

Many soils show a fabric of laminations, varves, fissures, organic matter or root networks. A
quantitative description of the engineering characteristics of a particular soil stratum taking
account of these features of fabric should apply convincing to the whole stratum as it exists in
activity of the civil or geotechnical engineer, namely site investigation or more particularly soil
exploration.

Given that all existing information about a site has been assembled, the extent of exploration will
depend on the character of the ground and the type of construction work to be under taken.
Geological and geographical mapping will supplement existing data and enable further water
condition are sufficiently described to allow safe and economical project design. The lateral extent
and depth of exploration should include all soils affected by the proposed work. Methods of
investigating at this stage include trial pits, shafts, boreholes, and probing. From samples of various

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qualities according to soil type and sampling procedures, a geotechnical description of the soil
strata is assembled.

Soil profile

The results of a soil exploration are often presented in the form of a soil profile. Astone which is
distinguishable from the ground surface to the limit of depth of exploration is called the soil profile.
The variation with depth, of any property of the soil for example, water content or density may be
displayed by the curve as shown below.

Figure 1.2: vertical profile soil strata.

Bulk properties of soil

As a part of basic description of soil, it is necessary to establish parameters defining some physical
properties of the mixers of solid particles, water and sometimes air or gas which make up a soil.
Suppose a sample of natural soil is taken without altering in any way so that it is entirely typically
of the soil stratum from which it came. Let it total volume be denoted by V and its total mass by
M, the constituent solid particles, water and air will each have absolute volumes and masses which
when added together will give V and M respectively. It is convenient to present these
constituentsdiagrammatically in terms of their absolute volumes, stacking the absolute volumes
one on the other as figure…… thus

V= VS + VW + Vair
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Where;

Vs = is the absolute volume of all solid particles

Vw = is the volume of pore water

Vair = the volume of pore air, or gas

Also; V = VS + Vv, is the absolute volume of solids or pore spaces in the sample.

The samediagrammatic form is suited to presenting the masses of the constituents of the sample
thus

M = MS + M W

Where;

MS = is the mass of dry particles

Mw = the mass of water in the pore space in the sample.

The density of solid particles ᵨs and density of

fresh water ᵨw = 1000kg/m3

PHASE RELATIONSHIP

Soils are generally composed of three distinct phases. These are solids, water and air. The space
occupied by water and air is defined as the void of the soil. The void may be partially or wholly
filled by water or air. A completely dry or completely saturated soil will have only two phases.
The components parts may be illustrated as shown by a phase diagram.

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Three Typical Phase Diagrams of Soil

Void ratio (e)

This is the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of the solids;
Moisture content (Water content) (w)
Is the ratio of mass of water to mass of solids;

Porosity (n)
This is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume;

Degree of Saturation (Sr)

Is the ratio of the volume of water to the volume of voids usually expressed as a percentage.
Density of Solids
Is the ratio of the mass of the solids to the volume of the solids.

Bulk Density
Is the ratio of the total mass of soil to the total volume of the soil.

CONSISTENCY AND PLASTICITY OF SOILS

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The term consistency refers to the relative ease with which a soil mass can be deformed and is used
to describe the degree of firmness of fine-grained soils for which consistency relates to a large
extent to water content. The four states of consistency suggested by Atterberg are indicated below;

The four states of consistency

In the solid state there will be no change in volume of soil mass accompanying change in water
content. In the remaining the three states increase in water content accompanies by increase in
volume of soil mass and decrease of water content by reduction in volume of soil mass. In the
liquid state the soil mass behaves like a liquid possessing very less sheer strength. In the plastic
state the soil mass can be deformed without cracking. In the semi-solid state the soil mass cannot
be deformed without cracking.
The water contents, which arbitrarily define the boundary between the four states of consistency,
are referred to as consistency limits or Atterbag limits. The three consistency limits are Liquid
Limit, Plastic Limit and Shrinkage Limit.
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Liquid limit is denoted by WL and is the boundary between plastic and liquid states of consistency.
It is the minimum water content at which the soil mass still flows like a liquid. Liquid limit is
defined as the water content at which a groove, cut with a standard grooving tool, in soil pat taken
in the cup of a standard liquid limit device closes for a distance of 13mm when the cup is imparted
25 blows.

The standard liquid limit device

Plastic limit is denoted by WP and is the boundary between semi-solid and plastic states of
consistency. It is the minimum water content at which the soil mass can still be deformed without
cracking.
Plastic limit is defined as the water context at which the soil mass can be rolled into a threat of
3mm diameter and the thread first shows signs of cracking.

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Shrinkage limit is denoted by WS and is the boundary between solid and semi-solid state of
consistency. It is defined as the maximum water content at which there is no reduction in volume
of soil mass accompanying reduction in water content.

DETERMINATION OF SOIL PROPERTIES BY LABORATORY TESTING

A) DETERMINATION OF LIQUID LIMIT

1. Casagrande Apparatus
The apparatus consists of a mechanical device consisting of a cup mounted on an edge pivot. The
cup rests on a hard rubber base. A mechanism enables the cup to be lifted by 10mm and dropped
on the base. The soil is put in cup and leveled off horizontally. The soil is divided by a standard
grooving tool through the pivot of the cup. The two halves of the soil flow together as the cup is
repeatedly dropped onto the base. The number of drops at the rate of two revolutions per second
required to close the groove over a distance of 13mm is recorded. The test is repeated over four
times and the water content is determined each time. The water content is plotted against log of
blows. The best straight line fitting the points is drawn. The moisture content at twenty five (25)
blow is the Liquid Limit of the soil.

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Casagrande’s Liquid Limit Apparatus

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 2. Cone Penetrometer Apparatus
The Penetrometer is fitted with a stainless steel cone having a smooth, polished surface. The cone
is approximately 35 mm long and has an angle of 30º + 1º. The mass of the cone together with its
sliding shaft is 80g.
A metal cup, about 55mm in diameter and 40mm deep is used to contain the test sample. Figure
below shows the Cone Penetrometer Apparatus Schematic.

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An air dry soil sample (about 250g) passing the 425 micron sieve is mixed with distilled water.
The soil paste is filled in the metal cup and the surface struck off level. The cone is lowered to just
touch the surface of soil and then released for a period of 5 seconds. The penetration is recorded.
The cone is lifted and cleaned. The test is repeated over four different moisture contents. The
moisture contents used in the tests should be such that the penetrations obtained lie within a range
of 15 to 35 mm.

To obtain the liquid limit, cone penetration is plotted against moisture content both on normal
scales to give the best fitting straight line. The moisture content corresponding to a cone
penetration of 20mm is taken as the liquid limit of the soil, which for all practical purposes is the
same as the LL determined by the Casagrande apparatus.

The Cone Penetrometer method gives a more consistent estimate of the LL than the Casagrande
apparatus, with greater repeatability and less operator susceptibility.

B) DETERMINATION OF PLASTIC LIMIT

The sample of soil is mixed with distilled water until it is sufficiently plastic to be rolled into a ball
between palms of hands. A small portion of the ball is then rolled on a smooth plate into a thread
of 3mm diameter, and the thread is looked for signs of cracking. If no cracks are seen, the thread
is picked up and again rolled into a ball between palms. The water content is reduced by the heat
of the fingers. The ball is then rolled on smooth plate into a threat of 3mm diameter. The steps are
repeated until a 3mm diameter threat first shows signs of cracking. A portion of the threat is taken
for water content determination which gives the plastic limit.

Rolling on a smooth plate

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Rolling on between palms of hands

Soil thread 3mm diameter just crumbles

C) DETERMINATION OF SHRINKAGE LIMIT

It is defined as the maximum water content at which there is no reduction in volume of soil mass
accompanying reduction in water content.
A saturated sample of soil is placed in a container of known volume V1. The weight of the soil is
determined in stage (a) of the experiment. The soil is initially dried in the air and then in an oven
to ensure that no cracks are formed. Further drying of the soil at some water content (b) will not
result in the reduction of the volume of the soil.
At stage (c) of the drying process the soil is completely dry but the volume in the stage is the same
as at stage (b). The weight of the soil is measured at stage (c) and its volume is measured by
immersing the dry soil in mercury.

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Shrinkage limit, ws

PARTICLE-SIZE DISTRIBUTION

The soil grading or the distribution of particle size is quantitatively determined by performing the
particle-size analysis, also called mechanical analysis, which is carried out in two parts: sieve
analysis and sedimentation analysis. The distribution of gravel and sand particles is determined by
sieve analysis and that of silt and clay by sedimentation analysis. Depending on the type of soil
and the extent of particle-size distribution required, mechanical analysis may involve both sieving
and sedimentation or it may be restricted to either of them. For gravel and sand, sieve analysis
alone will suffice, but if silt and clay are present, a combined sieve and sedimentation analysis may
be required. If soil is predominantly silty and or clayey, sedimentation alone will do.

Sieve analysis
Soil sample to be analyzed is first either air-dried or oven-dried. Soil aggregates are then broken
by pulverization with a wooden mallet or in a mortar with a rubber pestle. If the sample is more

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than required, it is reduced in size by means of a riffle box. A representative sample is then taken
for sieve analysis.
The objective of this test is to determine the relative proportions of different granular sizes as they
are passing through certain sieve sizes. Thus, the percentage of sand, gravel, silt and clay can be
obtained.
Sieve analysis is widely used in classification of soils. Data obtained from particle-size distribution
curves is used in the design of filters for earth dams and to determine suitability of soil for road,
highway, construction, embankment fill of dam, airport runway etc.
Sieve analysis of soil test is in accordance to ASTM D-422 (American Society for Testing and
Materials) or BS 1377: Part 2 1990 (British Standards) as both are the most widely used technical
standards in construction. The dry sieving of soil is the simplest and cheapest method among
others.
Apparatus;
i. Stack of Sieve aperture sizes (including cover and pan) (Fig. 7-12).
ii. Electronic balance.
iii. Rubber pestle, mortar (for crushing the soil if lumped) and brush.
iv. Mechanical sieve vibrator (shaker).
v. Oven dry (thermostatically controlled temperature).

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Sieve Analysis Apparatus: (A) Sieve aperture sizes, (B) Dry oven, (C)
Sieve shaker, (D) Mortar & Tray, (E) Rubber pestle, (F) Balance

Procedure;
i. Oven-dry sample.
ii. Crush the oven-dried sample using rubber pestle and mortar. iii. Determine
mass of sample and label as Wtotal in (g).
iv. Then prepare a stack of sieve aperture sizes with larger opening sizes at the top and down to
the last one with smaller opening sizes.
v. Pour the soil slowly into the stack of sieves from the top and place the cover, put the stack
onto the sieve shaker (vibrator), tighten the clamps, adjust the time with 5 to 10 minutes and turn
it on.
vi. When time is out, take out and measure the mass of retained soil inside, from the top sieve
until the pan.

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The results are presented in a graph of percent passing versus the sieve size. On the graph the sieve
size is logarithmic. To find the percent of aggregate passing through each sieve, first find the
percentage retained in each sieve.

% Retained
Find cumulative percent of aggregate retained in each sieve.
Then % Cumulative Passing = 100% - % Cumulative Retained.

Particle-Size Distribution Curves

Consider Figure below showing a typical particle-size distribution curve.

The position and general shape and slope of a curve indicate type and grading of the soil.
• A curve lying higher up or to the left represents relatively finer material.
• The gradation of soil is said to be either well graded or poorly graded.
• A soil is well graded when there is a good representation of all the particle sizes from the
largest to the smallest.
• A soil is poorly graded if there is an excess or a deficiency of certain particle sizes within
the limits of the minimum and maximum sizes, or if most of the particles are of about the
same sizes (uniformly graded).

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We can compute the Coefficient of Uniformity Cu and Coefficient of Curvature Cc by obtaining
D10, D30 and D60 values from the curves.
• D10 – 10% passing point on the curve.
• D30 – 30% passing point on the curve.
• D60 – 60% passing point on the curve.

D10 : Maximum size of the smallest 10% D10 : Effective size ( e.g. for permeability)
D30: Maximum size of the smallest 30% Cu : Coefficient of Uniformity = D60/D10
D50 : Maximum size of the smallest 50% Cc : Coefficient of Curvature = (D30)2/(D60*D10)
D60 : Maximum size of the smallest 60% (also called Cg : Coefficient of Gradation)

To be well graded, Cc must lie within 1 and 3 and in addition, Cu must be greater than 4 for gravels
and greater than 6 for sands. If all particles are of the same size, Cu is unity.
A low value of Cu indicates a uniform soil and a high value a well graded soil. Sieve
analysis test result
Sieve size Weight retained % Retained % Cum. % Passing
Retained

6 126 12.6 12.6 87.4

2 86 8.6 21.2 78.8
0.6 194 19.4 40.6 59.4
0.2 202 20.2 60.8 39.2
0.075 124 12.4 73.2 26.8
Base 268 26.8 100 0
Total 1000

Example Particle Size Distribution Curves

(a) Silty SAND with little gravel

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(b) Silty SAND with a trace of gravel

(c) Silty SAND and GRAVEL

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(d) Silty sandy GRAVEL with occasional cobbles

(e) sandy GRAVEL

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Limitations of Sieve Analysis

For materials finer than 150 μm, dry sieving can be significantly less accurate. This is because the
mechanical energy required to make particles pass through an opening and the surface attraction
effects between the particles themselves and between particles and the screen increase as the
particle sizes decreases. Wet sieving analysis can be utilized where the material analyzed is not
affected by the liquid – except to disperse it. Suspending the particles in a suitable liquid transports
fine material through the sieve much more efficiently than shaking the dry material. Sieve analysis
assumes that all particles will be round (spherical) or nearly so and will pass through the square
openings when the particle diameter is less than the size of the square opening in the screen. For
elongated and flat particles, a sieve analysis will not yield reliable mass-based results, as the
particle size reported will assume that the particles size reported will assume that the particles are
spherical, where in fact an elongated particle might pass through the screen endon, but would be
prevented from doing so if it presented itself side-on.

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SOIL DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION
INTRODUCTION
Soil description includes the details of both material and mass characteristics. Soil classification
on the other hand is the allocation of a soil to a limited number of groups on the basis of material
characteristics only, viz: - particle size distribution and plasticity. Soil classification is therefore
independent of the in situ mass condition of the soil mass. It is unlikely that any two soils will have
the same description, while they could have the same classification.
In some engineering processes the description and classification are useful. Such engineering
processes include foundations and seepage. However in other cases the classification is by the far
the most important. Such processes include embankment construction where classification of
material is key factor in choice and construction process. It is essential that a standard language be
used in description and classification of soils. A comprehensive description should include the
characteristics of both soil material and in situ soil mass.
Material characteristics can be determined from disturbed samples of soil, i.e. samples having
the same particle size distribution as the in situ soil but whose in situ structure has been altered.
The principal material characteristics are particle size distribution (or grading) and plasticity.
Secondary material characteristics are colour of the soil, shape, texture and composition of the
particles.
Mass characteristics are best determined in the field but can also be determined in the laboratory
when undisturbed samples are available. Mass characteristics include firmness, strength, details of
any bedding, discontinuities and weathering. The arrangement of minor geological details referred
to as macro-fabric should be carefully described as this can influence the engineering behaviour
of in situ soil considerably. Such macro-fabric features are thin layers of fine sand and silt in a clay
strata, silt filled fissures in clay, small lenses of clay in sand, organic intrusions and root holes etc.

SOIL DESCRIPTION
A detailed description of the method of describing soils is contained in BS 5930. The basic soils
are boulders, cobbles, gravels, sand, silt and clay. Often soils appear in mixtures and are referred
to composite types.
In accordance to BS 5930, a soil is of basic type sand or gravel (coarse soil), if after removal of
boulders and cobbles, over 65% of the material is in the sand and gravel range. A soil is of basic

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type silt or clay (fine grained soil) when over 35% of the soil is in the silt and clay range. Composite
soils are named as described in the table 1. Mixtures containing over 50% boulders and cobbles
are referred to as very coarse soils. The descriptions may be of the form COBBLES with finer
material or gravelly SAND with occasional cobbly BOULDERS.
The firmness or strength of the soil in the field can be assessed by means of tests shown
on Table 2 below.

Table 1: Soil description terminology

Soil group Soil description Indicative particle size distribution
Slightly sandy GRAVEL Up to 5% sand
Sandy GRAVEL 5-20% sand
Very sandy GRAVEL Over 20% sand
GRAVEL/SAND About equal proportions
COARSE SOILS Very gravelly SAND Over 20% gravel
Gravelly SAND 5-20% gravel
Slightly gravelly SAND Up to 5% gravel
Slightly silty SAND (or GRAVEL) Up to 5% silt
Silty SAND (or GRAVEL) 5-15% silt
Very silty SAND (or GRAVEL) 15-35% silt
Slightly clayey SAND (or Up to 5% clay
GRAVEL)
Clayey SAND (or GRAVEL) 5-15% Clay
Very clayey SAND (or GRAVEL) 15-35% Clay
FINE SOILS Sandy SILT (or CLAY) 35-65% Sand
Gravelly SILT (or CLAY) 5-65% Gravel

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Table 2: Field identification tests
Soil type Term Field test
Loose Loose Can be excavated by spade. A 50 mm
wooden peg can be easily driven
Dense Dense Requires a pick to excavate. 50 mm
Sands and gravels wooden peg difficult to drive
Slightly cemented Visual examination. Pick removes lumps
Silts Soft or loose Easily molded or crushed in the fingers
Firm or dense Can be molded or crushed by strong
pressure in fingers
Clays Very soft Exudes between fingers when squeezed in
the hand
Soft Molded by light finger pressure
Firm Can be molded by strong finger pressure
Stiff Cannot be molded by fingers
Very stiff Cannot be indented by thumb nails
Organic & Peat Firm Fibers already compressed together
Spongy plastic Very compressible and open structure. Can
be molded by fingers and smears fingers

SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

Purpose of Soil classification
A soil classification system is an arrangement of different soils into soil groups having the similar
properties. The purpose of soil classification is to make possible the estimation of soil properties
by association with soils of the same class whose properties are known. Thus with consistent soil
classification it is possible to;
1. Use data of others in predicting foundation performance.
2. Build the geotechnical engineers data base for application of design.
3. Maintain a permanent record which can be easily understood by others should problems
develop later.
There are several methods of soil classification. Two such methods in use by engineers in
Uganda are described below;

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(A) BRITISH SOIL CLASSIFICATION
The British soil classification system is based on the particle size distribution and the plasticity as
plotted on a plasticity chart. The plasticity chart is a plot of the soil PI against LL.
In the British soil classification any cobbles and boulders retained on 63mm BSSieve Size are
removed from the soil before the classification. The percentage of this very coarse portion is
determined and mentioned in the report. The soil groups in the classification are noted by the group
symbols composed of main and qualifying descriptive letters having the meaning shown on Table
3.
Table 3: Soils descriptive terms
Main terms Qualifying terms
GRAVEL SAND G Well graded W
S Poorly graded P
Uniform Pu
Gap graded Pg
FINE SOIL F Of low L
plasticity
FINES SILT (M M (LL<35) I
SOIL) Of intermediate
C plasticity (LL 35-50) H
CLAY Of high plasticity (LL
50-70) V
Of very high plasticity
(LL 70-90)
E
Of extremely high
plasticity
U
Of upper
plasticity range
(LL<35) O
Organic (may be a
suffix to any group
Peat Pt
The letter describing the dominant group is placed first in the group symbol.
When the group has significant organic content the suffix O is added as the last letter. The above
is illustrated below in the description of sand, clay and silt samples.
SW – well graded SAND
SCL – very clayey SAND (the clay in the sample is of low plasticity)
CIS – sandy CLAY of intermediate plasticity

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MHSO – organic sandy SILT of high plasticity

SOIL STABILIZATION

Soil stabilization is a general term for any mechanical, physical, chemical or combined method of
changing a natural soil to meet an engineering purpose. Improvements include increasing the
weight bearing capacities, tensile strength and overall performance of in-situ soils, sands and other
waste materials in order to strengthen road surfaces.

Purpose of soil stabilization

I. Dust control. This is done to eliminate or alleviate dust, generated by the operation of
equipment and aircraft during dry weather or in arid climates.
II. Soil waterproofing, which is done to preserve the natural or constructed strength of a soil
by preventing the entry of surface water.
III. To reduce frost action.
IV. To facilitate compaction and increase load bearing properties.
V. To reduce compressibility and thereby settlements.
VI. Strength improvement. This increases the strength of the existing soil to enhance its
load-bearing capacity.

Soil stabilization methods with different materials

The following are the soil stabilization methods and materials.

Mechanical stabilization

The oldest types of soil stabilization are mechanical in nature. Mechanical solutions involve
physically changing the property of the soil somehow, in order to affect its gradation, solidity and
other characteristics. Dynamic compaction is one of the major types of soil stabilization; in this
procedure a heavy weight is dropped repeatedly onto the ground at regular intervals to quite
literally pound out deformities and ensure a uniformly packed surface. Vibro compaction is another

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technique that works on similar principles, though it relies on vibration rather than deformation
through kinetic force to achieve its goals.

Soil stabilization with cement

The soil stabilized with cement is known as soil cement. The cementing action is believed to be
the result of chemical reactions of cement with siliceous soil during hydration reaction. The
important factors affecting the soil cement are nature of soil content, conditions of mixing,
compaction, curing and admixtures used.

Factors affecting soil cement stabilization

During soil cement stabilization the following factors affect stabilization.

I. Type of soil: cement stabilization may be applied in fine or granular soil, however granular
is preferable for cement stabilization.
II. Quantity of cement: a large amount of cement is needed for the stabilization.
III. Quantity of water: Adequate water is needed for the stabilization.
IV. Mixing, compaction and curing: Adequate mixing, compaction and curing is needed for
cement stabilization.
V. Admixtures: cement has some important admixtures itself which helps them to create a
proper bond. These admixtures play vital role incase of reaction between cement and
water.

Advantages of cement stabilization

I. It is widely available
II. Cost is relatively low
III. It is highly durable
IV. Soil cement is quite weather resistant and strong
V. Granular soils with sufficient fines are ideally suited for cement stabilization as it requires
least amount of cement.

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VI. Soil cement reduces the swelling characteristics of the soil.
VII. It is commonly used for stabilizing sandy and other low plasticity soils. Cement interacts
with the silt and clay fractions and reduces their affinity for water.

Disadvantages of cement stabilization

I. Cracks may form in soil cement

II. It is harmful for environment
III. It requires extra labor
IV. The quantity of water must be sufficient for hydration of cement and making the
mixture workable.
Soil stabilization using lime

Slaked in lime is very effective in treating heavy plastic clayey soils. Lime may be used alone or
in combination with cement, bitumen or fly ash. Sandy soils can also be stabilized with these
combinations. Lime has been mainly used for stabilizing the road bases and the subgrade.

The following factors affect lime stabilization process.

I. Type of soil: lime stabilization is useful for stabilization of clayey soils but it is not
effective for sandy soils.
II. The amount of lime required for stabilization varies between 2 to 10% of the soil.
III. Ratio of fly ash to lime: The ratio of fly ash to lime generally varies in between 3 to 5. The
fly ash used is about 10 to 20% of the soil weight.
IV. Different type of lime: The quick lime is more effective but for safety and convenience to
handle the hydrated lime is generally used.
V. Soil becomes more workable
VI. Strength is generally improved.
VII. Lime stabilization increases the compressive strength sometimes as high as 60 times.

VIII. It is not effective for sandy soils

Advantages of lime stabilization

I. Soil becomes more workable

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 II. Strength is generally improved
III. Lime stabilization increases the compressive strength sometimes as high as 60 times.

IV. It is effective for soils

Disadvantages of lime stabilization

I. Lime is produced by burning of lime stone in kilns, so that it is harmful for environment.
II. It needs more cost to burnt limestone
III. It is not effective for sandy soils.
IV. There is limited percentage of amount of lime required about 2 to 10% of the soil.

Soil bitumen stabilization

The addition of bitumen binder to a soil improves its properties considerably. If the bitumen lacks
cohesion, the bitumen coats the soil particles, binds them together and supplies cohesion. Bitumen
being a waterproof material, the mixture becomes less prone to the adverse effect caused by ingress
of water. If bitumen binder sprayed on dry surface of low-cost road it prevents dust and stops the
entry of moisture into the road.

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