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Problem Solving Agent PROBLEM SOLVING AGENT

 Simplest agents were the reflex agents, which base their
WHAT IS A PROBLEM? actions on a direct mapping from states to actions.
 Gap between what actually is and what is desired.  Such agents cannot operate well in environments for which this
mapping would be too large to store and would take too long to
 It exists when an individual aware of the learn.
existence of a difference between the expected  Goal-based agents, on the other hand, consider future actions
and the actual situation, which is an obstacle and the desirability of their outcomes
and makes it difficult to achieve a desired goal  This chapter describes one kind of goal-based agent called a
problem-solving
2 agent.
or objective.
 use atomic representation
 It is a collection of information that the agent will use to decide
 Goal-based agents that use more advanced factored or
what to do
structured representations are usually called planning agents
 Problems have the general form:
1
given such-and-such information, find x

PROBLEM SOLVING AGENT

 Our discussion of problem solving begins with precise definitions of CONT’D…
problems and their solutions and give several examples to illustrate  A huge variety of problems are addressed in AI, both:
these definitions. a) Toy problems: are problems that are useful to test and demonstrate
 We then describe several general-purpose search algorithms that can
methodologies.
be used to solve these problems.
 Can be used by researchers to compare the performance
 We will see several uninformed search algorithms that are of different algorithms
given no information about the problem other than its definition.  may require little or no ingenuity, good for games design

 Although some of these algorithms can solve any solvable problem,  e.g. 8-puzzle, n-queens, vacuum cleaner world, towers of

none of them can do so efficiently. Hanoi, …

b) Real-life problems: are problems that have much greater
 Informed search algorithms, on the other hand, can do quite
well given some guidance on where to look for solutions. commercial/economic impact if solved.
 In this chapter, we limit ourselves to the simplest kind of task
 Such problems are more difficult and complex to solve,
environment, for which the solution to a problem is always a fixed and there is no single agreed-upon description
3 4
 E.g. Route finding, Traveling sales person, etc.
sequence of actions.
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SOLVING A PROBLEM STATE SPACE OF THE PROBLEM

Formalize the problem: Identify the collection of information  The state space defines the set of all relevant states reachable
that the agent will use to decide what to do. from the initial state by (any) sequence of actions through iterative
 Define states application of all permutations and combinations of operators.
 States describe distinguishable stages during the problem-  State space of the problem includes the various states
solving process  Initial state: defines where the agent starts in or begins with
Example- What are the various states in route finding problem?  Goal state: describes the situation we want to achieve
 The various cities including the location of the agent
 Transition states: other states in between initial and goal
 Define the available operators/rules for getting from one states
state to the next
 Operators cause an action that brings transitions from one state  Also called search space/problem space and can be represented in
to another by applying on a current state a tree/graph
 Suggest a suitable representation for the problem space/state
space 5 Example :-Find the state space for route finding problem 6
 Graph, table, list, set, … or a combination of them
 Think of the states reachable from the initial state.

STEPS IN PROBLEM SOLVING

 Goal formulation
 is a step that specifies exactly what the agent is trying to achieve Knowledge and Reasoning
 This step narrows down the state-space that the agent has to look
at
 Problem formulation CHAPTER-04
 is a step that puts down the actions and states that the agent has to
consider given a goal (avoiding any redundant states), like:
 the initial state

 the allowable actions etc…

 Search
 is the process of looking for the various sequence of actions that
lead to a goal state, evaluating them and choosing the optimal
sequence.
 Execute 7
 is the final step that the agent executes the chosen sequence of
actions to get it to the solution/goal
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KNOWLEDGE AND REASONING OBJECTIVES

 To familiarize with knowledge based agents
Human,
it seems, know things; and what they know  To learn express knowledge in formal languages
helps them do things.

10
 Illustrate the use of logic in building a logical agent
These are not empty statements.
They make strong claims about how the  Brief on knowledge based agents
intelligence of humans is achieved—not by  Reasoning and Logic
purely reflex mechanisms but by processes of  Inference
reasoning that operate on internal
Propositional logic
representations of knowledge. 

In AI, this approach to intelligence is embodied  First order logic: Syntax, semantics, inferences,
in knowledge-based agents. unification, chaining, resolution

MOTIVATION KNOWLEDGE
Knowledge-Based Systems (KBSs) are useless  Knowledge includes facts about the real world
without the ability to represent knowledge entities and the relationship between them
Intelligent system require:  Characteristics of Knowledge:

Knowledge (current state) of the world  It is voluminous in nature and requires proper
formally represented using knowledge representation
structuring.
language  It may be incomplete and imprecise.

Inference mechanisms: to deduce new facts/knowledge  It may keep on changing (dynamic).

that are unseen by current percepts
 Thereis a need to represent knowledge to ease
Goal: what it wants to achieve
the development of an intelligent system.
Effect of its action:-what its own action do in various
circumstances  Different knowledge representation schemes may be
11 appropriate depending on tasks and circumstances 12
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COMPONENTS OF A KBA
KNOWLEDGE-BASED AGENT (KBA)
The agent is composed of:
 Agents can be seen as knowing about their world, Knowledge base

and reasoning about their possible courses of  It operates by storing a set of sentences (facts and relationship between
facts) about the world in its KB.
action.
Inference mechanism :
 One can also design an autonomous agent that  With the help of inference mechanism deduce new sentences and use them
to decide what action to take
 learns and construct knowledge without human
interventions Learning mechanism:
 Adapt to changes in the environment by updating the relevant knowledge
Input from Inference Output
environment Engine (actions)
Learning
13 (KB update) 14
Knowledge
Base

INFERENCE ENGINE
KNOWLEDGE BASE (KB)
 The Inference engine derives new sentences from
 Contains set of facts about the domain expressed in a the input and KB
suitable representation language  The inference mechanism depends on

16
 Each individual representation are called sentences representation in KB
 Sentences are expressed in a (formal) knowledge  The agent operates as follows:
representation (KR) language 1. It receives percepts from environment
2. It computes what action it should perform (by IE
 A KBA is designed such that there is a way to:-
and KB)
 TELL it (i.e. to add new sentences to the KB) and ASK it 3. It performs the chosen action (some actions are
(i.e. to query the KBA) simply inserting inferred new facts into KB).
 When one ASKs a question, the answer should follow from Input from Inference Output
what has been TELLed to the KB previously environment Engine (actions)
 Inference mechanism determines what follows from what Learning
has been TELLed to the KB 15 (KB update)
Knowledge
Base
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KB can be viewed at different levels Logical reasoning

 Knowledge Level.
 The most abstract level -- describe agent by saying what it A logical, knowledge-based agent begins with
knows.

17
 Example: An automated taxi might be said to know that the some knowledge of the world and of its own
Gojeb Bridge links Oromia Region and Southern Region
 Logical Level. actions.
 The level at which the knowledge is encoded into sentences.

 For e.g. The taxi might be described as having the  It uses logical reasoning to maintain a description of
logical sentences. the world as new percepts arrive, and to deduce a
Links(GB,OR,SR) in our knowledge base.
 Implementation Level. course of action that will achieve its goals.
 The physical representation of the sentences in the logical level
- how will it be represented in the computer?  Let us see the example of Wumpus world
18
environment, in order to get motivation for
logical reasoning.

KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION & REASONING

Knowledge Representation (KR): express knowledge explicitly
in a computer-tractable way such that the agent can reason out.
Parts of KR language:

KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION, Syntax of a language: describes the possible configuration to form sentences.
E.g.: if x & y denote numbers, then x > y is a sentence about numbers
REASONING AND LOGIC Semantics: determines the facts in the world to which the sentences refer.
E.g.: x > y is false when y is greater than x and true otherwise
Proof theory (inference rules and proof procedures)

Reasoning: is the process of constructing new sentences from

existing facts in the KB.
Proper reasoning ensures that the new configuration represent facts that
actually follow from the facts in the KB.
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HOW IS KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTED?

WHY KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION IS IMPORTANT ? Construct KB by TELLing the agent what it needs to know
 add one by one the sentences that represent the domain knowledge
 It enables to: using Knowledge Representation language
Knowledge is basically represented as “symbol
 Automate reasoning structures” (essentially, complex data structures)
representing bits of knowledge (objects, concepts,
 Discover new facts. facts, rules, strategies...)
 Deduce new facts that follow from the KB Example: “red” represents color red.
“mycar” represents my car.
 Answer users queries red(mycar) represents the fact that my car is red.
Intelligent behavior can be achieved through
 Make decisions - select courses of actions manipulation of symbol structures
Build KB following declarative approach
 etc. 21 22
 Rather than procedural language (like C++/Java data
structures), use declarative languages (like prolog).

REQUIREMENT FOR KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION

LANGUAGES?
LOGIC AS KR
ALogic is a formal language in which knowledge can be
Representational adequacy: the KR language should be represented such that conclusions can be drawn.
effective in representing the knowledge you need for your Itis a declarative language to assert sentences and deduce from
problem. sentences.
 Is the KR language allows to represent simple or complex knowledge? Components of a formal logic include: syntax, semantics,
Understandability: the representational scheme should reasoning and inference mechanism.
enable to do it in a clear, precise and “natural” way. Syntax: what expressions/structures are allowed in the language.
Describes how to make sentences
 Choose names for symbols that are meaningful.
E.g. red(mycar) is ok, but mycar(grey or green) is not.
Inferential adequacy: have appropriate inference Semantics: express what sentences mean, in terms of a mapping to
methods to reason on knowledge represented and draw new real world.
conclusions. The meaning of a sentence is not intrinsic to that sentence. Semantics relate
sentences to reality.
A balance must be found between effective representation, E.g. red(mycar) means that my car is red.
understandability and Inferential adequacy. Proof Theory: how we can draw new conclusions from existing 24
23
statements in the logic. It is a means of carrying our reasoning using a
set of rules.
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WHY FORMAL LANGUAGES (LOGIC) ? KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION LANGUAGES

An obvious way of expressing or representing facts and  What makes it different from Programming
thoughts is by writing them in a natural language such
as English, A/Oromoo, Amharic, etc. However, Languages and natural language?
 The meaning of a sentence depends on the sentence itself and on
 Programming languages are designed to completely
the context on which the sentence was spoken
e.g. Look! describe the state of the computer and how it changes
 Natural languages exhibit ambiguity. E.g. small dogs and cats.
as the program executes. (they are not expressive since
 A single sentence can usually be interpreted in more than one way,
possibly inhibiting reasoning. Consider English sentences like: they can not infer.)
“The boy saw a girl with a telescope”
“Our shoes are guaranteed to give you a fit”  They do not offer easy ways to say what we want to say
"John threw the brick through the window and broke it."  E.g. How will you express the sentence
Ambiguity makes reasoning difficult and incomplete.
 “The financial statement is wrong”,
 Hence we need formal languages to express facts and concepts in25 26
an unambiguous and well-defined way.  You have a headache

 There is a pit in [2,2] or [3,1]

NATURAL LANGUAGES
LOGICS
 Logic is the science or art of reasoning
 Natural languages are certainly expressive,
 Concerned with what is true and how we know
 they help us for communication, not for whether something is true.

representation.
 Two kinds of Logic
 Propositional or Boolean Logic
 A good way for a speaker to get a listener to come to  First-order Logic
know something  In both propositional and first order logic, a sentence
represents a fact and the agent either believes the sentence
 Natural language also suffers from ambiguity. to be true, believes it to be false, or is unable to conclude
 Small dogs and cats
either way. These logics therefore have three possible
states of belief.
Dangerous men and locations
Systems using probability theory, on the other hand, can



27
have any degree of belief, ranging from 0(total disbelief) to281
(total belief).
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PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC FIRST ORDER LOGIC

 A very simple logic  Commits the representation of the world in terms
of objects and predicates on objects
 Symbols represent facts
Symbols of propositional logic are the logical  Predicates may be properties, relationships
TRUE and FALSE  Uses connectives and quantifiers
E.g. P ≡ AAU is one of the accredited universities
in Africa (may or may not be true)  Later, we will see
 Propositional symbols can be combined using Boolean  FOL is able to capture a good deal of what we know
connectives to generate sentences with more complex about the world
meaning
 FOL is used to represent and deduct facts

29 30

QUIZ
1. Why we need to represent knowledge?

2. What are the requirements of Knowledge

Representation?
PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC

31
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PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC (PL)

A simple language useful for showing key ideas and A sentence is made by putting symbols together.
definitions
There are atomic and complex sentences.
Syntax: PL allows facts about the world to be represented
Atomic
sentences: consist of propositional symbol (e.g. P, Q,
as sentences formed from:
Logical constants: True, False TRUE, FALSE)
Proposition symbols (P, Q, R, …) are used to represent facts about If S is a sentence, then S is a sentence (not or negation)
the world: e.g.: P = "It is hot“, Q = "It is humid“, R = "It is raining“ If S is a sentence, then so is (S)
Logical connectives: not (), and (), or (), implies (), is Complexsentences are combined by using connectives or
equivalent, if and only if ().
Parenthesis ( ): Used for grouping sentences and to specify order of
parenthesis:
precedence IfS and T are sentences, then S  T, (S  T), (S  T), (S  T), and (S 
(P  (Q ((R))) vs. P  (Q  R) T) are complex sentences, and are called conjunction, disjunction,
implication, and equivalent, respectively.
Precedence order from highest to lowest is: , ,,, 
 The sentence P v Q  R  S is equivalent to ((P) v (Q  R))  S Examples: PL sentences for the “weather problem”:
Binary operators are left associative: so P  Q  R is (P  Q)  R
“If it is hot and humid, then it is raining”: (P  Q)  R
Questions:
“If it is humid, then it is hot” : Q  P
Is (P  Q)  R same as P  (Q  R) ? 33 34

Is (P  Q)  R same as P  (Q  R) ? “It is humid.”: Q

Is (P  Q)  R same as P  (Q  R) ? A better way: Ho=“It is hot”, Hu=“It is humid”, R=“It is raining”

EXAMPLE SENTENCES IN Proportional Logic TERMINOLOGY

Valid sentence: A sentence is valid sentence or
Examples: Convert from English to Propositional sentence tautology if and only if it is True under all possible
Let A = Lectures are active and R = Text is readable, P = Kebede will pass the interpretations in all possible worlds.
exam, then represent the following: Example: “It’s raining or it’s not raining.” (R  R).
A
 the lectures are not active: AR
AVR Satisfiable: A sentence is if satisfiable and only if there
 the lectures are active and the text is readable:
AR
is some interpretations in some world for which the
 either the lectures are active or the text is readable:
sentence is True.
 if the lectures are active, then the text is not readable: AR
Example: “It is raining or it is humid”. R v Q, R
 the lectures are active if and only if the text is readable:
A  (R  P ) Unsatisfiable: A sentence is unsatisfiable (inconsistent
 if the lectures are active, then if the text is not readable, Kebede will not
pass the exam: sentence or self- contradiction) if and only if it is not
satisfiable, i.e. a sentence that is False under all
interpretations. The world is never like what it describes.
Example: “It’s raining and it's not raining.” R  R
35 36
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TERMINOLOGY SEMANTICS
Entailment: mirrors the relation of one fact Facts and their representation:
 Facts
are part of the world, where as their representation must be
following from another. encoded in some way that can be physically stored within an agent
A semantics maps sentences to facts in the world. In the
New sentences are generated that are necessarily true, given that simplest case, the semantics determines what objects in the
the old sentences are true. world are referenced by which objects in the language.
KB entails α (KB |= α) if and only if the conclusion α is true in The property of one fact following from another should be
mirrored by the property of one sentence being logically
every logically possible worlds in which all the premises in KB
entailed by another.
are true.

Derivation:

KB |- Q, Q is derived from KB if there is a proof consisting of a

37 38
sequence of valid inference steps starting from the premises in
KB and resulting in Q

SEMANTICS SEMANTICS (COMPLEX SENTENCES)

Specifythe interpretation of the proposition symbols & constants, and  Complex sentences such as (RS)(RS) are defined by
the meanings of the logical connectives
 Truth Tables: define the semantics of sentences. The following table shows
a process of decomposition.
truth table for the five logical connectives.  First determine the meaning of (RS) and of (RS).
Note: P and Q can be any sentence, including complex sentences.  Then combine them using the definition of the  function

P Q P PQ PQ PQ PQ R S R RS RS (RS)(RS)

True True False True True True True
True False False False True False False True True False True True True

False True True False True True False True False False False False True
False False True False False True True False True True False True True
False False True False True True
Sentences in propositional logic tell you about what is true or false.
– P  Q means that both P and Q are true.
39 Can you write the truth table for: 40
– P  Q means that either P or Q is true (or both)
– (P  Q)  (R  P)
– P  Q means that if P is true, so is Q.
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INFERENCE RULES
INFERENCE RULES
Inference is used to create new sentences that logically RULE PREMISE CONCLUSION
follow from a given set of sentences in the KB. Modus Ponens A, A  B B
It captures patterns of inferences that occur over & over again.
Modus Tolens  B, A  B A
Once a rule is established, it can be used to make inferences without
going through the tedious process of building truth tables And Elimination AB A
And Introduction A, B AB
An inference rule {, } |- Θ consists of two sentence
patterns  &  called the conditions (premises) and one Or Introduction A A1  A2 …  An
sentence pattern Θ called the conclusion Double Negation Elimination  A A
 If  &  match two sentences of KB, then the corresponding Θ can be Unit Resolution A  B, B A
inferred according to the rule Resolution A  B, B  C AC
Given set of inference rules (I) and set of sentences (KB); Hypothetical Syllogism PQ, QR PR
Inference is the process of applying successive inference rules
from I to KB, each rule inferring new facts and adding its In the case of modus ponens, if A is true and A  B is true, then
conclusion to KB conclude B is true.
41 42
Example: Modus Ponens: {  ,  } |- 

TWO IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF INFERENCE

SOUNDNESS
Soundness: If KB |- Q then KB |= Q
A logic is sound if it preserves truth (i.e. if a set of
Completeness: If KB |= Q then KB |- Q
premises are all true, any conclusion drawn from those
A logic is complete if it is capable of proving all consequences that can premises must also be true).
be represented in it. If Q is derived from a set of sentences KB using a given set of rules of
 If Q is entailed by a set of sentences KB, then Q can be derived from KB inference, then Q is entailed by KB.
using inference rules. Hence, inference produces only real entailments, or any sentence that
 Hence, inference produces all entailments, or all valid sentences can be follows deductively from the premises is valid.
proved from the premises. We can proof soundness by constructing the truth table.
A set of inference rules is complete if every entailed sentences can be An inference rule is sound if it generates only entailed
obtained by applying some finite sentences
succession of these rules  All inference rules previously given are sound
 Modus ponens alone is not complete, Arule is sound if its conclusion is true whenever the premise is true.
e.g.: from A  B and B, we cannot get A E.g. modus ponens: {   , } 
The following rule: {   , } 
is unsound, which does not mean it is useless


43 44


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EXAMPLES EXAMPLE
From: Resolution vs. Hypothetical syllogism
From: Unit resolution vs. Modus ponens P  Q ( P  Q)
Engine-Starts  Car-OK
Q  R ( Q  R)
Engine-Starts Engine-Starts  Car-OK
Infer: P  R ( P  R)
Infer: Car-OK

From: Unit resolution vs. Modus tolens

Engine-Starts  Car-OK
Car-OK Engine-Starts  Car-OK
Infer: Engine-Starts From:
From: Engine-Starts  Flat-Tire  Car-OK
Engine-Starts  Flat-Tire  Car-OK Engine-Starts  Flat-Tire
Engine-Starts  Empty-Gas-Tank Full Resolution Infer: (Flat-Tire  Flat-Tire)  Car-OK  True
Infer: Empty-Gas-Tank  Flat-Tire  Car-OK
45 46

Tautology/valid

FORMAL PROOFS
Aproof is a sequence of steps followed to generate FORMAL PROOFS
sentences, where each sentence is
either a premise or a sentence/formula derived from earlier sentences Example: The “weather problem”. Proof whether it is
(of the proof) using some of the rules of inference. raining or not.
The last step of the proof should deduce the formula (also called goal  Can you proof using tree representation?
or query) that we want to prove. 1Q Premise “It is humid”
Example: The “weather problem”. Proof whether it is 2QP Premise “If it is humid, it is hot”
raining or not. 3P Modus Ponens(1,2) “It is hot”
 Can you proof using tree representation? 4 (PQ)  R Premise “If it’s hot & humid, it’s raining”
1Q Premise “It is humid” 5 P Q And Introduction(1,2) “It is hot and humid”
2QP Premise “If it is humid, it is hot” 6R Modus Ponens(4,5) “It is raining”
3 (PQ)  R Premise “If it’s hot & humid, it’s raining”

47 48
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EXAMPLE 1 SOLUTION
Construct formal proof of validity for the following problem: Let
C: The investigation continues.
If the investigation continues, then new evidence is brought B: New evidence is brought to light.
to light. If new evidence is brought to light, then several I: Several leading citizens are implicated.
leading citizens are implicated. If several leading citizens S: The newspapers stop publicizing the case.
are implicated, then the newspapers stop publicizing the
case. If continuation of the investigation implies that the 1. CB
newspapers stop publicizing the case, then the bringing to 2. BI
light of new evidence implies that the investigation 3. IS
continues. The investigation does not continue. Therefore, 4. (C  S)  (B  C)
new evidence is not brought to light. 5. C
6. CI 1,2 (Hypothetical Syllogism)
Represent using PL and proof the conclusion that “new
evidence is not brought to light”. 7. CS 6,3 (Hypothetical Syllogism)
8. IC 7,4 (Modus Ponens)
9. I 9,2(Modus Tollens)
49 10. B 8,5 50

EXAMPLE 3
EXAMPLE 2
1.Battery-OK  Bulbs-OK  Headlights-Work
Deme is either intelligent or a good actor. If Deme is 2.Battery-OK  Starter-OK  Empty-Gas-Tank  Engine-Starts
intelligent, then he can count from 1 to 10. Deme can only 3.Engine-Starts  Flat-Tire  Car-OK
count fom 1 to 2. Therefore Deme is a good actor. 4.Headlights-Work
5.Battery-OK
6.Starter-OK
Represent using PL and proof the conclusion that Deme is a good 7.Empty-Gas-Tank
actor or not. 8.Car-OK

Proof: Flat-Tire Proof

9. Battery-OK  Starter-OK  (5+6)
10. Battery-OK  Starter-OK  Empty-Gas-
Tank  (9+7)
11. Engine-Starts  (2+10)
12. Engine-Starts  Flat-Tire  (3+8)
51 13. Flat-Tire  (11+12) 52
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MORE EXAMPLES PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC IS A WEAK LANGUAGE

 PLcannot handle even a domain with small worlds. The problem is

Represent the following problem and infer the third sentence from the that there are just too many propositions to handle since it only has
first two: one representational device: the proposition
Every person is mortal.  In PL world consists of just facts. It is hard to :
Abebe is a person.  Identifyindividuals: E.g., Mary, 3
Therefore, Abebe is mortal.  Describe properties of (or relations between) individuals. E.g. Belete is taller
InPL use propositional symbols to stand for all or part of each than Gelaw
sentence. Hence,  Generalize for a given universe. E.g., all triangles have 3 sides
P = “person”; M = “mortal”; A = “Abebe”
So the above sentences are represented as:  First-Order Logic (FOL) is expressive enough to concisely represent
P  M, A  P (Hypothesis). We can infer: A  M this kind of situation.
 FOLrepresents objects and relations between objects, variables, and
Although the third sentence is entailed by the first two, we need an
quantifiers in addition to propositions
explicit symbol, A, to represent an individual, Abebe, who is a
member of the classes “person” and “mortal.” Every elephant is gray:  x (elephant(x) → gray(x))
To represent other individuals we must introduce separate symbols for each one, There is a white alligator:  x (alligator(X) ^ white(X))
which means for representing the fact that all individuals who are “people” are  Prove that “my dog Fido is Nice, given that “all dogs are Nice.”
also "mortal.” 53 54
 This
requires to get at the structure and meanings of statements (where
FOL is useful).

CONCLUSION
Due to the ambiguity in natural languages there is a need to specify knowledge
through the use of formal languages
Formal languages give us a way to remove ambiguity and provide methods
for automating inference. PL is a first move in this direction
Inference: Theprocess of deriving new sentences from old one
Soundinference: derives true conclusions given true premises.
Complete inference: derives all true conclusions from a set of premises.
A valid sentence is true in all worlds under all interpretations.
If an implication sentence can be shown to be valid, then
given its premise - its consequent can be derived.
Differentlogics make different commitments about what the world is made of
and what kind of beliefs we can have regarding the facts.
Logics are useful for the commitments they do not make because lack of
commitment gives the knowledge base engineer more freedom.
PL commits only to the existence of facts that may or may not be the case in the
world being represented. 55 56

Using a simple syntax and semantic, it illustrates the process of inference.

PL quickly becomes impractical, even for very small worlds.