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Functions and Importance

of Maps

Fig.1.1 Types of Maps Key

Plate Boundary
Plate movement

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What are Maps?

You will learn
Maps are pictures or graph-
What maps are
about the value of maps ical representations of all or part of
the Earth’s surface and its features.
However, they are special pictures because they show only the plan
or top view of the features___ the sort of view that birds have when
they are flying in the sky. Maps are drawn on flat surfaces and are
usually smaller than the actual areas they represent.

Fig.1.2
Looking at the map
of a place is like
having a bird’s eye
view of that place
and its features.

Fig. 1.3
An ancient map of
Babylon

The Value of Maps

People have been using maps for
a very long time. A few thousand years
ago, the Egyptians had maps which
were based on travellers’ descriptions
of the places they had seen. Maps were
also used by the ancient Chinese to
help them work out their battle plans
before they went to war. Today, maps
are even more widely used. There are
several reasons why this is so.

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First, maps are valuable

sources of information. Maps can
provide the answers to questions
such as “Where are we?”, “How far is
it between here and there?”, “What
direction do we take to get there?”,
“What are the different ways to get
there?” and “What will we find there:
cities, roads, rivers or forests?”. When
visiting a foreign country, maps can
help us find our way to important
places such as tourist information Fig. 1.4“The map of Singapore
centres, places of interest and historic contains useful information
for tourists and can be easily
landmarks. obtained from hotels.”
Second, maps are useful ways of storing and displaying
information about the Earth’s surface. Maps are light and can be
folded such that they can be carried around easily.
Fig. 1.5 A geological map of
Singapore

Different types of information can be stored and displayed on

different maps. A relief map shows the physical features found in an
area. A weather map shows the weather patterns for an area while
a geological map shows the types of rocks in an area. Maps can
also store and display information such as vegetation and land use

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patterns. Not only can maps be used to present the information of

large areas and even of the whole world, they can also be used to show
detailed information on smaller areas. Street maps and topographic
maps are commonly used for this purpose.

Fig. 1.6
A topographic
map of Singapore

Third, maps are important bases for planning and decision

making. For example, during times of war, maps are invaluable to the
military, who have to plan and decide what areas to attack and the
most effective route to take. Urban planners also depend greatly on
maps to do their job of deciding where to build the different features of
the human landscape such as houses, factories, roads and railways

Fig. 1.7 a

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Last, maps serve us good records of landscape changes. Like

photographs, maps show the features on the Earth’s surface at a
certain point in time. When new maps of a certain area are drawn
every few years, the series of maps taken together will provide us with
the record of all the changes that have taken place. They therefore
help us keep track of what has been happening over the years. Look
at Fig 1.7 a and 1.7 b. The first is a map of an area drawn a few years
earlier. The second map shows the changes which have taken place since.

Fig. 1.7 b

Maps contain a lot of useful information that may otherwise

take pages to describe. By having the right map and using it correctly,
it is possible to obtain much information about the earth’s surface
and its features. In the next few lessons you will be introduced to the
basic elements of maps and some skills that will enable you to read
and understand maps.

Check this out !

The ancient Egyptians drew maps inside coffins to guide

the dead person’s soul to the next world. Two routes
were given, one for travelling by day and the other night.

Maps have been used for planning military campaigns

and strategy since Roman times. Sometimes these maps
are deliberately made inaccurate or with mistakes in
case they fall into the hands of enemies during a war.

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Recap Questions
Geological Map 1. What are maps?
A map which shows the type of 2. Why are maps
rocks in an area important?
Topographic Map
A map which shows physical and
human features in detail
Weather Map
A map which shows the weather
patterns of a certain area

You will learn What is on a Map?

about the basic elements of maps Although there are many different
what the function of these ele- types of maps, most maps have the
ments are
same basis elements. Knowing what

these elements are and their function in any map is the first step to
learning how to read maps properly.
Title

Grid Lines

Symbols and legend

Directional Indicator
Fig. 1.8

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Title
Like the titles of books, the title of a map states what the map shows.
It usually appears on the top of the map. On topographic maps, the title
is usually the name of the largest settlement on the map.

Grid Lines
Grid lines are a series of numbered vertical and horizontal lines
drawn on a map. They are used to locate features.

Directional Indicator
It shows where north, south, east and west lie on the map.

Symbols and Legend

Symbols are used on maps to represent the different physical or
man-made features found on the surface of the Earth. Map makers
use symbols because it is possible to fit a lot of information into a
small space by using symbols.
To know exactly what each symbol means, we have to use the
legend found on the map. It lists all the symbols used in the map,
and explains what each of them means or represents, the legend is also
called the key as it helps us unlock the information stored in maps.

Names of Features
Certain features such as settlements, roads and rivers are often
named on maps. Their names help us to identify them.

Scale
The scale shows the size of the map as compared to the actual
size of the area that the map represents. Knowing the scale will allow
us to calculate exactly how big or small a feature is on the Earth’s
surface.

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Types of Symbols
Symbols can be of different shapes, sizes and colours. The size
or thickness of a symbol shows the importance of a feature. A more
important symbol is usually larger and thicker. Certain colours are
frequently used to represent certain features. For example, blue is
used for features associated with water such as rivers, ponds, or
lakes while green is used for features associated with vegetation such
as forest, parks or cultivated land.

Line or linear symbols

They represent line features such as roads, railway tracks, rivers
and power lines.
Example Symbols What they represent
Road
Water course
Power Line
Point symbols
They represent point-like features such as schools, churches,
mosques and temples.
Example Symbols What they represent
Building
National monument

Area symbols
They represent features that occupy an area such as lakes and
forests. Some of these symbols look like the features they represent.
For example, trees are used to represent a forest while a small blue
irregular shape represents a lake.
Example Symbols What they represent
Lake

Plantation

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Abbreviations
Abbreviations may either appear beside symbols to explain what
they are, or they may appear on their own. An example of a common
abbreviation used in maps is ‘PS’ which represents a police station.

Example Symbols What they represent

Resr Reservoir
Mos Mosque
H Hotel

Height symbols
The height of places is shown on maps by contours, which are
imaginary lines joining places of the same height above or below sea
level. To show the exact height of a physical feature such as a hill
or a mountain, a trigonometrical station is normally used. This is a
circular metallic disc placed in the ground to show the specific height
of the place. On a map, a trigonometircal station is shown by the
symbol with the height above sea level written beside it.
Example Symbols What they represent
Contours

Trigonometrical station
The different elements of maps provided us with different kinds
of information. Knowing what these elements are how to make use of
them will help us obtain the information we require.
Recap Questions
1. Why are symbols used
Legend – a list of all the in maps to represent
symbols used in a map features?
together with an explanation 2. What is the legend of a map?
of what each means or 3. How are water features shown?
represents. 4. What symbol is used to represent
the height of land?
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Measuring Distance
A scale is a basic and necessary You will learn
what a scale is
element of a map because it is how scales are shown or represented on
impossible to draw a map the same maps
how to measure straight-line distance
size as the area it represents. We how to measure curved distance
will look at how a scale is shown what small-scale and large-scale maps
are
on a map and how it is used.

The Scale of a Map

Maps are drawn to scale.
The scale of a map shows the
amount by which the map has
been reduced. It also shows
the relationship between
a length on a map and the
actual distance it represents
on the Earth’s surface. So, by
using the scale, it is possible
to tell how long a feature such
a road or river is, or how far Fig. 1.9 Common tools used in measuring
distances on a map
one point is from another on
the Earth’s surface.

How a Scale is shown on a Map

A scale can be shown on a map in the following ways;
As a statement
Such a scale is described in words and numbers.
1 cm represents 2 km.

This means that 1 centimetre on the map represents 2 kilometres on

the Earth’s surface.

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As a representative fraction

Such a scale is expressed as a ratio or a fraction.

This means that 1 centimetre on the map represents 200 000

centimetres or 2 kilometres on the ground.

As a line or linear scale

Such a scale consists of a line that is divided into units and
sub-units. A line scale is commonly used in maps because it helps
the person using the map measure distances on the map easily and
quickly. An example of a line scale is shown below.

SCALE 1:50 000

1 0 1 2 3 KILOMETRES

Check this out !

The earliest map makers were usually artists

who drew maps by hand. Modern map makers,
or cartographers, use computer technology to
draw maps.

Finding Distance on a Map

The distance between two points can be found by first
measuring the distance shown on the map and then finding out what
it represents on the Earth’s surface. The actual distance could be
in centimetres, metres or kilometres depending on the scale of the
map. It is possible to find straight-line distance as well as distance
along a curve.

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Measuring straight-line distance

(i) Use a ruler to measure
the length between two
points on the map.
(ii) Use the scale of the
map to find out the actual
distance on the ground.
For example, if the scale of
the map is1:10 000, then
a length of 1 centimetre on
the map means that the
distance between the two
points is 10 000 (or 0.1
kilometre or 100 metres)
on the ground.
Fig. 1.10 Measuring a straight-line distance on
a map

Another way of measuring straight-line distance is:

(i) Mark out the two points on a piece of paper and measure it against
the scale.

Measuring distance along a curve

You can also find out the distance between two points that are on
a winding road or river by using a string.

Fig. 1.11 Measuring a curve distance on a map

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(i) Place one end of the string at

the starting point. Hold this end
down firmly with your finger.
(ii) Use the string to follow the path
with your fingers slowly.
(iii) When you reach the end point,
use a pencil to mark on the string.
(iv) Remove the string, straighten it
and place it against the line scale
or a ruler to measure the length.
(v) Using the scale of the map,
convert the length to the actual
distance on the ground.

Small-scale and Large-scale Maps

Small-scale and Large-scale on page 13. How are they different?
You will notice that the two maps are drawn to different scales. Fig
1.12 shows a map of Carlisle drawn to the scale of 1:250 000.
This means that 1 centimetre on the map represents 2.5 kilometres
on the ground. This is a small-scale map. On such a map, we would
be able to see a large area of the Earth’s surface, but we might not be
able to see a large amount of detail such as buildings and roads.
Fig. 1.12
A small –scale map
of Carlisle drawn
to the scale of
1:250 000.

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Fig 1.13, however, shows Foel Fadian on a scale of 1:50 000. This
means 1 centimetre on this map represents 0.5 kilometre on the
ground. On such a map you should be able to see the details clearly.
This is a large-scale map.
Fig. 1.13,
A large scale map of
Foel Fadian with a
scale of 1:50 000.

In general, a small-scale map shows fewer detail on a large area

of the Earth’s surface while a large-scale map shows greater detail for
the same area of the Earth’s surface. Street maps and topographic
maps are examples of large-scale maps. We will learn how to locate
places on large-scale and small-scale maps in the following lessons.

Recap Questions
Large-scale map
1. What is a scale?
A map which shows a large amount 2. How is a scale
of detail on a small area of the Earth’s shown on maps?
surface. 3. List the steps you
Scale would take to measure
A scale shows the ratio between the a straight-line distance.
distance on the map and the actual 4. Explain how you
distance on the Earth’s surface. would measure a curved
distance.
Small-scale map
5. What is the difference
A map which shows a small amount between a large-scale
of detail on a large area of the Earth’s map and a small-scale
surface. map?

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Finding Location
using Latitudes and Longitudes

We have learnt about the basic

You will learn elements of maps and how to measure
What latitudes and longitudes are distances on maps. Let us now move
How to locate places using latitudes
and longitudes
on to locating places and features on
maps. On small-scale maps, this is
done by using latitudes and longitudes.

Fig 2.1 Note the latitudes and longitudes on this world map

Latitudes
Latitudes are actually imaginary horizontal lines running in an
east-west direction around the Earth. They cannot be seen on the
actual surface of the Earth.

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The Equator is the 0˚ latitude which divides the Earth into halves:
the upper half and the lower half. The upper half of the Earth from the
Equator to the North Pole is called the Northern Hemisphere while the
lower half from the Equator to the South Pole is called the Southern
Hemisphere. Latitudes are measured in degrees and minutes from
the Equator. In the Northern Hemisphere, the latitudes increase in
value as they move northwards, that is, from 0˚ at the Equator to
90˚ N at the North Pole. Likewise, in the Southern Hemisphere, the
latitudes increase in value as they go southwards, that is, from 0˚ at
the Equator to 90˚ S at the South Pole.

Fig.2.2 All lines of latitudes are given a number between 0˚ and 90˚, either
North(N) or South(S) of the Equator

Longitudes
Longitudes are imaginary lines that run in a north-south direction
from the North Pole to the South Pole on the Earth’s surface. They
are measured in degrees and minutes east or west of the 0˚ longitude
which is called the Prime Meridian or the Greenwich Meridian. It
is called the Greenwich Meridian because it passes through a place
called Greenwich, near London.

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Check this out !

The words ‘latitude’ and ‘longitude’ have Latin

origins. They mean ‘breadth’ and ‘length’
respectively.

Fig. 2.3
The Greenwich Meridian
divides the world into
the Eastern and Western
Hemisphere.

Fig. 2.4
All lines of longitudes
are given a number
between Oº and 180º
either East (E) or West
(W) of the Greenwich
Meridian

Longitudes west of the Greenwich Meridian are measured from

0˚ at the Greenwich Meridian to 180˚ W. Likewise, longitudes that
lie to the east of the Greenwich Meridian are measured from 0˚ to
180˚ E. Both the 180˚ W and 180˚ E are the same line of longitude.
This line lies directly opposite the Greenwich Meridian and is known
as the International Date Line. The International Date Line and the
Greenwich Meridian divide the world into the Western Hemisphere
and the Eastern Hemisphere.
However, the International Date Line does not follow the 180˚
meridian along its entire course. Instead it bends at certain places to
avoid cutting across any land (refer to Fig. 2.5).
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Prime Meridian

Fig. 2.5 The International Date Line and the Prime Meridian

Use of Latitudes and

Longitudes to Locate Places
Latitudes and longitudes cross each
other to form a network of lines or a
grid. This grid makes it possible to
state the exact location of any place
on the Earth’s surface. Imagine
you are on a ship sailing across
the Pacific Ocean and your ship is
sinking. To get help, you need to
radio your location to another ship. Fig . 2.6 Latitudes and longitudes
form a global grid system
If you are at latitude 30˚ north of the
Equator and longitude 10˚ east of the Prime Meridian, you would
radio your position as 30˚ N10˚ E. Note that the latitude comes before
the longitude when describing a location.

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30º N

20º N

10º N

0º
10ºW 0º 10ºE 20ºE 30ºE
Fig. 2.7 The ‘sinking ship’ is located at 30 °N 10°E.

Latitude
An imaginary horizontal line that runs in an east-west direction
around the Earth
Longitude
An imaginary vertical line that runs in a north-south direction on
the Earth’s surface
North Pole
The northernmost point of the Earth
Prime Meridian or Greenwich Meridian
The 0˚ longitude
South Pole
The southernmost point of the Earth

Recap Questions
1 What are latitudes and longitudes?
2 Why is the 0˚ longitude known as the Greenwich
Meridian?

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Finding Location You will learn

using What grid lines, eastings, northings and
Grid References grid references are
How to locate places or features using
four-figure references
How to locate places or features using
six-figure grid references

Besides small-scale maps, we also use large-scale maps which show

details of small areas of the Earth’s surface. Grid references are used
to locate places and features on these maps.

Eastings and Northings

Examine the topographic maps shown in Fig 2.8 and Fig 2.9 on
page 20 and 21. Notice the horizontal and vertical lines on them.
These lines are called grid lines. Together they form a grid which
divides the map into grid squares.

Fig 2.8 An extract from the topographic map of Singapore

The grid lines are numbered along the margins of the map. The
vertical grid lines are called eastings because their numbers increase
eastwards. The horizontal grid lines are called northings because
their numbers increase northwards. A grid reference is a number

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representing the point at which eastings crosses a northing. It is

made up of the number for the northing.
Using grid references, it is possible to describe the location of any
place or feature on a map easily.

Four-figure Grid References

We use a four-figure grid reference to locate the grid square in
which a feature is found.
The following are the steps to take in finding a four-figure grid
reference for a feature.
(i) Locate a grid square where the feature is found.
(ii) Read the easting (vertical lines) for the bottom left corner of the
grid square.
(iii) Read the northing (horizontal line) for the same left corner of the
grid square.
(iv) The four-figure grid reference for the feature is made up of both
the northing.
47
First, read the
number of the line
which runs down
L
46
the left side of the
Northings (up the stars)

square
45

Second, read the num-

44 ber of the line which
runs along the bottom
of the square
43

42
16 17 18 19 20 21
Eastings (along the cooridor)

Fig 2.9 Can you identify the four- figure grid reference where the
lake (L) is located? Using the steps described above, the four-
figure grid reference for lake (L) in fig 2.9 is 1845.

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Check this out !

If you find it difficult to remember the order of the grid
lines when citing a grid reference, try this: the letter ‘E’
comes before the letter ‘N’, so always code easting before
northings.

Six-figure Grid References

You may have noticed that a four-figure grid reference only tells
us the grid where the large feature is found. To find the exact location
of a smaller feature such as a school or a post office, you will need to
use the six-figure grid reference. As its name suggests, six-figure grid
reference has six numbers instead of four.
The following are the steps to take when finding a six-figure grid
reference.
(i) Locate a grid square on the map where the feature is.
(ii) Divide the square into 10 equal parts along easting and the easting
and northing.
(iii) Number the parts from 0 to 9 along both the easting and northing.
(iv) Estimate how far the feature is from the easting and the northing
using the scale in tenths.
(v) Write the value for the easting followed by the northing.

74

73

Fig. 2.10 locating the

PS
Police Station using a
72 six-figure grid reference

71
04 05 06 07

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Using the steps

described above, the
police station in Fig2.10
is located seven-tenths
of the way between
eastings 05 and 06.
Hence, the easting is
057. The police station
is also located two-tenth
of the way between

northing 72 and 73. Hence, the northing is 722. Therefore, the six-
figure grid reference for the police station is 057722.

Eastings Recap Questions

Vertical grid lines
Grid 1. What are grid lines?
2. What are eastings and northings?
A network of grid lines 3. What difficulty would you have in
Grid Lines locating a place on a map which
horizontal and vertical lines does not have grid lines?
4. List the steps needed to locate an
that run across a map
area on a map.
Northings 5. List the steps needed to locate a
horizontal grid lines specific place on a map.

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Finding Direction
You will learn
what cardinal points are
Since the 11th century, sailors
how to tell direction using cardinal
have used maps and compasses points
to help them find their way at sea. what bearings are and how to use
Today, we still use these to help us bearings to specify direction (only for
find our way around. A map helps students in the Special and Express
us find out how to get to another streams)
place from where we are, and a
compass helps us find direction.

Cardinal Points
Look at Fig.2.11. It shows a
compass. There are four points
marked on it: north, south, east and
west. These points are known as the
cardinal points. Four other points
can also be seen on the compass.
These additional points are marked
north-east, south-east, south-west
and north-west.
Fig.2.11 Can you think of specific
examples where a compass would
be useful?

Cardinal points can be used

to show the direction of one
place or a feature from another.
So, a place or a feature may be
described as being north, south,
east or west of another. On maps,
these cardinal points are shown
by the directional indicator or
compass rose.
Fig.2.12 The compass rose is a direc-
tional indicator that shows the cardinal
directions north, south, east and west.
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Finding Direction Using Cardinal Points

These are the steps to take when finding the direction of a place
or feature (Y) from another (X). Refer to Fig.2.13

31

30
Y

29

28
X
27
03 04 05 06 07
Fig. 2.13 Finding direction using cardinal points

(i) Draw a line joining the two places or features.

(ii) At X, draw a vertical line that is parallel to the eastings of the
map. This line indicates north.
(iii) Look at X and use one of the cardinal points to describe the
position of Y from X. From Fig 2.13, it can be seen that Y is north-
east from X.

Using the steps listed earlier, let us find the direction of BBC
Birmingham Public Space from the Temple.
(i) First locate BBC Birmingham Public Space and the Temple.
(ii) Then draw a line from the centre of Temple to the centre of BBC
Birmingham Public Space. .
(iii) At the Temple, draw a vertical line that is parallel to the eastings
of the map. This line indicates north.
Hence, BBC Birmingham Public Space is to the south-west of the
Temple.

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The map below shows the Temple and BBC Birmingham Public Space.

Fig.2.14 A street map of Birmingham

Bearings
Cardinal points are useful only for giving general directions. To
be more exact, however, you should measure the direction in degrees.
Directions, measured in degrees, are known as bearings. Bearings
are measured from north or 0˚ in a clockwise direction. 90˚ coincides
with the cardinal point east, 180˚ with south and 270˚ with west.

Finding Direction Using Bearings

To find the bearing of one place or feature from another on a map,
we need to use a protractor. The following describes the steps to take.
(i) To measure the bearing of B from A, draw a line to join the two
points.
(ii) Place the centre of the protractor at A. The 0˚ on the protractor
must point to the north.
(iii) The point on the outer edge of the protractor where the line joining
A and B crosses shows the bearing of B from point A. Read the
bearing off the protractor.
(iv) You will see that the bearing of B from A is 135˚.

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Measuring Bearing...
Find the bearing of B from A

Place your protractor over the north

line with 0º at the top

A Give the answer as a three figure

bearing
The bearing of B from A is 135º

Fig. 2.15 The bearing of B from A is 135º

If the bearing is greater than 180˚, take the following steps.

(i) To measure the bearing of X from A, draw a line to join the two
points.
(ii) Place the center of the protractor at A. The 180˚ of the protractor
must be pointing to the north.
(iii) Look carefully at the reading where the line joining A and X
crosses the outer edge of the protractor. Note that this is not the
bearing of X from point A. You have to add 180˚ to get the bearing
of X from point A.
(iv) In the diagram shown, the bearing of X from point A is 230˚, that
is, 50˚ + 180˚.

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Fig. 2.16
The bearing of X from A is 230º

Bearings
Compass directions which are
measured in degrees Recap Questions
1. What are the four main
Cardinal points
cardinal points?
Makings on the compass which 2. Why is direction
indicate the directions north, sometimes given as
east, south and west. bearings?

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Physical landscapes
through map
You will learn
how contours are used to
represent relief
about the properties of
contours
how to identify landforms
from contour patterns

Mountains, hills, valleys and

plains are some landforms we
have learnt about in earlier
lessons. Landforms make up
the relief of a place.
Contour lines do not exist in
Fig. 3.1 Landforms on the Earth’s surface
reality they are only drawn on
can be represented by contour lines on map
relief maps.

Using Contours to Represent Relief

The relief of a place refers to the physical shape of the Earth’s
surface. One common way of showing relief of a particular area on
topographic maps is through the line symbol known as a contour. A
contour is an imaginary line joining places of the same height above
sea level.
Besides showing the height of the land, contours also tell us
about the shape and the slope of the land.
Here are some important points to remember about contours:
(i) Contour lines that are close together denote steep slopes.
(ii) Contour lines that are far apart indicate gentle slopes.
(iii) When there are no contour lines, it means that the land is almost
flat.

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Contour value
All the points on this contour line are exactly 100m above sea level.

Gentle slope (contour lines are far apart)

Steep slope (contour lines are close together)

The land between these contour lines is above 50m but less than
100m above sea level.
Gentle slope
Steep slope

Fig.3.2 Contours say a lot about the physical landform they represent

Contour Patterns and Physical Features

Each feature or landform is represented by a specific pattern of
contour lines. The following shows some common patterns and the
features or landforms they represent.

Hill and mountain Check this out !

Contours joined in a circular Contour maps of the
form, with the contour lines past were made from
increasing in height towards the ground surveys. Today,
centre, can indicate a hill or a aerial photographs and
mountain. A hill is usually less than satellites which orbit
600 metres high while a mountain the Earth are used
instead.
is usually higher than that.

537
500
400
300

Fig 3.3 Contours of a hill and that of a mountain

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Ridge
A ridge is a linear or elongated upland area whose contour patterns
would look like this:

Co

Fig 3.4
Contours representative of a ridge

Plateau
Like a ridge, a plateau is an
upland area. However, a plateau has
steep slopes and a flat summit. The
pattern of contour lines representing
it is quite different from that of a
ridge.
Fig 3.5
Contours representative of a plateau

Valley

In a river valley, the contours
point towards higher ground forming
an inverted “V” from the top to the
lowest point. Most valleys contain
streams or rivers which are often
shown on maps as blue lines. On
maps, these cross the contours at
the “V”.
Fig 3.6
Contours of a valley with a river
running through it at its lowest point

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Different patterns of contour lines represent different landforms

found on the Earth’s surface. Knowing what the different patterns on
a map mean will help you understand the physical landscape of the
area represented by the map.

Contour
an imaginary line joining places of the same height above sea level

Relief
the physical shape of the Earth’s surface.

Recap Questions
1. What is a contour line?
2. Explain how the following are shown on maps:
(i) steep slopes,
(ii) gentle slopes, and
(iii) flat land.

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Longitudes and Time

By means of longitude we are able to divide the world into different
time zones. There are 360 degrees of longitude in all, 180 degrees east
and 180 degrees west. The Earth takes 24 hours, or 1440 minutes,
to make one complete revolution. Now, if we divide 1440 by 360 the
answer is 4 minutes, which is equal to one degree of longitude, and
15 degrees is therefore equal to one hour. From this fact, providing
we know the respective meridians, we are able to calculate the time
at different places on the Earth’s surface. For example, if it is noon
at Greenwich in London, the time at Rio de Janeiro, which is 45
degrees West of London, must be 3 hours (45 x 4 minutes ) behind
London time because it lies to the west: that is, it must be 9.a.m .
At Calcutta, which is approximately 90 degrees East of London and
therefore ahead in time, it would be 6.p.m. (90x4 minutes = 6 hours).
Calculate the time at points A; B; C; D; E; and F in Figure 7.1. All
places on the same line of longitude have the same time because at
noon the sun is at its zenith at any point along that one meridian.
We have seen that for every degree of longitude there is a
difference of 4 minutes, but it would be inconvenient to try to make
this small adjustment of time throughout the world, and so only
hourly differences are taken into account. The time zone of the world
are, therefore, based upon every 15 degrees of longitude, that is , for
every 15 degrees there is a difference of one hour between places.
West Noon East
90 75 60 45 30 15 0 15 30 45 60 75 90

A B C D E F

Fig 4.1

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In small countries such as Britain time is the same all over the
country; but in large countries such as Canada and the United States
there are different time zones, for North America extends over 105
degrees of longitude and the continent has been divided into five
time zones. They are known as Atlantic Time , Eastern Time, Central
Time, Mountain Time and Pacific Time. Within each zone the time is
known as Standard Time.

Fig 4.2 Main time zones of North America

In Europe each country has its own Standard Time, which may
correspond with the Standard Times of neighbouring countries. In
the British Isles, during the period of British Summer Time, clocks
are advanced one hour ahead of Greenwich Mean Time (G.M.T) in
order to take full advantage of the daylight of the long summer days.
Local Time is the real time at any place relative to the noon
position of the sun. As an example, let us consider the case of a town
situated 10 degrees to the west of the city on which the Standard
Time of that zone is based. Now, although 10 degrees is a difference
of 40 minutes in times, the clocks in both town and city will show the
same Standard Time. Thus, when the sun is exactly over the town’s
meridian, which would be its real noon, its clocks will show the times
as 12:40 p.m.

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Longitudes and Time Zones

Exercise
1. If Yangon longitude is 96°E, how many hours ahead or behind is
Tokyo (135°E)?
2. How many hours ahead or behind from Yangon is New York
(74°W)?
3. How many hours ahead or behind is Sydney (150°E) from
Madagascar (45°E)?
4. How many hours ahead or behind is Beijing (116°E) from Mexico
City (99°W)?
5. How many hours ahead or behind is Cairo (31°E) from Cambodia
(105°E)?
6. If Yangon (96°E) is 6.a.m, what is the time in London (0°)?
7. If Los-Angeles (119°W) is 5.p.m, what is the time in New York
(74°W)?
8. If Kuala Lumpur (100°E) is 9.a.m, what is the time in London (0°)?
9. If Ukraine (30°E) is 4.a.m, what is the time in Cuba (80°W)?
10. If Hong Kong (115°E) is 10.p.m, what is the time in Brasilia
(50°W)?
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International date line

36
 Social Geography
Learning outcomes: You should be able to
• understand the meaning of social geography and how the three major
ethnic groups emerged.
• learn about the ethnic groups in Myanmar, how these ethnic groups are
distributed, and how the population of Myanmar has developed and
spread.
What you have already known about this chapter’s topic
• People are known to be different based on their skin color.
• Myanmar is home to numerous ethnic groups, with eight main ethnic
groups being recognized.
• It is already known that the population in rural areas is higher than in urban
areas.
• It is established that the plains have a higher population compared to the
mountainous highlands.
Definition of social geography
Different geographic regions of the world and the people who inhabit them are
subjects studied in the realm of social geography. This field examines the
interrelationship of economic characteristics, and how the distribution of
people and cultures varies across the world.
1. The process of how large ethnic groups began to emerge
Between 2000 and 3000 years ago, three major ethnic groups began to emerge
in the regions of three main continents: Asia, Africa, and Europe.
The Negroids group settled in Africa, the Caucasoids group was based in Europe
and Africa, and the Mongoloids group was based in Asia. Mongoloids were
mostly found in East Asia and Southeast Asia. The Burmese people were
descended from the Mongoloid group.
 There are three major races: (Caucasoids, Mongoloids, Negroids)
Recap Questions
1. What is social geography? What is the focus of social geography?
2. Explain the three major ethnic groups in the world?

2. How Mongoloid tribes entered Myanmar

Mongoloid tribes entered Myanmar, including the Mon-Khmer, Tibeto-

Burman, and Thai-Chinese groups. Due to the variations in geographical
origins and destinations of tribal members, customs, languages, religious
beliefs, and occupations differ.

Mon-Khmer
The Mon-Khmer were the earliest tribes to enter. Mon, Wa, and Palaung
(Ta-an) ethnic groups are members of the Mon-khmer tribe.

The Wa tribe The Palaung(Ta-an ) tribe

The Mon tribe
 Tibeto-Burman
Tibeto- Burman is a tribe who entered after the Mon- khmer. Myanmar, Danu,
Taung-yoe, Yakhaine (Arakan), Intha, Dawei, Yaw, Kachin, Chin, Naga are
members of the Tibeto- Burman tribes.

Myanmar Danu Taung-Yoe

Dawei
Intha
Yakhine

Yaw Naga
Chin
Kachin
Thai-Chinese
The Thai-Chinese are the latest entrants. Shan, Pa O’, Kayin, Kayah and Kayan are
Thai-Chinese ethnic groups.

Kayin
Shan
Pa O’

Kayan

Kayah

Recap questions
1. Which Mongoloid tribes started entering Myanmar?
2. Describe the ethnic groups included in the Mon-Khmer tribe.
3. Describe the ethnic groups included in Tibeto-Burman tribe.
4. Describe the ethnic groups included in Thai-Chinese tribe.
 PRIMARY SIX
ILBC

Earth’s Agricultural
GEOGRAPHY

Land
Let’s find out ---
what agriculture is
how agriculture began
what the characteristics of subsistence farming and commercial farming are

How Agriculture Began

Most of the food we eat today
comes from the crops grown and the
animals reared in the farms. But
Agriculture
in the early days, people obtained
their food direct from their physical
environment by gathering wild plants
and hunting wild animals. Some also Growing / Rearing of
fished from nearby rivers and seas. Cultivation animals/
They moved from place to place to of crops livestock
look for food and they led a nomadic
life. Fig 5.1 What agriculture is

Later, people learnt how to grow crops and rear animals. The
growing or cultivation of crops and rearing of animals or livestock
is called agriculture. Agriculture also includes fish farming. With
agriculture, people do not have to depend on the food provided by the
physical environment. Instead, they can have a regular food supply.
Agriculture changes the physical environment in which people
live. This is because people have to clear the land to grow crops
or graze animals. They also have to build farm buildings to house
themselves, their animals and tools. Therefore, the agricultural land
and the farm buildings form a human environment.

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A. About 10 000 years ago, B. In some places, crop farming

agriculture began in a number probably began when people found
of places out that they could grow roots,
tubers, or stem cuttings…
Shoo! Go
away! Don’t do
that! We’ll
keep them.

C. …. or plant the seed of wild D. Animal rearing probably began

plants for food. when people decided to keep wild
animals which were attracted to
people’s leftover food.
It is a good thing that
we have learnt how to farm.
We now have a regular
food supply.

E. Over time, these animals F…… for food.

were tamed and reared…
Fig 5.2 How agriculture began

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Main Types of Agriculture

Many types of agriculture are practised in different parts of the
world today. How do we classify them? One way is to classify them
into two groups based on the purpose of production. The two groups
are:
 subsistence farming
 commercial farming
Subsistence farming is the growing of crops and / or the rearing
of animals mainly for the farmer’s own use. Commercial farming is
the growing of crops and / or the rearing of animals mainly for sale.

A. Mixed farming B. Nomadic herding

C. Subsistence wet rice cultivation D. Sheep ranching

E. Shifting cultivation F. Plantation farming

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G. Hydroponic farming H. Factory farming

Fig. 5.3 Different types of agriculture
The relationship between subsistence farming and commercial
farming can be represented as shown in Fig 5.4 below.

Subsistence Commercial
farming farming

Fig 5.4 Relationship between subsistence farming and commercial farming

Subsistence farming
Subsistence We have learnt that subsistence
farming farmers grow crops such as wet
rice and vegetables, or rear animals
Shifting such as poultry and pigs, mainly for
cultivation their own use. Therefore, the size of
production of such farming is small.
An example of subsistence farming
is shifting cultivation. One way to
represent the relationship between
Fig 5.5 Relationship between
shifting cultivation and subsistence
shifting cultivation and
subsistance farming farming is shown in Fig 5.5.
Subsistence farming such as wet rice cultivation is sedentary
in nature. This means that the farmers live in permanent farms.
However, this is not the case in shifting cultivation. The shifting
cultivators move to new land to farm when their existing land has
become infertile. They clear the new land by cutting and burning its

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vegetation. Therefore, their farming is migratory in nature. Another

example of migratory subsistence farming is nomadic herding. The
nomadic herders move from place to place to look for pasture and
water for their animals.
Subsistence farming is generally practiced on small plots of land.
A typical farm of wet rice in Asia is about one hectare in size. However,
nomadic herding is practised over large areas.
Subsistence farming is also characterised by the use of simple
technology. For example, a simple tool such as the axe is used by
shifting cultivators to cut the trees, while a staff is used by nomadic
herders to round up the animals.

Guys, walk
water, I need faster! There’s
water! water ahead! I’m so hungry.
I could eat up
all the grass.

Commercial farming
We have also learnt that commercial farmers grow crops such
as tea and rubber, or rear animals such as cattle or sheep, mainly
for sale. Therefore, the size of production of such farming is large.
An example of commercial farming is mixed farming (Fig 5.3 A). In
mixed farming, farmers grow crops and rear animals. Both activities
are of considerable importance to the farm. We can represent mixed
farming in the form of a diagram as shown in Fig. 5.8.
Commercial farming is sedentary in nature and is generally
practiced on large plots of land of hundreds of hectares. For example,
in plantation farming, crops such as rubber and tea (Fig 5.3 F) are
grown on huge farms called plantations in tropical areas. Animals

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such as cattle and sheep (Fig 5.3 D) are reared on large farms called
ranches. The two exceptions are hydroponic farming (Fig 5.3 G) and
factory farming (Fig 5.3 H).
Commercial farming is also characterised by the use of advanced
technology. For example, some commercial farmers use automatic
sprinklers to water crops (Fig 5.6). Other farmers even use aircraft to
spray pesticides over crops (Fig 5.7).

Fig 5.6 Watering crops using Fig.5.7 Spraying pesticides over crops
automatic sprinklers using an aircraft

In fact, some types of commercial

farming use so much technology that
they are also known as high-tech
Growing Mixed Rearing farming. One example is hydroponic
crops farming animals farming where crops are grown using
nutrient solutions instead of soil. In
some vegetable hydroponic farms,
crops are grown in greenhouses where
Fig .5.8 Relationship between the nutrient solutions, temperature
growing crops and rearing animals and amount of moisture in the air are
in mixed farming
controlled with the help of computers.
Another example of high-tech commercial farming is factory
farming where animals are reared inside large buildings. In many
chicken factory farms, the supplies of feed and water are automatically
controlled by computers and the eggs are collected using conveyor
belts.

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Key words
1. Agriculture The growing or cultivation of crops and rearing of
animals or livestock
2. Commercial farming The growing of crops and / or rearing of animals
mainly for sale
3. Factory farming The rearing of animals inside large buildings
4. Hydroponic farming The growing of crops using nutrient solutions
instead of soil
5. Migratory farming Farming in which farmers move from place to
place to farm
6. Mixed farming Farming which involves both the growing of crops
and rearing of animals; the crops and animals
are both of considerable importance to the farmer
7. Nomadic herding Farming in which farmers move with their herds
of animals to look for pasture and water
8. Plantation farming Farming in which crops are grown for sale in large
farms called plantations in the tropical areas
9. Sedentary farming Farming which is practiced in permanent farms
10. Shifting cultivation Farming in which farmers clear the land by
cutting and burning the natural vegetation, and
move to new land to farm when the existing land
becomes infertile
11. Subsistence The growing of crops and / or rearing of animals
farming mainly for the farmer’s own use
12. Ranches Huge farms that specialize in the rearing of one
type of animal for sale
13. Pesticides Chemical substances used for killing insects that
harm or destroy crops
14. Nutrient solution Water which contains dissolved plant foods

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Agricultural Crops in Myanmar

Crops cultivated within Myanmar may be grouped into five types.
(a) Cereals
(b) Oil seed crops
(c) Pulses
(d) Industrial crops
(e) Other crops

(a) Cereals
Paddy, wheat, maize, sorghum are the major cereals cultivated
within Myanmar.
Paddy
Paddy favours a hot humid
climate. It requires temperatures
above 70º F and a minimum rainfall
of 45 inches. In areas of insufficient
rainfall, paddy may be cultivated with
the help of irrigation. Since paddy
likes water, the subsoils should be
impervious. Paddy thrives best on
alluvial soils above clayey subsoils.
Since it likes to grow under water,
‘Kathin (bund)’ are built around
the plots of level surface for storing
water. Paddy is cultivated on the
gleysols (meadow soils and swampy
meadow soils) within the lower valley
and deltaic region of the Ayeyarwady
River, Sittaung river valley, Sittway
plain within Rakhine State, alluvial
plains and the coastal plain within
Mon state. Paddy is cultivated with
the help of irrigation in Mu Valley,
Mandalay-Kyaukse-Yamethin Plain Area of paddy cultivation
and Minbu Plain.
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Into GEOGRAPHY
A. Origins of Settlement
Most people today live in villages, towns or cities. These are all
names of settlements of different sizes. Nearly all settlements began
as small villages. Some grew to be large towns or even cities; others
remained small and are still called villages.
Imagine that you lived long ago. You are one of a group of farmers
looking for a place to build your farms where you will keep animals
and grow crops. You would want to choose the best site for your
farm. Which of these two sites would you choose? Give your reasons.

The map on the opposite page shows an area of land without

settlements.You must decide where you and your farming friends will
build a settlement. Think carefully about these factors:

You will need

• Clean water. Rivers are not always clean. A spring is better.
• Building materials
• Land suitable for grazing animals and for growing crops. The lower
slopes of a hill are often suitable for grazing. Flat well-drained
land is often suitable for crops and grazing.
• Fuel
• A place where you can defend yourself if attacked
• Natural shelter from the rain and wind
• Your site should be easy to reach from your farming land, fuel
and water
• ��������������������������K
Hunting and fishing are other ways of obtaining food.

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Assignment
1. Look at the following squares:
�������������������������������=
(E,5) (C,8) (D,9).
2. Choose the best grid square from those listed
a) To shelter from the wind (A,8) (D,8) (E,5)
b) To obtain clean water (D,1) (E,3) (C,5)
c) For picking fruits and berries (A,6) (D,4) (F,8)
d) ������������������������F
For collecting roofing material (A,3) (D,4) (G,7)

One Step Further

Now you must choose which of the sites A, B, C, D or E is the best

location for your settlement.
1. Discuss the good points and bad points of each site with a friend.
2. Complete this chart, it will help you decide. The top line has been
done for you.
A B C D E
Clean water P O P O O
Grazing land
Land for crops
Shelter
Building materials
Fuel
Defence
Fishing
Hunting

3. Which site would you choose for your settlement?

4. If a second group of people settled in grid square (C,5), what
problems would they face?

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B. Clue from the Past

Settlements developed for many reasons other than farming.
Settlements grew up where roads crossed as more and more people
moved from one area to another for trade. Other settlements were
established at fords ( where a river is shallow enough to cross) and
at bridges. Such settlements were excellent places for buying and
selling, markets could be held there and inns were built for travelers.
Mining settlements developed where metals, coal or stone could be
dug from the ground. Fishing settlements grew at safe harbours.

Look at this list of settlement locations

● Where a river is shallow enough to be crossed (ford)
●On a hill which can be defended
●Where two routes (tracks/ roads) meet
● Near to minerals which can be dug from the ground
●Where a river meets the sea
●Where a river is narrow and can be crossed by a bridge

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Assignment
Look carefully at the settlements shown on the oblique view.
1. Write a sentence about each settlement saying why you think it
was located in its particular place. e.g. Settlement A developed here
because it is on a ford.
2. Select the village where you would be most likely to ��=
the
following occasions:
(a) Sailmaker – Village C,B or F?
(b) Auctioneer- Village B, E or F?
(c) Miner- Village A, D or B?
(d) Boat builder- Village E,C or D?

One Step Further

1. Which settlements would be most affected by the following ? Give
your reasons.
(a) Torrential rain caused the rivers to burst their banks.
(b) There was no coal left to be mined.
(c) There was no longer any threat of invasion.
(d) �����������������
2. Imagine you were a member of a family affected by one of these
events. Describe what happened, how you felt and the results on
your life.
3. Sometimes place names describe locations. Can you match the
villages on the oblique view with these names: Coalville, Longford,
Bridgetown ,Sunnyhill, Eastport and Four Lane ends.

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C. Boundaries In Britain
A map of Britain which shows the counties is called a political map.
The lines drawn on it separate one county from another. If we visit the
actual boundary between two counties we will not ��= a line painted
on the ground itself. A map of Britain which shows mountains, hills,
rivers and lakes is called a physical map. Sometimes the boundary
between two counties is drawn along a physical feature, such as a
river or a range of hills. Such physical boundaries have separated
people for hundreds of years.
In the past it was often ����� to cross rivers or mountain ranges
so people on opposite sides did not have much contact. When we
compare a political map with a physical map we can see whether
county boundaries follow physical boundaries. Look at these two
maps showing the south-west of England.

Assignment
1. Why do you think the county boundary separating Devon and
Cornwall has been drawn at this particular place?
2. Put yourself in the following situations. Which map will help you,
the physical or the political?
(a) It is a lovely afternoon and a friend suggests a walk in the hills.
(b) A lorry driver stops and asks you directions to Plymouth.
(c) You need to catch the train to London urgently.
(d) �����������������������������
���������
(e) Which is the quickest road to the coast?
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D. Boundaries around the World

Countries are sometimes separated
by physical boundaries.
A great river or massive mountain
range can separate people completely.
Over hundreds of years people living
on opposite sides of mountain ranges
develop different languages, different
foods, clothes and customs.

Look at the picture of two people

separated by Pyrenees Mountains.
Can you work out what each person is saying?

Physical Map Political Map

Assignment A
Now compare the physical map of part of Western Europe with the
map showing countries (the political map).
1. Which mountain ranges separate
a) Spain and France?
b) France and Italy?
c) Italy and Switzerland?
d) France and Switzerland?
2. Which rivers form part of the boundary between
a) France and Germany?
b) Switzerland and Germany?
c) Poland and Germany?
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Personal Research A
�������������������������������� nd:
1. The rivers which form part of the boundries between:
a) Mexico and the U.S.A
b) Argentina and Uruguay
c) Brazil and Bolivia
d) Paraguay and Argentina
2. What physical feature separates Chile and Argentina?
3. Find the Great Lakes in North America. How many lakes are
there? Which two countries do they separate?

Look at the map of Australia. It shows the physical and political

boundaries. The lines which separate the states are mostly straight
lines. They do not follow physical features. Australia was settled by
Europeans in the last century. The people who decided on the state
boundaries simply drew lines on a map__ to them Australia was one
country, a new land that could be divided in simple way.

Assignment B
Not all Australia’s state boundaries are straight. Some in the ���
part
of the country to be settled by Europeans follow physical features.
1. Which states have boundaries following physical features?

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2. Which river separates Victoria from new South Wales?

3. Does the boundary between Northern Territory and Western
Australia follow physical features?

Personal Research B
When newcomers settled or conquered a country they often do
straight lines for boundaries. Sometimes this ignores rivers, mountains
and the people who live there.
1. Use a map of the U.S.A. Look at the pattern of the state boundaries.
a. Is the pattern in the east the same as in the west?
b. Think about the boundaries in Australia,remember the last
parts to be settled by Europeans had straight line boundaries.
Which part of the U.S.A do you thick was settled last, east or
west?

E. River Deposits
Rivers in ���carry enormous amounts of sand and mud. When
a river reaches a lake or a sea all the deposits are dropped. If there
is a strong current they may be carried away but where there is no
current they are left at the river mouth. They slowly build up to form
a delta.

Assignment

1. Look at the satellite photograph.

a) What colour is the delta area?
b) What colour is the desert? Explain why?
2. What prevents the mud reaching these days?
3. Before the Aswan Dam was built new mud was carried to the
delta each year. How did this help farmers?

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Satellite photo of the Nile Delta

0 400
KEY fertile irrigated land desert
kilometer

One Step Further

These are the shapes of two main types of delta.

(a) (b)
1. Which would you call a fan delta and which bird’s foot delta?
2. Which shape is the Nile Delta?
3. Use an atlas to complete this chart.

River Delta Shape Sea or Lake Nearest city Country

Yangtze

Volga

Nile

Nigeria
New Orleans

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F. Waves
Wave power is another natural force which can erode, transport
and deposit. The power of the sea can cut into the foot of cliffs and
cause them to fall down. Sometimes wave action carves the cliffs into
interesting shapes.

Assignment A
Basalt(black), a hard volcanic rock

1. Is chalk or basalt easier for Chalk (white), a soft

limestone rock
the waves to erode?
2. Describe the shapes created
by the waves action.
3. What will happen in
Natural arch
The future: limestone

a) to the arch Stacks, pillars

of rock
b) to the stack?
To slow down the erosion
of coastlines groynes have been
built.

Assignment B

1. Is this beach made mainly of

mud, sand or pebbles?
2. How many groynes can you
see?
3. What are they made of ?
4. Why are groynes often close
to seaside towns and low-lying
land ?

Waves carry material along

the coast. This is deposited
and makes beaches.

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Personal Research
Find out which part of Britain’s coastline are being eroded and
which are being extended by deposits.
How do ports keep the channels clear for shipping in areas with
heavy deposits?

G. River Erosion
Erosion is caused by natural forces such as: rivers, waves, glaciers
and wind. Each of these can wear away the land and break up rocks.

Assignment A
1. Will most erosion take place when the river is fast and full or slow
and shallow? Explain your answer.
2. Look at the photographs B and C.
Which stones were found up river and which down river?

Fig . A Fig . B

Fig . C Fig . D

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 PRIMARY SIX
GEOGRAPHY ILBC

Assignment B

1. Compare the two rivers in the

photographs A and D.
Which is moving faster? How can
you tell?
2. Which river has deposited
small stones?
3. Describe the position of the
deposit.
4. Will this be where the river ���
fast or slow?
Explain your answer.

When stones and soil are carried along by natural forces we call it
transportation. As the natural forces slow down they drop (deposit)
soil and stones.

H. Waterfalls
Rivers ����from hard to soft rock make waterfalls. The soft
rock is easier to erode than the hard rock. Niagara Falls moves two
meters a year up river because of undercutting.

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 PRIMARY SIX
ILBC GEOGRAPHY

Assignment
1. What are the two falls at Niagara called?
2. Why is one called the Horseshoe Falls?
3. How far up river will the falls have moved by the year 2050?

Personal Research
Use an atlas to ���Niagara,
Victoria, Angel and Yellowstone Falls.
Where is the nearest waterfall to your
school?
Why is it dangerous to walk on the
ledge behind a waterfall?

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