T HE E L E C T R I C F U R N A C E

I T S E V O LU T I O N ,
THE OR Y A N D
PR A CT I C E

A LF R E D S TA N S F I E L D , D Sc. .

A S S OC I A T E OF TH E R O YA L SC HOO L OF MINES
PRO F E S S O R OP M E TA L L U R G Y I N M cG l L L U I E R S I TY
N V

M O NT R E A L

WIT H F I F TY - T H R E E I LLU STRATI O N S

TH E CANA DIAN ENGI N E E R

T ORON TO

H I LL PUB LI SH I NG C O M PA N Y

NE W YOR K AND LON DON

 GENERAL

E n tered a cc Ord i n g to A c t O f t h e Par l ia m e n t O f

’

yea r on e
th o u s a n d n i n e h u n d r e d a n d e i g h t b y A L F R E D
,
A N SF I E L D , B Sc
. .
,

a t th e D e p art m e n t o f A gr i c u l t u r e .
 m y fi rs t vi s it t o C an ada i n 1 8 9 7 I co nstr uct ed a n el ectric
On , ,
’
furn ace a nd sh owe d i t i n operat ion at a l ect ure o n C a n ad a s
m et a l s wh i ch w as de l i ve r e d by th e l ate S ir \ V ill ia m R obert s
,

A uste n Th e app l ication of el ect rical h e at t o Met all urgy h a s

.

alway s i nt ere st ed m e gre atly an d I h op e t h at th i s l ittl e book

m ay s erve to i n st i l th is i nteres t i n ot h er s a n d t o h elp forward ,

t h e appl ic at ion O f elect ric s m elt in g i n a co un try wh ic h i s s o rich

i n water p owers an d m in eral re sourc e s
- .

Th i s book ori gi n ated i n a s er i e s O f p apers writte n abo ut ,

a year a go for t h e C a n adi a n E n g i n ee r i n wh ich I e nd e avou red ,

”

to p re se n t a s s i m ply a s p os sibl e t h e p r i ncip l es o n wh ich t h e

, ,

con str uct i on an d u s e of th e el ectric fu rn ac e d ep e n d an d to g ive ,

a n acco u n t of it s h i story a nd p re se n t d evelop m e nt .

Th e ori gi n al p apers were writte n at a t i m e wh e n th e e x p e r i

m e nt s of D r H a a n e l a t S a ul t S t e M ari e were attr act in g p ubl ic
’

.
.
, ,

atte nt i on an d a l arge sect ion O f th e boo k h a s be en devote d t o

,

th e con s i derat ion of t he s e an d oth er ad v a nce s i n th e el e ct ro

m et al l ur gy of i ron an d steel .

I wi s h t o t h an k al l wh o h ave h el ped m e i n th e p reparation

o f t h i s book i n cl u d in g D r H a a n e l wh os e val u abl e m on ograph s
,
.
,

h ave form ed th e ba si s of m y ch ap ter on i ron an d steel a n d t o ,

w h om I a m i n debt ed for ad d i t ion a l i nform at ion on t h i s bran ch

o f th e s ubj ect : P rof J \V R i ch ard s w h o h as t a ke n a n i nterest
. . .
,

i n m y wor k an d wh os e book o n
,
M et a l l u rgical C alc ul at i on s “ ”

h a s bee n O f con s ide rabl e a s s i st ance i n writ i n g th e ch apte r on

fu rn ace e fli c ie n c ie s ; Mr E A C ol by wh o g ave m e i nfor m ation
. . .
,

i n re ga rd to h i s i n d uct ion steel furn ace a n d a s k etch for F i g 2 5 ; .

Mr F r anci s A J F itzgeral d wh o s uppl ied m e w it h th e d at a

. . .
,

for Tabl e t h e ed itor of th e E l ectroch em i cal an d Metal “

l u r g ic a l I n d u st ry wh o l oan ed t h e bl oc k for t h e front isp i ece

,
”
,

and th e I ntern at i on al A ch eson G raph it e C om p an y wh o gave ,

m e i n form ati on abou t th e ir furn ace s a n d l e n t th e bloc k for

F i g 4 0 I al so w i s h t o t h an k t hos e of m y p erson al fr i e nd s wh o
. .

as s i sted m e i n th e ted iou s work O f proof re ad i n g -

.

A L F R E D S T AN S F I E L D .

N o v ember ,
1 90 7 .

M c G ill U n i v e rs ity ,
Mon t real ,

1745 79
 C O N T E N T S .

C HA P TE R I .

H i s tory 0} th e E lectr i c F ur n ace .

Th e e l ectr i c arc
W S i e m ens e l ectr i c furnaces
.
’

C owl es b rothers e l ectr i c furnaces

’

Ha l l and H erou l t a l um i n i um p rocesses

'

H Mo i s san s researches
.
’

P roduct i on O f the d i amond

Will s on s carb i de furnace
’

C ar b oru ndu m
F erro a l l oy s
-

Iron and stee l

C HA P T E R II .

D e s c r i p t i on and C la s s ifi ca t ion of E l e ctr ic F ur nace s .

D e fi n i t i on e l ectr i c furnace
of

Heat p roduce d b y e l ectr i c current

E ssent i a l p arts O f e l ectr i c furnace
C l ass i fi cat i on O f e l ectri c furnaces
A rc furnaces
R es i stance furnaces
w i th s p ec i a l res i stor
w i thout s p ec i a l res i stor
e l ectro l y t i c

C HA P TE R III .

E ffi c i e n cy of E le ctr ic and oth e r F u r n a ce s a n d ,

R e la t i v e C os t of
E lectr i ca l and F u e l He at .

C ost Of e l ectr i ca l ener g y

E ffi c i enc y O f furnaces
C a l cu l at i on O f furnace e ffi c i enc i es
Heat un i ts
Me l t i n g tem p eratures o f m eta l s and amou nts O f heat re q u i red
,
to
me l t the m
C a l o r i fi c p o w er O f fue l
T ab l e o f ca l or i fi c p owers
C a l cu l at i on o f e ffi c i enc y o f e l ectr i c stee l furnace
vi . CO NT E N T S .

C HA P TE R IV .

E le ctr ic F u r n ace D e s ig n , C on s tr ucti on a n d O p e ra tion .

Genera l cons i d erat i on s

M ater i a l s o f furnace construct i on
F i rec l ay b r i ck s
S il i ca br i c k s

D o l o m i te
A l u m i na
C arbon
C ar b orun d u m
S i l o x ic on
T ab l e o f refractor y m ater i a l s

Heat i nsu l at i on
T ab l e of h eat conduct i v i t i es
Furnace w a ll s w i thout refractor y m ater i a l s
P roduct i on O f heat i n e l ectr i c furnaces
Vo l tag e re q u i re d f o r e l ectr i c furnaces
Vo l ta g e o f arc furnaces
Vo l tag e o f res i stance furnaces
R e g u l at i on o f e l ectr i c s m e l t i n g
R es i stors
E l ectr i ca l res i st i v i t y
R es i st i v i t y O f p ow dered coke
R es i st i v i t y o f carb on rods
R es i st i v i t y o f m o l ten s l a g s a n d i ron
E l ectrodes .

E l ectrode ho l ders
M easure m ent of furnace te m p eratures
C onc l us i on

C HA P T E R V .

Prod u ction of I r on and S tee l i n th e E l ectr ic F u rn a c e .

Var i et i es o f Iron and S tee l

I. P roduct i on o f stee l fro m scra p p i g i ron a n d i ron ore
,
-

H erou l t stee l furnace

K e l l er stee l furnace
K j e ll i n stee l furnace
C o l b y stee l furnace
Gron w a l l stee l furnace
,

G i n stee l furnace
G i ro d stee l furnace
II .P roduct i on O f p i g i ron from i ron or e carbon a n d fl uxes
-
,
.

Herou l t o r e sme l t i n g furnace

-

K e l l er o r e s m e l t i n g furnace
-

Har m et o r e — s m e l t i n g furnace
H a a n e l Herou l t furnace
-

Turn b u l l Herou l t furnace

-

P l ants f or the e l ectr i c s m e l t i n g o f i ron ores

P oss i b i l i t i es i n the e l ectr i c s m e l t i n g o r i ron ores
III Di rect p roduct i on o f stee l from i ron o r e
.

S t a s s a n o stee l furnace
E l i m i nat i on o f su l p hur an d p hos p horu s
C onc l us i on
 C O NT E NT S . vii .

C HA P T E R VI .

O th e r U s e s of th e E le ctr i c F u rnace .

I . The ferro a l l oy s
-

A na l y ses o f ferro a l l oy s-

Gra p h i te and the carb i des

G rap h i te
K r y p to l
C arborundu m
S ilox i c o n
C al c i u m carb i de
E l ectrotherm i c p roduct i on of z i nc
C o w l es z i nc furnace
J ohnson z i nc furnace
L a v a l z i nc furnace
S a l g ues z i nc furnace
C ond i t i on s f o r O bta i n i n g l i q u i d z i nc
E x p er i m enta l z i nc furnace
S n y der z i nc p rocess
S n y d er z i nc furnaces
E l ectr i ca l ener g y re q u i red f o r z i nc sme l t i n g

M i sce l l aneou s uses of the e lectr i c furnace

S i l i con
Fu sed q uartz
A l u ndu m
N i tr i c ac i d
P hos p hor us
C arbon b i su l p h i de

V . E l ectro l y t i c p rocesses
E l ectro l y s i s
A cker caust i c so d a p rocess
C astner sod i um p rocess
A shcroft sod i u m p rocess
S w i nburne and A shcroft ch l or i ne sme l t i n g -
p rocess
A l um i n i um

C HA P T E R V II .

F u tu re D e ve lop me nts of th e El e ctr lc F u rn a c e .

Genera l cons i derat i on s

E xhau st i on o f coal su p p l i es
U t i l i zat i on O f w ater p o w ers
-

A ch i e v ements o f the e l ectr i c furnace

P rob ab l e u ses O f the e l ectr i c furnace i n the future
O ther sources o f e l ectr i c p o w er
viii . LI ST OF I LL U S T R AT I O N S .

L I S T O F I L L U S T R AT I ON S .

F rontis p iece :C olb y I n d uction S te e l F u rna ce .

F ig .

1 . E l ectr i c arc
2 . S i e m en s v ert i ca l arc furnace
’

3 . S i e m en s h or i zonta l arc furnace

’

4 . C o w l es furnace fo r a l u m i n i u m a l l oy s
5 . A l u m i n i u m furnace
6 . M o i ssan furnace
7 . Wi l l son car b i de furnace
8 . A cheson car b orundu m furnace
9 . E l ectr i c c i rcu i t
10 . I n d e p endent arc furnace
II . Di rect heat i n g arc furnace
-

12 . E l ectr i ca l tu b e furnace
13 . E l ectr i c cruc i b l e furnace
I4 . Borchers res i stance furnace
’

15 . Tone res i stance furnace

16 . S h aft furnace w i th l atera l e l ectro d es
17 . S haft furnace w i th centra l e l ectrodes
1 8 . D e L a v a l or e sme l t i n g furnace
-

19 . E l ectro l y t i c furnace
20 . L osses o f heat i n m e l t i n g meta l s
21 . I d ea l e l ectr i c furnace
22 . E l ectrode Ho l der o f Herou l t S tee l Furnace
23 . Herou l t stee l furnace
24 . K j e l li n S tee l furnace
25 . C o l b y i nduct i on furnace
26 8 to n i n d uct i on stee l furnace
-

27 . I nduct i on furnace w i th sh i e l d ed core

G i n stee l furnace
29 . Herou l t o r e s m e l t i n g furnace
-

30 . K e l l er furnace
3 1 . Har m et furnace
32 . H a a n e l H erou l t furnace
-

33 . Turnbu l l Herou l t furnace

-

34 . and 3 5 C onnect i ons f o r e l ectr i c furnace

.

36 . Idea l furnace (f or sme l t i n g i ron ores )

37 . S ta s s a n o furnace
38 . A cheson g ra p h i te furnace
39 . A cheson e l ectrode furnace
40 . C ar b orundu m furnace b urn i n g
41 . M u l t i p l e core furnace
42 . C ow l es e l ectr i c z i nc furnace
43 . J ohn son e l ectr i c z i nc furnace
44 . L a v a l e l ectr i c z i nc furnace
45 . S a l g ues e l ectr i c z i nc furnace
46 . E x p er i m enta l z i nc furnace
47 . S n y der i nduct i on furnace
48 . S n y der furnace f o r O b ta i n i n g l iq u i d z i nc
4g . A c k er caust i c soda furnace
50 . C astner sod i u m furnace
51 . A shcroft sod i um furnace
52 . A l u m i n i u m furnace
 LI S T OF TA BL ES . ix .

LI ST OF TAB LE S .

C l ass i fi cat i on of e l ectr i c furnaces

II N et e ffi c i enc i es of furnaces u sed f or me l t i n g meta l s
III . Me l t i n g tem p eratures o f m eta l s ,
and am ou nts Of heat
re q u i re d to me l t the m
C a l or ifi c p owers

R efractory mater i a l s

Heat conduct i v i t i es of furnace mater i a l s

Vo l tag e of Mo i ssan s arc furnace
’

R es i st i v i t y Of g ra p h i t i zed cok e p ow der

R es i st i v i t y Of so l i d car b on
R es i st i v i t y Of amor p hou s and g ra p h i t i c carbon
O p erat i on Of 5 ton
-
Herou l t furnace
I nduct i on furnaces i n o p erat i on or i n course of c o n s tr u c
t i on
XI I I . S tee l and s l a g ana l y ses
XI V . A na l y ses Of fe rro a l l o y s
-
1 39
 I N T R O DU C T IO N .

Th e rap id growt h of t h e electr ic f u rn ace m a ke s it i n c r e a s

in g ly d i ffi c ul t for t h e m etall u rgi st t o kee p in to uch w it h it s
recen t develop m en t s A few y ears a go it wa s a scie nt i fi c
.

c urios ity ; n ow it t h re ate n s to r ival t h e Be s se m e r converte r t h e ,

op en h eart h steel furn ace a n d eve n th e bl as t fu rn ace it sel f

-
,
.

Th e h al o of ro m an ce t h at h a s always s u rro u n ded el ectric ity

,

i n al l it s form s h a s c a u s ed t h e w il de s t s ch e me s t o b e ori gi n ated

, ,

a n d h a s give n t h e m a h earin g ; wh il e on t h e ot h er h an d p ra e
, ,

t ic a b le elect ric s m el t in g p roc e s s e s h ave bee n con s idere d vi s i on a r y

’
.

’
I n t h i s book i t h a s bee n t h e a ut h or s p urpos e to t race t h e
,

evol ut ion of t h e el ectric fu rn ace fro m it s s i m pl e s t be gin n in gs ,

an d t o s e t fort h a s b r ie fl y a s i s con s i sten t with cl e arn e s s th e

,
-
,

m ore i m port an t fa ct s rel at in g t o i t s t h eory a nd p ract ice .

N o atte mp t h a s bee n m ade t o g ive a d escri p t io n of all t h e

el ectric fu rn ace s t h a t h ave bee n i nven ted b u t rath er t o set fort h
,

cl early th e f u n d a m e nt al p ri nc ipl es of t h i s form of fu rn ace ; t o

sh o w its v ario u s u se s ; to i nd ica te it s l i m it ation s ; a nd if p os ,

s ibl e t o be o f s om e a s s i stan ce t o t hos e wh o w i s h t o de si gn

,

el ect ric fu rn aces or to j ud ge of th e fe as ib il i ty of sch em e s

, ,

i nvol vin g t he i r u s e .

Th e scope of t h e boo k can be gath ered from t h e t itl e s of

t h e s eve n ch apters of wh ich i t i s composed Th e fi rs t i s h i s
.

t o r ic a l th e n ex t t h ree rel ate to t h e cl as s i fi cation

,
effi cie nc y and ,

des i gn of elect ric f urn aces wh il e C h apters V an d V I are

,
. .

de voted t o t h e m a n u fact u re of i ro n an d s teel a n d oth er p rod uct s

,

of t h e elect ric fur n ace C h apte r V I I i s a n attem pt to l ook i n to

. .

th e fut ure an d t o n ot e t h e d irect ion s i n wh ich el ect rical heat i n g

‘

m ay be expect ed to develop .
 F R O NT I S P

E LEC T R I C S T E E L F U R NAC E

o
Fr m E L E C T R OC H E M I C A L I N D U
 THE ELECTR IC F U R NA C E .

Its Ev o lutio n , Th e o ry a nd Pra c tic e .

C H APT E R I .

H istor y of th e E le ctr i c F u rn ace .

Th e electri c fu rn ac e i s of comp arat ively recen t ori gi n Th e .

fi rs t of any p ract ical i m port a nce was con str uct ed by S ir W ,

S ie m en s i n an d i n 1 8 8 2 + h e m el ted i n a n ele c tric f u rn ace

Fig . 1 .
—Th e E l ectric A r e .

som e twe n ty po u n d s of s teel an d e i gh t po u n d s of p l at i n u m S ince .

t h at t i m e th e devel op m en t h a s b ee n rapid .

Th e be gi n n i n g O f t h e electric fu rn ac e m ay h oweve r , be
t r a ced m u ch fart he r b ac k t h an t h i s I n 1 800—o nl y a few m onth s
,

V ol t a s d i scovery o f th e elect ri c b att ery—S ir H u mph ry

.

’
a fte r

D avy ex peri m en ti n g wit h th e n ew b attery p rod uced th e fi rs t a r e

, ,

li gh t betwee n carbon p oin t s 1 a n d a s t h e el ectric arc i s th e s ou rc e

, ,

of h e at i n a n i m port an t cl as s O f el ect ri c f u rn aces its d i scovery ,

w a s th e fi rs t s tep i n t he i r evol u t ion .

‘
Si m n s El
e e i F u n a J o u n S o f T l g a ph E n gi n s J un
3
e c tr c r ce, r . oc . e e r e er , e, 1 880 .

+ S i an d H un ti n g d on B i t i s h A s s o f th A dv Of S i n
e rn e n s ,
r c88 p . or e . c e ce, 1 2, .
4 96 .

I D avy S ,P T h.o m.p s o n '

s E l i i ty a n d M a g n t i s m
e c tr c P h i l T an R y e , . r s . o vol

x vi i
c . p 7 an d l . 1, i vo p 4 7
. cx . . 2 .
 THE E LEC T R I C F U R NAC E .

Th e el ectric a r e a s sh ow n i n F i g 1 m ay b e prod uce d by

, .
,

p as s i n g an el ectric c u rren t th ro u gh two c arbon rod s wh ic h to u c h

e ach oth er an d t h e n dr awi n g th e m ap art Th e a r e con s i st s of a .

fl am e of vaporize d carbo n e x te n d in g from o n e c arbon pol e t o th e

,

oth er W h e n an el ectric c urren t m eet s w it h r e s i st ance it i s tra n s

.
,

form e d i n to h e at and a s t h e carbo nac e o u s vapou r o ffers a con

, ,

s id e r a b le resi st ance to th e electric c urre n t a very h i gh tem p erat u re

,

i s prod uc ed h ig h e no u gh t o m el t or vaporize a ny k now n s ub st ance .

I n th e d irect c urre n t a r e t h e pos i tive c arbon wh ich is m ar k e d ,

i n th e fi g u re i s h ollowe d o u t by th e c urre n t an d becom e s ih

, ,

te n s ely wh ite h ot pre se n t i n g th e d a z zl i n g brig h t l i gh t wi t h wh ich

,

al l are ac q u ai nted Th e ar e l i gh t is i n fact a m i n i at u r e e l e c tri c

.
, ,

fu rn ac e of t h e arc type ; an d p rod uce s a te mp er at u r e not m uch in

fe r io r to th at i n any m odern electr i c furn ace I t h a s b ee n s u p .

posed t h at th e hollowi n g o u t of th e pos it iv e c arb on is d u e t o a n

el ectroly t ic convey ance of c arbon from t h e pos it iv e to th e n e gat iv e
el ectrod e ; b ut rece n t ex peri m e nt s S how t h at a ny el ectri cal t ra n sfe r
of c arbon i s i n th e oth e r d i rect ion be in g a str ea m of el ectron s
,

from t h e ne gat ive el e c trode l i ke th e k ath od e d i sch arg e i n a

,
‘

vac u u m t ub e Th e bomb ard m e n t of t he pos i tive c arbo n by th i s

.

stre am of electron s ge n er ate s s o m u c h h e at t h at th e el ect rod e b e

,

com e s wh ite h ot and r ap idly evapor ate s t h u s prod uc i n g th e Ch ar

,

ac te r is tic crater l i ke form

-
.

Th i s ex pl an ation app e ars to fi t i n wel l with t h e appe aranc e of

a n a r e th at h as bee n draw n o u t t o a l ittle m or e th an its n orm al
le n gth Th e a r e (wh ich sho ul d o nly b e obs erved th rou gh a d ar k
.

col o r ed gl ass scre en ) w il l b e noticed to stre a m freely fro m th e t i p

of t h e ne gati ve el ectrode , an d its st arti n g poi n t on t h i s electrod e -

is u n affect ed by draft s or m agn etic i n fl u e nce s Th e c u rren t p a s se s .

wit h d iffi culty o n t o th e pos it ive electrode a n d does n ot alway s ,

sel ect th e poi n t n e are st t o t h e neg at ive el ectrod e b u t i s blown ,

abo ut a n d wanders ove r a con si derabl e are a of t h e electrode Th e .

te m perat ure of th e hottes t p art of th e pos it ive c arbon i n th e

el ectric a r c h a s bee n m e as ured an d is con s idere d t o b e abo ut
.

3 7
,
O O
°
G . wh ich i s twice t h e t e mper at u r e of m el t in g
pl at in u m or m elt i n g q u art z an d m ore th an tw i c e th e te m p erat u r e
,

of th e ope n he art h steel furn ace

-
.

I n th e u s e of a di rect c u rre n t a r e for l i gh t in g i t i s u s u a l to ,

m ake the u p pe r c arbon th e p os it ive el e c t rode i n order to th row ,

th e gre atest ill um in at ion do w nw ard s I n F i g 1 t h i s arran ge m en t

. .

h as bee n reve rsed an d i n th i s pos it ion t h e pos it ive c ar b o n serve s

,
4 THE E LEC T R I C F U R N A C E .

ith h is n ame *
is s h own in F i 2 an d con s ist s of a cr ucibl e A o f
w g .
,

g r aph it e o r s i m il ar refractory m at eri al a n d Of two ro d s B an d C , , ,

fo r l e adi n g i n t h e c u rre n t Th e lower rod

.
w a s m ad e of m et al a nd ,

fi tted i nto th e b as e of t he cr uc ible w h ile t h e u ppe r w as of c arb

,
on ,

or a water cool ed m et al t ub e a n d was act u ated by an a u to m at ic

'
-
,
.

re g ul at i n g d e V 1c e t o m ai ntai n t he a r e E of a con st a nt le n gth Th e .

met al to be m el ted wa s pl ace d i n t h e c r uc ibl e m ak i n g el ect ric a l ,

cont act w it h th e lowe r pol e C ; th e n t h e rod B w as l owe re d u n til

'

an arc w a s st arted bet w een t h i s m et al i n t h e cr ucible .

Fig . 2 .
— S ie m en s V e rt i c al ’
A rc F u rn ace .

I n th e ill u st ration th e m et al i s s h ow n m el ted at D as it wo u ld , ,

be at th e e n d of th e op erat ion .

Th e pos it ive pole i s alway s h otter t h an th e n e g at ive p ol e and ,

for th is reason th e m et al to b e m el ted i s m ad e th e p os it iv e pol e of

th e a r e A l id F w a s p rovide d wit h a hol e for ob s e rvi n g t he
.
, ,

o pe r at ion or m ak i n g add it ion s to th e ch arg e an d a p rot e c t i n g ’

, ,

‘
W S i m n s E ng l i s h p a t n t
. e e
’
e , 1 8 79, see B o r c h e r s E l e c tr i c S m e l ti n g
’
.
 H I S T OR Y .

'

coveri n g G w a s a r r a n g e d to re d uce
, ,
as far as pos sibl e t h e radi a
t io n of h eat from th e c r uc i b l e .

I n th i s fu rn ace h e w a s n ot only abl e to m el t s ever al p oun d s

of s teel a n d pl at in u m b u t eve n to vaporize copper wh ich h a d ,

*
be e n p ac ke d with c arbo n i n th e cr u cibl e .

S ie m e n s
al so i nve n ted a furn ace h avi n g h orizontal el ectrode s ,

a s sh own i n F i g 3 T I n th i s fu rn ace t h e arc p as se s b etwee n t he

.

two el ectrode s B a nd C an d h e at s by r ad i ation th e m ateri al con , , ,

t a i n e d l n th e cr uc ibl e I n both fur n ace s h e p rovi de d w ate r cool ed

.
-

copper e l ectrode s for th e n e gat ive pol e of t h e arc to avo i d the ,

w as ti n g th at t ake s pl ace whe n Carbon e l ectrode s are u sed In .

F i g 3 t h e n e g at ive electrode C con s is t s of a c o p p e r t u b e c los ed

’

.
, , , ,

at on e e n d an d cool ed by wate r wh ich i s i ntrod uced by a sm all e r

, ,

Fig .
3 .
-
S ie me n s
’
H orizon tal A rc F u rn ace .

p i pe i n s ide it Th e pos it i v e e l ectrode B i s a h ol l ow carbon rod

.
, , ,

an d th ro u gh i t a n e u t ral or red uci n g ga s c an b e i n t rod uced i n to ,

the f urn ace .

I n 1 8 8 3 F a ure p ate n ted a n el ectric f urn ace of th e res i st an ce

,

t yp e th e h e at be i n g ge n e rated by th e p as s a ge of th e c u rre n t
,

th ro u gh so l id con d uct i n g rod s i mbedded i n t h e h earth of the

fu rn ace on t h e s am e pr inc i pl e as t h e electri c cook in g s tove
, .

Th e res ist an ce type of e l ectr ic fu rn ace wa s m ade a com

m e r c ia l s ucces s by th e brother s E H an d A H C owl e s w hose ,
. . . .
,

‘
Si m n s an d H un ti n gd o n B i t i sh A s s o
e e , r c . f o r th eA dv o f S i n 88. pp c e ce , 1 2, .
4 96 8
-

f W S i m n s E n gl i sh p a t n t B o h s El t i S m l i n g
’ ’
. e e 8 78 e , 1 ,
see rc er ec r c e t .

2
6 T H E E LEC T R I C F U R NAC E .

i nve nt ion s were described i n Th e ir fu rn ace w as h e ate d by

p as s in g an e lectric c u rre n t t h ro u gh coarsely powdered ch arcoal
Th i s n ew m eth od wa s u sed for a v a r 1e ty of p u r
. .

of th e se bei n g th e p r o d u c tl o n of a l u m 1n 1 u m al l oy s by
he ati n g a m i x t ure of al u m i n a a nd c arbo n w it h cop p er or som e
ot her all oy in g m et al .

F ig 4 repre se nt s the C owle s fu rn ace for al u m i n i u m all oys I t

.
-
.

con s is t s of a rect an g ul ar b ric k ch am ber fi tte d with i n cl in ed carbon

el ect ro d es A an d B an d fi ll ed with th e m ix t u re of al u m i n a carbon
, , ,

an d coppe r Th e electri c c urre n t flows betwee n th e el ectrod es

.

th ro ugh s om e p iece s of retort carbon C an d t h us h e at s th e , ,

ch arge wh ich whe n h e ated carries p art of th e c urre n t

, , Th e , .

gas es res ul tin g from th e ch e m ic al re act ion e sc ape an d b u rn a t D ,

an d the m olte n alloy coll ects at t h e bottom of th e fu rn ace

’

I n 1 8 86 H a ll r an d H e r o u ltI p ate n ted proces s e s for t h e pro

, ,
’

d uction of al u m i n i u m an d th eir p roce s se s a s n ow u se d con s i st , , ,

C owl es
’
Fig .
4 .
-
F ur nac e for A l u m i n u m A lloys .

keeps th e m ateri al fu sed .

in pass in g an el ectric c urre n t t h ro u gh fu sed com po u n d s of

a lu m i n i u m ; th e el ectrolyt ic act ion of th e c urre n t l iberate s t h
'

al u m i n i u m from th ese com po u nd s a n d th e h e at of th e c u rre n t ,

Fi g 5 m ay be co ns ide red to rep re se n t e ith er t h e H all or t he

.

He roult furn ace E ach of th e s e con s i st s of a n i ron t an k A l in e d

.

, ,

with ca r bon B an d provided with a n u m ber of carbon rod s C

, ,
, ,

‘
Dr .
T St . e r ry H un t , Am er . I n s t Min . . Eng .
(Se p t . 1 6, vol xi v p 492
P of r

Am S i n Au g xxx i v
. .
, . . .

C F Mab . . e ry , er . A s soc . f o r th e A d v
'

0f c e ce ; 28, 1 88 5 vol
H and A H C o wl s
.
.
, . .
,

p . 1 36 . E . . . . e , U S . .
p a te n t s , see Bo r c h ei s ' '

El e c tr c i S m l i ng ; and an d
e t
see R i h a d s Alu m i n i u m
c r
’

A p il 8 89 ( ap pl i d f
.

+C .
M H all .
p a te n t s and
, U S . .
r 2, 1 J ul y
e or
s ee R i c h a d s A lu m i n i u m r
’
.
9

Pa u l H e r o ul t F e n c h p a t e n t s A p il an d
I 75 7 , r
, 1 1 1 r 23, 1 886 , A p r il 1 88 7
s e e R i ch ard s A lum i n i u m
, ,
.
1 5, .
’
.
 H I S T O RY .
7

wh ich di p i n to t h e fu s ed electrolyte E cont a i ned i n th e t an k , ,

.

The c arbo n rod s are m ad e t h e pos it ive an d t h e t an k th e n e gat ive

e lectrod e Th e elect rolyt e co n s is t s ch ie fly of cryol ite a nd ,

—
.

—
al u m i n a th e p uri fi e d o r e of al u m i n i u m i s a dded a t i nterval s .

Th e el ect rolytic a c t ion of t h e c urre nt s pl it s up t h e al u m in a

i nto al u m i n i u m an d oxy ge n ; th e form er collect s i n th e fu s ed s t ate
at th e bottom of t h e t an k wh il e t h e l atte r i s l ibe rated i n con t act ,

with th e c arbon rods a n d c on s u m e s t h em t h e los s of c arbon b e

, ,

i n g abou t e q u al i n we i gh t to t h e al u m in i u m p rod uced .

I t w il l b e not ice d t h at ,

wh il e th e app ar at u s rese mbl e s

S iem e n s vert ical arc fu rn ace ’

i n ge n eral appe ara nce n o arc ,

i s form e d i n t h i s c as e The .

c urren t fl ow s th ro u g h t h e
el ectrolyte fro m t h e c arbon
rod s t o th e m el ted al u m i n i u m ,

an d i n doi n g s o p rod uce s

e no u gh h e at to keep th e
cryol i te i n a st ate of fu s ion at ,
°
a t e m pe rat u re of n e arl y 9 OO G .

Fig .
5 .
— A l u m in i u m F u rn ace . A ll th e al u m i n u m at pre sent
p rod uced com e s fro m t h e
el ec tri c fu rn ace D u ri n g t h e ye ar 1 9 0 5 th e o u tp u t of al um in i u m in
.

the U n ited S tate s alon e am ou n ted t o po u n d s wh ere

as i n 1 88 5 — b efore t h e elect r i cal p roce s s was i n v en te d — it wa s
'

only 2 8 3 po u n d s .

Th e n ex t s t age i n th e h i story of th e e l ectric fu rn ace i s m ark ed

b y th e cl as s ic al ex per i m e nt s a n d re se a rch e s of H e n ri M ois s a n !
“

The se rese arch e s we re com m e nced i n 1 8 9 2 an d h ad for th eir ,

Obj ect i v e t h e m a n u fact u re of art i fi ci al d ia m on d s M ois s a n worked .

i n accord ance with scie nt i fi c m eth od an d alth ou gh h i s resea rch e s , ,

were not cond uct ed w ith a view to tech n ical re s ul ts h i s u n i q u e ,

ex pe ri m e nt s h ave give n a gre at i mpet u s to th e com merci al u s e of

th e electric al furn ace a s wel l a s e st abl i sh in g on a scie n t i fi c b a s i s
,

ou r k nowle d ge of ch e m i st ry at th e h i gh t e mpe rat u re s u se d i n t he

el ectric fu rn ace .

‘
M i n al I ndu s t y o l x i v p 1
er r , v . .
, . 1 .

f H M o i s s an D e s c i p t i o n d u n n ouv e au fou r e l e tr i q u e C o m p t e s R n du s
'
de I A cad
’
.
, r c , e

d Sc i n c s
es e l cx e p, 3 vo Dec
. 89 v .
, . 10 1 , .
, 1 2 .

H M oi s s an L F o u E le t i q u e P a r i s 89 7
.
, e r c r , , 1 .

H M oi s s an T h e E l e t i c F u n a c e ; a n s b y V i t o L e h e 1 904
.
, c r r tr . c r n r, .
8 T H E E LEC T R I C F U R NAC E .

F ig 6 i n dicate s t h e type of fu rn ace h e u s u al ly e m p loy ed

‘

.
.

It con s i st s of two block s of l i m eston e A a n d B an d tw o c arbon , ,

rods C a nd D to wh ich th e el ectrical con nect ion s are m ade A

, ,
.

cavity i s h ollowed o ut i n th es e bl oc k s an d th e m at eri al t o b e

’

he ated i s pl ace d i n a cr ucibl e E of c arbo n or m a gn e s i a A s eve n , ,

.

li m e m el ts an d vol at il izes at th e t emp er at u re of th i s fur n a ce a ,

li n i n g Of alte rn at e l ayers of c arbon an d m ag ne s i a w a s arr an ged

as shown i n th e fi gure i n order t o with st an d a s far as p os s ibl e
, , ,

the he at of t h e a r e .

I n some of th ese experi m e nt s Mois s an converted two or th ree

h u ndred el ect rical hors e powe r i nto h e at i n a furn ace of only a few
-

Fig . 6 .
— Moi s s an s F u rn ac e ’
.

inche s i nte rn al d i me n sion s A t t h e e norm ou sly h i gh t e mp erat u re .

of h is fu rn ace everyth i n g m elt s or t u rn s to v apor C arbon i s th e .

most refractory s ub stance k now n a nd eve n th at t u rn s to graph it e ,

and vol at il izes ; m a gn e s ia anoth er very re fr actory s ub st an ce , ,

m elts at t he h ighe st te m per at ure of t h e fu rn ace an d v aporizes .

L i me q uartz an d al u m in a al l m el t a nd boi l i n t h e fu rn ace

, ,
G ol d .
,

copper iron a n d i n fact al l t he m etal s c a n al so b e m elt ed an d

, , , ,

bo i l ed i n th e electric fu rn ace .

*
A n i m proved for m of th e Moi s s an fur n ace
h as re ce n tly b een
described i n wh ich a n electric c u rre n t of
, am pere s at from ,

5 0 to 1
5 0 volt s i s e mployed I n t h e c as e of d irect c u rren t t h i s .

woul d m ean 7 0 to 2 00 h orse power an d wh ile th i s i s n ot q u i te as -

, ,

‘
En gi n eer ing Ma h
, rc 23, 1 9 06 , v ol . lxxx i .
,
p .
3 81 .
 H I S T OR Y .

m uch a s Mois s a n s om eti me s u sed it i s m ore th a n i s ofte n avail ,

able for scie nt i fi c ex per i me nt al work I n s uch a fu rn ace it i s .

easy to p rod uce a t e m pe rat ure m ore th an do ubl e t h at u s u al ly

obt ai n able by th e comb us tio n of fuel an d i t i s the refore a n in , , ,
‘

a l u a b le app arat u s i n t h e h a nd s of th e me t al l u rgi st an d t he

ch e m ist .

Mois s a n al so expe ri me n te d o n th e red uct io n of m eta l s from

th ei r ox ides an d fou n d as h ad i ndeed b ee n st ated by C F
, , , ,
. .

M abery i n 1 8 8 5 an d by Dr W B orche rs i n 1 8 9 1 t h at carbon

*
,
. .
, ,

w ill red uce any m et al fro m it s ox i d e at th e te m per at u re of t he

e l ectri c fu rn ace N ot on l y will c arbo n red uc e any m et al from it s

.

ox ide b ut at th i s h i gh te mperat u re carbon w il l al so comb in e with

,

t he m et al i ts el f to form a carbide Th e p rod u ct ion a nd p ropert ie s .

o f m a ny of t he s e c arb id es were st u d ied by Moi ss a n .

O ne of th e m os t sp ect ac ul ar of h i s e x pe ri m en t s w as th e p ro
d uct io n of th e d i am on d Th i s i s a cryst al l ized for m of carb on .
,

a n d i f a s u it abl e sol v e n t we re avail abl e it sho ul d b e pos s ibl e to

c rys t all ize c arb on as d iam on d s Moi s s a n fo u n d s uch a solven t i n .

i ron a n d cert ai n oth e r m et al s I n th e el ectric f urn ace the se .

m et al s d i s solve n ot abl e q u ant itie s of c arbon an d by cool i n g t he m ,

u n de r s u it abl e con d it ion s Moi ss a n was abl e to obt a i n som e of t h e

c arbon a s m icroscop ic al d i a mon d s wh ic h h e i sol ated by d iss ol vi n g ,

t h e m etal i n ac id s Th e p res e nt writer i n com mon wi th ot h er

.
,

ex peri m e nters h as repe ated th i s prod uct ion of t h e d i am on d an d

, ,

h a s al so s ee n wh at appe ared t o b e a d i am ond wh ich h ad been ,

fo u n d i mbe dde d i n a p iece of i ro n or steel prod uced by ord in a ry

s melti n g m eth od s .

A l th o u gh d i a m on d s are n ot yet m an ufact ure d i n ton l ot s ,

M oi s s a n s rese arch e s on th e con v e rs ion of c arbo n i nto graph it e

’
,

a n d on th e prod uct io n of c alc i u m c arbid e h ave bee n fo l l owed ,

b y i m porta n t co m m erc i al devel op me n t s T he for m at ion of calc i u m .

c arb ide i n th e electric furn ace was i nd ep en de ntly ach ieved i n 1 89 3

b y T L W ill son wh o d e v eloped th e m an u fact u re of t h e carb ide
. .
,

L
o n co m m erc i al l in e s 1 .

F i g 7 i ll u s tr ate s t h e W il l son c arb ide fur n ace con s i st i n g of

.

a n i ro n cr uc ible A t h e b ase of wh ic h h as a carbo n l m in g D Th e

, , ,
.

c r uc ibl e i s con nected to one cabl e from th e dy n am o or tr ans

form er wh il e t h e oth er c abl e i s con n ect ed to a l arge c arbon el ec
,

t r ode B C s u spe n d ed w ith i n t h e cr uc ible Th e a r c be i n g s tarted

, ,
.
~

b etwee n C an d D th e ch arge of powdered l i me an d cok e is fed in

,
-

‘
C F M ab
. . e ry , ( lo c .

+ I n du s t r i e s an d I r on , 1 89 6 , v ol . xx .
,
p .
3 22 .
I O THE E LEC T R I C F U R NAC E .

aro u n d C an d i n t h e he at of th e a r e th e l i m e i s red u ced by m e an s

,

of th e coke to t h e m et al calci u m a nd t h i s i n t u rn re act s with ,

m ore cok e to form a c arb ide .

Th es e re act ion s m ay b e r e p r e
s e nted by t h e followi n g ch e m ical
e q u at ion s wh ich al so in d icat e ,

t h e rel at ive am o u n t s of l i m e a n d
c o k e t o u s e i n th e ch ar g e :
'

CaO + C z Ca + C O .

Ca J
r 2 C = C aC 2

Th e cal ci u m C arb ide wh e n ,

form ed is
,
fu s ibl e at th e

te m per at ure of t h i s f ur n ace an d , ,

form s a pool be n e ath t h e el ec

trode B C a nd by grad u al ly
, ,

rai s i n g th is electrode a m as s o f ,

c arb ide i s b uil t up W h e n th e .

cr ucibl e i s n e arl y fi ll ed t h e ,

op erat ion i s stopp e d an d t h e

cr u cibl e allowed to cool befor e
Fig .
7
— W.i ll s o n
’
s C arbide t u rn in g ou t t h e bl oc k of c arb ide .

F urn ace Th e c arbon ic ox ide p rod u ced by

.

th e re act ion escapes an d b u rn s i n th e upper p art of t h e cr ucibl e ,

as i s i nd ic ated i n F i g 7 M any oth er for m s of c arb id e fu rn aces

. .

have bee n devi sed an d are now be in g oper ated on a l ar ge scal e

, ,

som e of th es e bei n g i nterm itte n t l i k e th e W ill son f u rn ace wh il st , ,

oth ers are cont i n uo u s i n acti on Th e Worl d s p rod uct ion of .

’

c alci u m c arb ide i n 1 9 0 4 am o u nte d to ton s Th e val u e o f .

calci u m c arb ide depen ds a s i s well k n own u p o n t h e e as e w ith

, , ‘

wh ich i t act s upon w ater t o form th e val u abl e i l l u m i n at i n g ga s ,

acetyl en e .

A noth er i mport a nt carb ide , prod uced i n th e electric fu rn ace ,

is carbor un d u m a c arb ide of s il ico n S iC Th e d i scovery of car

, ,
.

b o r u n d u m by E G A ch eson i n 1 89 1 i s d escribe d by h i m sel f i n an

. .

i nterestin g l ect ur e o n D i scove ry an d M r A ch eso n

“
.

was ttempt i n g to h arde n cl ay by i m pre gn at i n g i t wi t h c arbon i n

a
'

an improvised electric furn ace A fte r th e e xperi m en t h e n ot ic e d .

a few bri gh t speck s at th e en d of t he c arbon el ectrode Th es e .

”

speck s were fo u n d to b e h ard e no u gh t o c u t n ot onl y gl as s b u t ,

l"
Th e El e c tr ci J ou n al Pi t sb gh
r ,
t ur , 1 906 .
 I 2 THE E LEC T R I C F UR NAC E
’

Th e ir o n oth er i m p urit ies i n th e c arbon are v ol a til ized at t h e

and

h ig h te m pe rat u re of th e electric fu rn ace an d l e ave th e carbon

ve ry p ure an d converte d i nto g raph it e A s m uc h as 1 000 el ectr ical
“

.
,

h oi s e powe r is con s u m e d i n on e of t h es e f iI r n a c e s prod uc in g a

”

te mperat u re of ov e r 2 2 00 C ,
°
.

T he m an u fact ure of c arbor u n d u m graph ite S ilo x ic o n and , ,

ot he r p rod uct s of th e A ch e so n el ectric fu rn aces at N i ag ar a i s m o r e

f ully de scribed i n C h apter vi .

C al ci u m c arb ide h as bee n o ne of t h e m os t i m port an t prod uct s

of the elect ric f urn ace an d i ts m an ufact u re s t il l con s u m e s m ore ,

e lect rical p ower th a n th at of a ny oth er p rod uct I t w a s a fi n anc ial .

C ris i s i n th e c arb ide i n d u stry th at l ed to th e electric s m el t i n g of

*
iron steel an d th e oth er iron alloy s
, ,
.

A few ye ars a go th e prod uction of calc i u m c arb ide b ec am e

la rge r t h an th e de m and a nd th i s forced som e m an ufact u rers t o ,

t u rn the ir atte ntio n to othe r m eth od s of ut il i zi n g th ei r electric

f ur n aces W ith th i s obj ect exp eri m e nt s were m ad e in F r a n c e
.

a n d el sewh ere ab o ut the ye ar 1 9 00 o n t h e p rod uct ion o f ferro

‘
ch rom e r ferro s il icon an d th e oth er ferro all oys ; an d t h es e e x
,
-
,

e r im e n t s were s o s ucce s s fu l t h at not on ly h av e th e n ew p roce s s es

p
b ee n able to c o m p e te w ith ex i sti n g m eth od s b u t i n t h e c as e of ‘

, ,

ferro ch rom e at any rate th e el ectr ic p rod uct h as c apt u red t he

-
,

market .

The f erros are alloy s of i ron w ith m an g an ese ch ro m iu m , , ,

s ilicon or som e oth e r m et al an d t h ey u s u al ly cont ai n a n ot able

, ,

a m ou n t of c arbon be i n g i n fact c ast iron i n wh ich p art of t h e , , , ,

i ron h a s bee n repl ace d by an oth er m et al S om e of th es e are .

used i n th e p rod uct io n of op en h e art h an d B e s s e m er steel and -

,

oth ers for th e prod uctio n of speci al alloy steel s F erro n ic kel .
-
,

ferro t u ng ste n ferro t it an i u m a n d ferro m olybden u m h ave al so

-
,
- -

bee n em ployed i n steel m ak in g .

The c arbid e furn ace s Wh ich were l i n ed with c arbon w ere , ,

s a t is f a c t o r y f o r th e prod uct ion of th ese c arb u ri ze d m ater i al s

l
b ut ,

cert ai n ch an ge s were nece s s ary before th ey co ul d b e u s ed fer t h e

m an u fact ure of steel I n F ra n ce H e r o u lt I a n d i n S wede n
'

.
, , ,

K j e llin § s ucceeded i n ad apti n g t h e fu rn ace to t h e p rod u ct io n of

‘
A lb ert K ll e er, Th e A p pl i a ti o n o f h E l c t e i Fu na
e c tr c r ce i n M t allu g y J u n e r , o r .

I o n and S t e
r e l Inst 9 3 No I p 6 .
, 1 0 , . .
, . 1 1.

+ I b i d p p 6 and 66 6 9
, . 1 2 1 -
1 .

H o u l t S t l Fu n a E l ect o h m i st a nd M e t all u g i s t i p
I
'
er ee r ce . v l r c e r , o . . . 1 95 ;
E l e c tr o c h e m i c al I n du s t y v o l ( 9 p p 6 3 87 4 4 9 r , . 1 , 1 02 .
, 2 , .

K j e llin S t e l Fu n a e E l e t och e m i st an d M e t allu r g i s t i p

§ e r ol
'
c c r v
.
, . . .
90
E l c tr o h m i c al I n du s tr y
e c el i ( 9 pp 4 3 76 46 5 76 , vo . . 1 02 .
11 1 , , 2, .
 H I S T OR Y . 1
3

g o od q u al ity ste el from sc rap steel pi g i ron etc ; a n d good , ,

.

cr uc ibl e an d sp ec ial alloy steel s h ave for s om e ye ars b e e n p r o '

d u c e d co m m erc ially i n t h e el ectric fur n ac e Th e ori gi n al p aten t s .

of t he se p ion eers of el ect r i c steel m ak in g we re t ake n o u t abo ut -

t he ye ar j us t on e h u n dred years afte r th e d i scovery of t he

-
vol t aic b att ery .

Th e ori gi n of th e electri c s m el ti n g of i ron ore s was h owever , ,

‘
som ewh at e arl ier th a n th is I n th e ye ar 1 89 8 C apt ai n S t a s s a n o n .

i n I t aly p ate nte d h i s e le c tr iCa l f u r n a c e for s m elt i n g iron ores an d

, ,

i n t h e followi n g ye ar de m on s trate d th e wor k in g of h i s p roce s s .

! uite a se n s ation w a s p rod uce d by h is experi m en t s a s al th o u gh ,

it was n ot s u rp ri s i n g to le arn th at iron ore s coul d b e s m el te d by

electric ity t h e ord in ary price of electric power w as so h i gh th at it
,

appe ared prepos tero u s to atte m pt to u s e it i n com petit ion with

coke i n th e bl as t f u rn ace .

I t i s a m atte r of ge n eral k nowl ed ge th at th e retail pr ice of

a ny co mm od i ty i s h i gh er and s om et i m e s eve n s ever al t i m e s as
,

h ig h a s th e wh ol es al e p rice or t h e cos t of p rod uct ion ; b ut i t wa s ,

p rob ably n ot ge n e rally real i zed u n t il q u it e rece ntly t h at th e s m al l

cons u me r of el ectric l igh t p ay s abou t on e h u n dred t i m e s a s m uch
for el ect ric ity a s t h e act u al cos t of p rod uc in g it fro m a good w at er
p ower .Th i s e norm o u s d i ffere nce h ad gi ve n a n ex ag gerated ide a
of the costl i n es s of e l ect rica l powe r an d was n o do ubt l arg ely , , ,

re spon s ibl e for th e s kept ic i s m w ith wh ich S ta s s a n o s e arly e x ’

p e r i m e n ts were rece ived Th e s e e xperim en t s of S

. t a s s an o ,

a l tho u gh not as yet com m e rc ial ly s ucce s sful h ave n o do ubt im , , ,

pre ssed on m any m i n d s t h e fi n an ci al pos s ib il ity of el ect ri c s melt

in g i n gen eral an d a l ar ge c rop of s uch p roce s se s h as fol lowe d
,
.

Some
ot h er fur n ace s s u it abl e for s m el t in g i ro n ore s are t hos e
of Kell e r H e ro ul t a n d H arm et wh ich are de s cribe d an d ill u s trated
, ,

in C h apter v .

I n v iew of t h e great i m portan ce to C an ad a of developin g t h e

.

el ect ric s m el t in g of i ron ore s th e C an ad i a n G o v e rn m en t appoi nted ,

i n 1 9 0 3 a C om m i s s ion u n de r D r H a a n e l to report on th e el ectro .

therm ic p roce s s e s for th e s m el t i n g of i ron ore s a n d t h e m ak i n g

of s teel i n operat ion i n E u rop e Th e C o m m i s s ion v is ited E u rope .

in 1 90 4 and s a w th e H eroul t Kell e r an d K je llin fu rn ace s i n com ,

At D r Haanel s
’
m e r c ia l operat io n m ak i n g s teel an d fe rro all oys . .

"
Th e C olb y i n du t i o n s t l fu n a c wa s p a t n t e d i n 890
ee r ce e 1 . Se e El e c tr o h m i al
c e c

I nd u s t ry o l iii ,
v . p 99 an d o l v
. . 2 D 3 , v . . . 2 2

-S t
a s sa no S t e l F u r n a e E l e t o c h e m i s t an d M e t allu g i s t
e c . c r r , v ol . i . p . 2 30

E l e c t o c h e m i c al I n d u s t r y o l i ( 9
r , p p 4 7 36 3
v . 1 02 . 2 , .
1
4 TH E E LE C T R I C F U R NAC E .

re q u es t th e p rod u c tion of p ig i ron fro m th e ore w a s al so d e m o n

s t r a te d i n th e H e ro u l t an d Kell er fur n ac e s A v o l u m in o u s r e p o r t "
’

was p ubl is hed afte r th e r e t ur n of th e C om m i s s ion a n d D r H a a n e l ,

.

w a s s o well s at i s fi e d with th e pos s ib il ity of s m e l ti n g iron or e s

e l ectri c ally i n co u n tries wh ere coal w a s scarce a nd w ater pow e r -

w a s ab un dan t th at h e obt ai n ed a furt her gra n t from th e G ove rn

m en t an d with th e h elp of P a ul H ero ul t c arrie d o u t a s erie s of

,

ex peri m ent s d uri n g th e sp ri n g of 1 9 06 at S a ul t S te M ari e o n th e .

electric s m el ti n g of C an ad i an i ron ore s t A s a re s ul t of th e s e

.
'

ex p e ri m e nt s pl ant s for th e com m erci al s m elt i n g of iron ore s i n

el ectric fu rn ace s a re bei n g erecte d at W ell an d O n t an d at Bair d ,
.
,

C a l i forn ia .

‘
R po
e rt o f th e C o m m i s s io n ap p o i n t e d t o i nv e s t i g a t e th e d i ff e r e n t e l e c t r o t h e r m i c
p r o c e s s e s f o th e s m e l ti n g o f i o n o r e s an d th e m ak i n g of s t e e l i n o p e r a t i o n i n
r r

E u r o p e O t t awa 9 4
.
,
1 0

f R e p or t o n th e e xp e i m e n t s m ad e a t S aul t S t e M a r i e O t u n d e r G ov e r n m e n t
r .
, n .
,

au s p i c e s i n th e s m e l t i n g of C an a d i an i o n o r e s b y th e e l e c tr o th e r m i c p o c e s s
r - r .

O ttawa , 1 907 .
 C LA S S I F I CA TI ON . 1 5

C HAPTE R II .

D E S C R I P TI O N AND C L A S S I F I C A TI O N OF E L E C TR I C
FU RNACES .

The E l ect ric F urn ace m ay b e des cr i b ed as an appl i an ce i n

wh ich m ate ri al s ca n b e s ub m itte d t o a h i gh t em perat u re by th e
dis s ip at io n of el ectric al e n er gy Th i s de fi n it ion doe s n ot i ncl ud e .
‘

a l l c ase s of electrical h e at in g ; a nd with adva n t a ge m ig h t be l i m it ed

to t h e p rod uction of t e mperat u re s above a red h e at In a n um .

be r of i n st ance s s uch a s t h e p rod uct ion of sod i u m an d al u m i n i u m ,

th e electric c urren t i s re q ui red m a in ly for i sol at i n g th e m etal by

e l ectroly s i s an d o nly i nc iden t a l ly for p rod uc in g he at
,
Th e se .

p roce s se s are u s u ally con s idered t o be fu rn ace op erat ion s b eca u s e ,

a h i gh te m perat ure i s p rod uce d ; a n d i t h as bee n s u g gested by ,

M r J \V r ig h t
. .
*
t h at el ect roly s i s s houl d b e cl as se d a s a
,

furn ace p roce s s w he n fu se d a nh ydro u s s alt s are e m p l oyed ; e x

,

cl ud i n g th e m ore fam il i ar el ect rolyt ic proce s se s in wh ic h a q ueou s

e l ect rolyte s a re u sed .

H e at i s p rod uced wh e never a n el ectr ic c u rre n t e nco u n te rs any

res i st ance to it s fl o w ; t h e e n er gy p rod uci n g th e c u rren t bein g
~
, ,
L
t ra n sform e d i n to h e a t n E ve n th e b e s t el ect rical con d uctors
Oppose som e re s i stan ce t o t h e flow of a n elect ric c urre n t an d ,

w ork m us t con se q ue n t l y be don e i n m ai nt ain i n g t h e c u rre n t If .

a n electric c i rc u i t i s m ade i n p art of a g ood cond uctor (s uch a s a

, ,

s hort sto ut copper c abl e ) a nd i n p art of a p oor cond uctor (s uch

, , ,

F ig 9 . .
—E le ctr ic C ir cu it .

as a th i n rod of carbon ) th e gre ater p art of t h e h eat will b e p ro

d uc e d i n th e poor con d uctor wh ich m ay e v e n b ecom e re d h ot , ,

wh il e th e re m ain de r of th e ci rc u i t re m ai n s cool .

‘
A u tho o f r El i F u n a s an d T h i I n du s i al A p pl i a i o n
e c tr c r ce e r tr c t .

+9 . p a t o f th e
r e n g i s s o m i m s h an g d i n o h m i al n g y
y er e t e c e t c e c e er or in o o h
t t er

fc r m s o f l e c t i c al n e r g y
e r e .
 TH E E LE C T R I C F U R NACE .

F i g 9 rep re s en t s s uch a c i rc u it :D i s a dyn a mo ; B a n d C

.

a re sto ut copp er wire s or c ab l es an d R is a c arbon R es i st a nce ,

“

r R e s i stor ; th at is to s a y a n el ectric al con d uctor m ade o f

“ ”

c arbon th at o ffers a con s i derabl e res i s t an ce to t h e flow of th e c u r

re nt Th e wi nd i ng s i n th e dyn a m o are of copp er an d t h e s e an d
.
,

t h e c abl e s B and C are s o s tout t h at t h e re s i st an ce t h ey o ffe r t o ,

"

th e flow of th e c urr e nt is only s m all In t h i s circ u it .

,

m ech an i cal wor k is con st antly re q u ired to t ur n th e d y n a mo ,

an d t h i s wor k is converted into h e at m ai nl y i n t h e re

s i s to r R ; an d to a l es s ex ten t i n th e con d uctors B an d C an d t he ,

dyn am o D S uch an arr an ge m e nt m ay rep re s en t an el ectr ic t e

.

s is ta n ce furn ace oper a ted by a dy n am o Th e work s pe nt i n d r 1v

-
.

i n g th e dyn am o i s co n verted i nto h e at an d by givi n g t o t h e

, ,

fu rn ace a far h igh er re s i st ance t h a n t h at of th e re m ai n der of th e

circ ui t we c an obt ai n n earl y al l t h e h e at i n th e f u rn ace ; only a
,

s m all proport ion be in g waste d i n t he dy n a m o an d con d uct i n g

cabl es Th e amo u n t of h e at developed d epe n d s upon th e s t re n gth
’

of t he el ectric c u r ren t a s wel l a s on t h e a m o u n t of re s i st an ce it

"

m eet s . B y i ncre as i ng th e fur n ace res i st ance th e c urr e n t is d c ; ,

cre ased ; c on s eq u e ntly beyon d a cert ai n poi nt l e s s h e at will b e

, ,

d eveloped i n th e fu rn ace .

A n electr i c c urre n t i s m e as u red i n ampere s t h e electrical ,

pres s u re prod uc in g th e c u rre n t i s m e as u re d i n vol t s an d t h e “

,
”

electrical re s i st ance of a cond uctor 15 me as u re d i n oh m s ”

“

U si n g th es e u n it s t he electric c urre nt flowi n g aro u n d a ci rc u i t

,

is e q u al to th e el ect ric al pre s s u re or E M F (elect ro m ot i ve force ) H .

- -

d r i v i n g it d i v ided by th e el ectrical res i st an ce of t h e c i rc u i t

, .

W h e n a n el ectric c urren t fl ows t h rou gh a r e s is tpr as i n F i g ,

.

9 th e amo u n t of h e at p rod u
, ced is p roportion al t o th e res ist an ce ,

a nd t o th e s q u are of th e c u rre n t ; or to th e E M F an d th e c u r , . . .

re nt Ta ki n g as a u n i t t h e h e a t th at wo ul d ra is e t h e te m perat u re
.

° °
of one gra m of wate r from 0 C to 1 C i t i s fo u n d th at . .
,

H : 0 2 4C R t : 0 2 4 E C t
2
‘

. .
,

w h ere ,

t e at p rod uced i n g ram cen t i gra d e un i t s ,

C c u r r e n t i n am pere s
z
,

R r e s is ta n c e i n oh m s
z

E e l ectro m otive force i n vol t s- -

,

t i m e i n second s
'
t z
.

I n t h e ci rc ui t shown i n F i g 9 th e c urren t j C wo ul d be .

m eas ured i n ampere s by m e an s of an am m ete r A , pl aced i n on e ,

o f t h e cabl es ; th e E i n vol t s by m e an s of a vol t met er .

, ,
 C LA S S I F I CA T I ON . 1
7

V con n ected to t h e term i n a l s of t h e r es i stor ; an d th e re s i st ance

,

R i n oh m s wo u l d b e ded uced fro m t h e rel at i on C R E

, ,
— Th e z .

abo v e con s i derat i on s a re on l y ex act in t h e c ase of a n electr i c c u r

re nt fl ow i n g s te ad i ly i n on e d irect i o n ; i n t he c as e of altern at in g
c u rre nt s a sort Of el ect ric al in ert i a i s ob served wh i ch m od i fi e s
th ese re s ult s .

I n t he a r c furn ace t h e el ectric c urre n t e nco u nters not only a n

,

i ne rt re s i st ance b u t al so a n o p p o s i n g electrical force

, ,
B ot h t h e .

re s i st an ce an d th e oppos i n g el ect r i cal force c a u s e t h e e ner gy o f

t he c u rre n t t o be t urn ed i nto h eat a nd to con tr i b ute to th e h eat in g ,

of th e fu rn ace A s i m i l a r oppos i n g e l ect rical force i s prese n t i n

.

an e l ectroly t i c furn ace s uch a s i s u sed for t h e p rod uct io n of

,

al u m i n i u m I n th e l att er c ase however th e wor k don e i n o v e r

.
, ,
'

com i n g th i s force i s t u rn ed i n to c h e m ic a l e n e r g y (th e i sol at in g of

,

a l u m i n i u m from a l u m i n a ) i n ste ad of i nto h e at I n most fu rn ac e .

Operati on s ch e m ical a n d ph y s ical ch an ge s are prod uced a nd

, ,

the se i ncre as e or di m in ish t h e a m o u n t of h e at l ibe rat ed i n t h e

fu rn ace .

A n el ect ric fu rn ac e con s i st s of t h e followi n g e s se nt ial part s

a n d acce s sorie s
( 1
) S o m e c on d u c ti n g m a te r i a l h e a t e d b y th e p as s a g e o f t h e

c u r re n t Th i s m ay b e a vapor as i n th e electric a r e ; or a sol id

.
, ,

s uch a s coke ; or a l i q u i d s uch as m o l te n s l a g or m o l ten ste el

,
.

(2 ) A n en v e l op e of r e fr a ctor y m ate r ia l Th e w all s floor an d .

,

roo f of a fur n ace are nee ded t o con serve th e h e at to ret a i n t he ,

ch arge to ex c l ude th e ai r an d to s upport t h e electrode s a n d t h e

,

ch arg i n g an d d isch arg in g ap p arat u s .

(3 ) E l e ctr od e s or con d u ctor s f or b r i n gi n g th e cu rr e n t in to

,

th e f u rn ace c arbo n rod s are u s u ally e mpl oye d for t h i s p u r p o s

,

Th ey are s ubj ecte d to th e h e at of t h e f urn ace at on e e n d a n d a t ,

th e oth e r e n d m u s t be s u ffi c ie ntl y cool t o pe rm i t of m ak in g

el ect ric al cont act by m e a ns of speci al h olders w i t h t h e c abl es
bri n g i n g t he c u rre n t to t he fu rn ace I n some fu rn aces el ectrode s .
,

are not n eede d t h e c u rre nt be in g ge ne rat ed b y i n d uction i n th e

,

furn ace i t sel f .

(4 ) E l e ct r o d e h o l d ers — The s e are u s ually m etal cl am p s for

.

holdi n g a nd m ak in g el ect ric al cont act w it h t he carbon el ect rod e s

pro v i s i on be i n g m ade for preve n t i n g t he e x ces s i v e he at i n g of th e
h o l de r .

(5 ) C h a r i
g g n a n d d i s ch ar i
g g n f a ci l itie s — S o m e fu rn ace s a re .

i nte rm i tten t i n act ion th e ch arge be in g added h e ated i n th e

, ,

furn ace an d t he n re m oved b e fore th e fres h ch arge can b e int ro ,

d uc e d . O th er furn ace s a re con t in uo u s i n a c t

igp i nv ol v i n g t h e
’
fi
y —
o s'
,
18 TH E ELEC T R I C F U R NA C E .

period ic o r cont i n uo u s add ition s of t h e raw m at er i al an d re m oval

, ,

of th e prod u c t s .

A p art fro m th e f urn ace its el f t h e fol lowi n g op e r at in g factor s

,

have to b e con s id ered

( )
6 S o u r ce o f electr i c cu r r e n t — Th e el e ctric c u rre n t i s pro

d u c e d by m e an s of a dy n am o an d a s i t is u s u ally s up p l ied at a
,

h i gher vol tage t h an i s s u it abl e for t h e f ur n ace a tr an s for m er m ay ,

be re q u ired to re d uce t h e vol t age ; t h e am o u n t of c u rren t b ei n g

s i m ult aneo u sly i ncre as ed al m os t proport ion ately to t h e red uction
i n th e vol tage Th e c u rre n t m ay b e alte rn at i n g or di rect b u t an
.
, ,

altern ati n g c urre n t is u s u ally p referred a s i t c an be t r an s for m ed ,

more re adily fro m o ne vol t a ge t o anoth e r I n c as es wher e .

el ectrolys i s i s re q uired a s i n t h e p ro d uctio n of al u m i n i u m or

,

sodi u m th e d irect c urre n t c an al on e b e u se d

,
.

(7 ) C ab le s , me as u rin g in s tr u me nts , an d r e g u l a tin g d e v ice s .

C abl es are u sed for bri n gi n g th e electric c urre n t fro m th e t ra n s

form er or dy n amo to th e furn ace Me as u ri n g i n st r u m en t s s uch
.
,

as am m eters vol tm eters a n d w att m ete rs ar e u s e d for m e as u rin g

,

an d recordi n g t h e c u rre n t electro m ot ive force an d el ectrical

,
- -

power s uppl ied to th e f urn ace R e g ul at i n g device s are re q u ired

.

for advanc i n g th e el ectrode s as th ey are con s u m ed i n th e fu rn ace ,

a n d for re g ul at in g by th i s m e an s or i n som e oth e r w ay th e , ,

a mo u nt of c urrent flowin g th rou gh th e fu rn ace .

C la ss ifi cation .

Th e u s u al cl as s i fi c ation of el ectric furn aces de pen d s pri m arily

u pon t he n at ure of th e res istor used to d evelop t h e h e at Th u s .

there are a r e furn aces i n wh ich t h e h e at i s develop ed i n th e electric

,

arc ; an d res i st ance furn ace s i n wh ich th e h e at i s d eveloped by t h e

,

p as s a ge of th e c urre n t t h rou gh a sol id or l i q u id re s istor Th e .

cl as s i fi cation m ay depen d al so u pon th e m a n n er i n wh ich th e he at

,

is t ran s m itted t o t h e ch arge ; t h u s i n arc fu r n ace s t h e h e ati n g m ay

b e direct a s i n S iem e n s vertical arc fu rn ace i n wh ich th e m et al
,
’

to be m el ted for m s on e pol e of t h e a r e ; or i n d irec t a s i n h i s hori ,

z o n t a l arc fu rn ace wh ere i ndepe n d e n t el ect rodes are e mpl oye d

, ,

and i n wh ich th e h e at i s t r an s m itted from th e arc to t h e ch arge

by rad i ation an d cond uct i on .

I n re si stance fu rn ace s th e ch arge to be h eated m ay i tself con

s t it u te th e r e si stor or el se a n i ndepe n de n t re s i stor m ay b e e m
,

ployed .
Th e l att er n early alway s con s i st s of a sol i d core u s u al l y ,

of carbon an d i t m ay b e s urro u nded by t he ch ar ge th at i s t o be

,

he ated or i mbedded i n th e w all s of th e furn ace

, A ch arge t h a t .
20 TH E E L E C T R I C F UR NAC E .

F i g 1 1 repre se nt s a n arc furn ace i n w h ich t h e m ateri al D to

.
,

be he ated form s one pole of th e a r e A i s a ch a mb e r l i n ed with

,
.

refractory m ateri al an d B an d C are th e two el ectrode s :

,
th e upper
on e B i s m ovabl e ; t h e l owe r C i s fi xe d for m i n g p art of th e
, , , , ,

bottom of t h e fu rn ace an d m ak i n g electrical con t act wit h th e

,

ch arge D Th e fur n ace i s st art ed by l ower i n g B u n t il i t tou ch e s

.

I ) th u s a llo w m g t he c urre n t to p as s
,
B i s th e n rai sed form i ng .
,

an el ectric a r e b etwe e n B an d D .

S i em e n s ve rtical arc fu r n ace F ig 2 W ills o n s c arb i d e

’
,
.
,
’

f urn ace F i g
,
an d H e r o u lt s stee l fu rn ace are e x am pl e s of th i s
.
’

F ig . ll .
—
T) i re ct H e ati n g Ar c F u rn a ce .

cl as s . Th e H eroul t steel f urn ace F i g 2 3 p 8 7 con si st s of a ,

.
,
.
,

ch amber for cont a i n i n g th e m ol ten steel wi t h two ve rtic al c arbon ,

'

rods d i p pi n g th rou gh h ole s i n th e ro of A n arc is form ed b etween .

e ach carbo n r ed and th e f used ch ar ge ; th e c urre n t e nt e r in g

’

t hrou gh one rod p as si n g t h ro u gh the m el ted ste el an d sl a g a nd

, ,

ret urni n g thro u gh th e oth er rod F ur n ace s of th i s cl as s are r a th e r

”

les s conve n ien t for scie nt i fi c i nve st i gation s t h an t h e i n de pe n d en t

arc fu rn ace ; bec a use the t em perat u re i s l es s e a s v to reg ul at e t h e
.

,
 C LA S S I F I CA T I ON . 2 1

a re i s m ore d i ffi c ul t to control (wh e n th e c h ar ge con s is t s of col d

met al ) a n d th e c arbo n of th e el ectrode s is apt to affect t h e ch em ic al
,

com pos it io n of th e ch arge O n th e oth er h an d th e he at is

.
,

tran s m itted m ore d irectly t h u s obt a i n i n g a gre ater econom y an d

, ,

onl y on e m ovabl e el ectrode i s n eeded for e ach arc .

R e s i stan ce F u rnace s .

I n t h es e th e h e at i s prod uced by t h e p as s a g e of th e el e c trical

,

c urren t t h rou gh som e so l id or l i q u id re s i stor Th ey m ay b e .

di vi ded i nto two m ai n cl as se s i n on e of wh ich a sp eci al re s i stor i s

,

p rovi de d a nd i n th e oth e r th e ch arge i tse l f co n st it ute s th e re s istor

, .

Th e s econ d cl as s m ay b e s ub d ivide d i nto two cl as se s ; i n on e of

the s e t h e c urren t i s u s ed m erely t o h e at t h e ch arge wh il e i n t he ,

oth e r i t al so prod uce s el ect roly s i s of th e fu sed con te n t s of t h e

fu rn ace Th ese w i l l be tre ated for con ven ie nce a s th re e i n de
.
, ,

pe nde nt cl as se s .

I .
-
F ur 11 a ces With S p e ci al R e s i stor .

Th e re s i sto r i s a s ol i d a n d ,
is i mbe dde d i n th e w all s of t h e
fu rn ace or i n th e c h a r g e d t s e lf
, .

F ig . 12 .
-
E l e ctr i cal Tu b e F u r n a ce .

( ) I F u r n a ce s w i th th e r e s i s t o r i mb e d d e d in th e w a ll s Th e .

fu rn ace sh ow n i n F i g 1 2 m ay be t ake n as a n e x am p l e i t con s i st s

.
,

of a t ube T ofte n of porc el a i n a sp i ral of pl at i n u m w ire an d a

, , ,

h eat ret ai n in g e nvel ope or co v er i n g A n e le c t r 1c c urren t pa s se s .

t h ro u gh th e wi re an d h e at s it to a ny d esi re d te mper at u re below it s

O °
mel t i n g p oi n t 1 7 7 5 C or 3 2 2 7 F an d ult i m ately th e t ube an d it s
,
.
,
.
,

conten t s m ay be h e ated n e arl y to t h e s am e te m perat u re Th e . _

s ub s tance to be h e ate d i s pl aced i n th e t ub e T Th i s arran ge .

me n t i s conve n ie n t for h eat i n g a m ate ri al i n a ny part i c ul ar ga s ,

an d for ob ser v in g th e op e rat ion ; a s t h i s c an h e d on e t h rou gh gl as s ,

3
 22 THE E L EC T R I C F U R NAC E .

or m ic a wi n dows at th e e n d s of t h e t ub e P rovi s ion m u s t b e .

m ade for p reve nt in g th e d is pl ace m e n t an d sh ort c i rc u i ti n g of t h e

coil s of w ire w h e n exp a nded by t h e h e at Th e te m perat ure t h at .

ca n b e att ain ed i n t h i s f urn ac e d epen d s upon th e refr actory q u ali

t ie s of th e t ube an d e nvelop e a s w el l a s on t he m elti n g poi n t of
, ,

th e pl at i n u m i tsel f an d i n p r actice th e t e mpe rat ure att ai n ed

, ,

woul d be far s hort of th e m elt i n g poin t of t h e pl at i n u m w ire .

Th i s f u rn ace is
very conve n ie n t for
l abor atory e xp eri m e n t s
o n a s m al l sc al e a n d ,

at m oderate t em p e ra
t ures b u t its u s e is r e ,

s t r ic t e d by th e h i gh
price of p la tin u m T A .

s om ew h at s i m il ar f ur
n ace i n wh ich th e u s e
of pl at i n u m h a s b ee n
avoi de d is s how n i n
F i g 1 3 wh ic h r e p r e .
,

se n t s i n s ect ion al el e
v at ion an d i n pl a n ,

wit h t h e cove r B r e , ,

m ove d a s m all el ec
t r ic a l c r I Ic ible fu rn ace ,

con str ucte d at M c Gill

U n ive rs ity a nd i nte n d ,

ed for m elt i n g s m all

q u a nt it i es of m et al s I t .

coul d h owever be , ,

m ade con s iderabl y

l a r ger a n d b e u s ed ,

f or b ra s s or steel m el t
i n g Th e fu rn ace con .

PI g l 3 —E lectr 1c C r u c b l8 F “ m a c"
m t g 0f two fi re c l a y
. .

bloc k s A an d B a ,

c r ucible C a nd carbon elect rod es D a n d E A recept acl e i s form ed

, .

*
A fu n a c e i n wh i h a c u i bl o f fu s e d q u a t z
r , c r c e r i s s u oun d d rr e by h e a ti n g c o il s
Of pla t i num s t i p h a s b e n p a t e n t d b y W H B i s t o l
r e e r I nd v o l
E l e c tr o c h e m , v p
, . .
, .
, . .
, .
55 .

+ T h e s fu n a e s
e rb e ob ta e d
c s e v al f o
can In 1 11 er r m s f r o m d al e s I n e r c h e m 1e s l
ap p a a t u s A fu n a e s u i t abl e f o r h e a ti n g a s m all c
r . r c r u i bl e i s d e s c r i b d b y
c e P of r . H .

M H o w e i n h i s M e t allu r gi c al L ab o a t o r y N o te s
.
“
r ,
p 37 . .
 C LA S S I F I CA TI O N . 23

i n t h e bl oc k A to con t ai n t h e c r ucibl e an d electrode s an d broke n ,

coke F i s p acked aro u n d t h e m

, ,
T h e c urren t p as se s fro m D to .

E t h ro u g h t h e coke wh i ch becom e s hot an d h e at s t h e cr u cibl e an d ,

i ts cont en t s Th e te m per at u re c an b e re g u l at ed by a rh eost at i n

.

s erie s w i th th e f urn ace Th e wh o l e f urn ac e is e n closed i n a m et al .

box with a th ic k asb e stos l i ni n g to p reve n t los s of h eat *

.

F u rn ace s of t h i s type c a n 110w be m ade m ore s at is factorily by .

t h e u se of a speci al re s i sti n g m ater i al c alled k r yp to lt wh ich wo ul d

o
repl ace th e coke I n t h e above d e S C I l p tl o n ‘

Th e C o n le y I o r e s m el ti n g fu rn ace i s a l arge s c al e ex am pl e
of th i s cl as s O n e for m of th e C onl ey f urn ace con s i st s of a s h aft
.

dow n wh ich th e ore p as s e s an d of c arbon re s is tors i mb edded i n th e

w all s of th e furn ace Th e re s i stors are h eated by t h e p as s age of .

a c urre n t a n d co m m u n icate t h ei r h e at to th e ore p as s in g o ve r

,

th e m .

S m a l l t ube furn ace s h e ate d by sp ir al s of pl at i n u m w ire a r e ,

very u se ful for e x pe r i m en t al p urpose s b ut com merci al furn ace s on ,

th ese l i n es h ave bee n l es s s ucces sful Th i s i s m a i n ly o n acco u n t .

of th e diffi c ul ty of m ai nt a i n i n g re s i stors an d adj ace n t p art s of th e

f urn ace a n d b ec a u s e of th e slow co nd uctio n of h e at to th e ch arg e
, , ,

a n d th e l a r ge l os s of h e at t h ro u g h th e fu rn ac e wall s .

A rot ary electri c fu rn ace th e i n ner w a l l s of wh ich s erve a s ,

res is tors be i n g s u ffi c ie ntly con d uct in g w he n h e ated h a s bee n

, ,

p ate nt ed by B von I s c h e w s ky ” . .

T ub e fu rn ace s for ex peri m e n t al work i n wh ich th e t ub e i s ,

com posed of graph ite am orph o u s c arbon or oth er con d uct i n g , ,

m ateri al wh ich i s h e ate d by th e p as s age of th e el ectric c urre n t ,

h ave bee n em pl oyed by Potte r § H ar ke r H utton + T uc ke r 1 an d

*
, , , ,

o th ers .

( ) F u rn a c
2 e s w i th th e r e s i s tor imb e d d e d in th e ch a r g e .
-
Th e
re s i stor i s u s u al ly of carbon a n d h or izon t al .

*
S i m i la fu n a s h av b n d s i b d
r r ce e ee e cr e by F it z G e r a ld , El e c tr o h e m i a l I n du s t
c c ry ,

v ol . iii p p 5 5 an d
.
, . 1 35 .

J
-
K y p t ol r p , se e . 1 49 .

fu n
C on le y a ces E l e c t o c h e m i c al I n du s t y 6 a d v ol p
I r ol i
p 4 , r r ,
v . .
, 2 , n . .
4 24 .

I s h e w ky fu n a e E l e c t o c h e m i al I ndu s t y v o l p
“ c s r
4 c , r c r , . v .
, . 1 1 .

H N Po t t e E l e t o h e m i al I nd u s t y p p 88 an d p
g . . v ol i
r, 87 c r c c r , . .
, . 1 , 1 250 ; v ol . .

20 3 ; v l iiio p 3 4 6 an d o l i v p 9
. .
, .
, v . .
, . 1 1 .

J A H a k e E l e c t o c h e m i al I nd u s t y o l iii p 7 3
‘
. . r r, r c r , v . . . . 2 .

+ R S H u tt on a nd W H P a t t e r s o n E l e c t o c h e m i c al I ndu s tr y
. . . .
, r . v ol .
iii p.
, .
45 5,

IS A T u k
. . c e r. El e c tr o h m i al I n du s t y
c e c r , v ol . v .
,
p . 227,
24 T HE ELE CTR I C F U R NA C E .

F ig . l4 .
—B or ch e r s
’
R e s i s tan ce F u rn a ce .

Th e s i mplest e x a mpl e i s B orch ers ex peri m e n t al re s i s t a nc e ’

f u rn ace F i g ,
i n wh ic h a th i n pen ci l of c arb on C i s s upported
.

betwee n stou t c arbo n rod s A an d B a n d th e ch arge to b e h e ate d ,

s urrou nd s C Th e c u rre n t flow s b etwee n A an d B th ro u gh C

.
,

and m ay ra i se t h e l atter t o a wh ite h e at Th e c h ar ge serve s in .

p art as an e nvel op e t o ret ai n th e h e at .

A ch eson s carbor u n d u m fu r n ace F i g 8 i s t h e m os t i m port

’

,
.
,

a n t ex ampl e of th i s cl a s s I n th is fu rn ace t h e cond uct i n g core i s .

com posed of gr an ul ar c arbon an d i s s upport e d a n d s u rro u n d ed ,

by t h e m ate r i al to b e h e ated Th e fu r n ac e i s e ffi ci en t b ec a u s e .
,

th e h e at i s devel oped i n t h e m id st of t h e ch ar ge w h ic h serv e s to ,

ret ai n it Th e t emp erat u re can al so b e ex actl y reg ul at ed by va r y

.
"

i n g th e c u rre n t w h i l e by u s i n g a n u mber of cores a s i n t h e

, ,

S ilo x ic o n furn ace F i g 4 1 p age 1 5 4 i t i s p os s ibl e to obt ai n a

,
.
, ,

fairly u n i form tem pe rat ure t h rou gh o ut a l ar ge port ion of th e .

ch arge O n th e ot her h an d w h e n th e fu rn ace i s i n op e rat ion i t

.
, ,

i s i m pos s ib l e to re g ul at e th e res i st an ce of t h e c o r e fr an d s i n c e t h is
decre ase s con siderably as th e f urn ace beco m e s hotter th e c u rre n t ,

i f s uppl i ed at a con s t an t volt age m ay i ncreas e d ur i n g t h e wor k o f ,

th e fu rn ace u nt il i t becom es too great for th e dy n a m o or t r an s ,

form er from wh ich i t i s s u ppl i ed ; t h u s i nvolvin g t h e u s e of S pec ial

app arat u s for re g ul at i n g t h e vol t a ge A s th e m ateri al to b e .

heate d acts as an e nvel ope to ret ai n th e h e at an d as t h e ch ar g e ,

does n ot becom e fu sed th e o uter wall s c an b e of th e s i m ple s t d e ,

*
Bo h e s E l e c t i c Sm e l ti n g and R e fi n i n g 89 7 E d F i g s
rc r
’
r , 1 .
, .
54, 5 5 , 1 72 . an d El e c tr o
ch e m i al I ndu s t y
c l iii p r
5 , vo . .
, . 21 .

f i s m all fu n a e s o f th i s ty p th r e s i s t an c e o f th e c o e
n r c e e r can be re gula t e d ,
wi th i n

m o d a t l i m i t s b y pla i n g w e i gh t s o n th c h a g e
er e , c e r .
 C LA S S I F I CA TI ON . 2
5

s cription ; m e rely s ervi n g t o ret ai n th e ch ar ge i n pos it ion This .

f u rn ace wo uld not b e d i rectly a ppl ic ab l e i n ca se th e ch ar ge were

t o f u se s i nce t h e core wo ul d b ecom e broke n
,
Th e furn ace i s .

a l so e sse n ti ally i nt er m itt en t i n act i on as t h e Ch arg e c an not p a s s ,

con t i n uo u sl y t h ro u gh i t a n d on t h at acco u n t i t i s l e s s effi cie n t

, ,

s i nce i t m u s t b e all owe d t o cool between s ucce s s ive operat ion s .

A ltho u gh a core is provided i n t h is f ur n ac e t o carry th e c urre n t : 1 ,

p orti on of t h e l atte r i s u n do ub te dly c arried by th e ch arg e it s el f .

F ig . 15 .
-
Ton e
’
s R e s i s ta n ce F u rn a ce .

I n th e C owl e s fu rn ace for al u m i n i u m all oy s F i g 4 t h e ,

.
,

ch arge becom e s p artly fu sed an d n o d o ub t s erve s to c arry th e ,

c u rre n t b ut at th e be gi n n i n g of t h e operat ion th e c urren t i s c arried

,

by a c arb on core an d s o th e fu rn ace m ay b e i ncl uded i n t h is cl as s .

*
To ne s re si st ance f urn ace
’
for t h e re d uct i on of m et al s i s ,

s hown i n F i g 1 5 Th e ce nt ral re s i st i n g core C i s pl aced vert ical ly

. .

‘
U . S p at nt
. e see El e c tr o h m i al I nd u s
c e c try , v o l. ii .
, p 11 1 , and
El t i F u n a
ec r c r ce .
”
p . 1 44 .
26 T H E E LE C T R I C F U R NACE .

i n order to perm i t of cont in uou s ch arg in g wh ic h wo ul d brea k

. ,

down a h orizon t al core I t is con st r ucte d of c arbon bl ock s

.
,

*
p ile d upon e ach oth er i n s uc h a w ay a s to ob t ai n a h i gh el ectric a l
res is t ance A an d B are c arbon electrode s for m ak i n g el ectr ic a l
.

con nectio n with th e core T h e ch arge i s fed i n aro u n d C an d th e

.
,

red uced an d m elted m et al flow s th rou gh s m al l h ole s at t h e b as e

of th e furn ace i nto the recept acl es D an d E ,
.

I I — F u r n a ce s
. w i th ou t S p e c i a l R e s i s tor an d w i th ou t E le ctr ol ytic
A ction .

I n th e se fu r nace s t he m ater i al to b e he ated form s th e res i stor ,

an d m ay b e sol i d or l i q u i d or m ay b e com e m ol te n d u r i n g t h e ,

operat i on Th ey m ay accord i n gly b e d ivi ded i n to th re e cl as s e s

.

( )
1 F u r n ace s w i th s ol i d r e s i s ti n
g c on te n ts Th e m ater i al t o .

b e h eated i n th ese furn aces is s u ffi c i e ntly con d uct in g to s erv e as a

res i stor an d re m ain s sol id d uri n g t h e oper at ion of th e furn ace
,
.

S uch f urn ace s are i n con s e q u e nce u s u ally i n te r m i tt en t i n act ion

t h e ch ar ge b ei n g h eated an d all owe d to cool b efore i t c a n b e r e
m oved from th e fu r n ac e .

Th e A ch eson gr aph ite f ur n ace s for th e m an u fact u re of ,

graph ite from an th racite coal F i g 3 8 p 1 4 5 an d for g r a p h iti z ,

.
,
.
,

i n g carbon el ectrode s F i g 3 9 p 1 4 5 are th e m ost i m port an t

,
.
,
.
,

m emb ers of th i s cl as s Th e m ater i a l of th e ch a r ge i s a s uffi ci e n tly

.

good electrical con d uctor t o perm it t h e c urren t to p as s w it ho u t

n eed in g any sp eci al co nd uct i n g core an d t h e re s ul t i n g gr aph ite , ,

be i n g q u ite i n fu s ibl e re m ai n s i n p os itio n i n t h e f u rn ace wh i c h

, ,

m u s t th erefore b e all owed to cool before th e ch ar g e c a n b e r e

m oved O th e r ex ample s are t h e C owl e s zi nc fu rn ace F
. 2 ,

p 1 5 7 th e J oh n son zi n c furn ace F i g 4 3 p 1 5 8 an d t h e

.
, ,
.
,
.
,
-

s o n el ectri c wel di n g app ar at u s .

( )
2 F u r n ace s w i th m e l ti n g r e s i s ti n g c on t en ts T h e g r e a t . ,

m aj or i ty of el ectr ic s m el ti n g f ur naces are i n th is cl as s .

c u rre nt p as s es betwee n el ect rod es t h ro u gh t h e con te n t s of

fu rn ace an d t h ese con te nt s m el t an d r u n dow n i n th e fu rn ace
,

S uch furn aces are al most i nvari abl y con t i n uo u s i n act ion fres h ,

!
m ateri al bei n g s u ppl i ed at i nter v al s and th e m ol te n p rod uct s b ei ng ,

t apped o ff wh ile t he furn ace i s r u n n i n g A l mos t al l m ate ri als ! .

whe n i n a m elt in g c o nd it ion are s u fli c ie n tly co n d u ct i n g t o c arry ,

th e c urren t al th ou gh th ey m ay sc arcel y con d uct at al l whe n c ol d

, .

I n t h ese furn aces th e c u rre n t m ay p as s b etwee n a p air o f

'

l ateral electrode s as i n F i g 1 6 or i t m ay p as s from on e or mor e .

,

*T h e
fi gu re do s
e n s ho w th e a r an g e m e n t v e y c l e a l y T h e b l o c k s r e la id
ot r r r . x a

a cr o s s e a c h o th e r s o a s to fo m a h ollo w s q u a r e t o w e r w i th o p e n i n g s i n th e s id e s
r .
28 T H E E LE C T R I C F U R NAC E .

Th e H ero ul t ore s m el ti n g f urn ace F i g 2 9 p 1 0 8 ; ,

.
,
.

Ha ane l-H ero ul t f urn ace F i g 3 2 p 1 1 6 an

,
d t h e S al g ue
. s zi nc
,
.
,

f u rn ace F i g 4 5 p 1 6 0 are i n th i s cl as s
,
.
,
.
,
.

F ig . 17 .
—Sh aft F u rn a ce w i th C e ntra l E l e ctr od e .

(4 ) F u r n a ce s w i th l i q u i d re s i s tin g Con ten ts f Th e s e con s i s t of

a re fr actory reservoir cont ain in g fu se d sl a g or m et al t h ro u gh

, , ,

w h ich th e el ectric c urre n t p as s es Th e l i q u id b eco m e s s uper

.

h e ated by t h e p ass a ge o f t h e c u rren t an d is ab le t o m el t th e fre s h

-
,

m a teri al wh ich ca n be added at i nterval s or co nt i n u o u sly

,
Th e .

c urre n t i s i ntrod uced by c arbon el ectrode s by w ater cool e d m e t al ,

-

el ectrodes or by i n d uct ion

,
.

Th e D e L aval fu rn ace F ig 1 8 is i n th i s cl a s s ; i t con s i st s O F

.
,
.
,

a ch amb er A th e l ower p art of wh i ch i s d ivid ed i nto two tro u gh s

, , ,

B an d C con t ain i n g m ol te n m et al w ith wh ich el ectr i cal con t act i s

, ,

m ade by m et al term i n al s A m ol te n sl ag E fills t he f u rn ace

.
, , .
 C LA S S I F I CA T I ON .
2
9

above th e d ivid in g wal l a nd t h e electri c c u rren t flo w s be tween B

,

a n d C t h ro u gh t he m ol te n sl ag Th e sl a g becom e s s uperhe ated

.

and d i s sol ve s t h e ore F w h ich i s adde d th ro u gh a h ole K i n

, , , ,

th e top of t h e fu rn ace A ltern at i n g c u rren t s ho ul d be e mployed

.

to avoid electrol y s i s Th e sl ag s fi l l s th e f urn a c e u p to th e hol e

.
,

F at wh ic h i t overflows
,
T h e m et al i n t he tro u gh s overflows at
.

t he spo ut s G a nd H as fast a s it i s form ed

, ,
I n order t o preven t .

th e c u rre n t m elt i n g aw ay th e w al l betwee n th e t ro u gh s a wat er

cool ed m etal bl o c k J i s in s erte d
, ,E ve n wit h t h i s prec a ut ion .

F ig . 18 .
—De L a v a l O re =s me ltin g F u rn a ce .

there i s d an ge r of sh ort ci rc u it in g bec a u s e t h e m et al i n B an d C

-
,

m ay pe net rat e to t h e w ate r j ac ket J t h u s form i n g a com pl ete , ,

me t al l ic con nect ion betwee n th e f urn ace ter m in al s .

Th e S nyde r i n d uct ion s m el ti n g f ur n ace F i g 4 7 p 1 66 r e ,

.
,
.
,

se mbl e s th e L aval fu rn ace b u t t h e el ect ric c urren t i s g en erate d i n

,

th e S nyde r fu rn ace b y i nd uct ion i nste ad of bei ng l ed i n by m et al ,

term i n al s or el ectrodes .

F u rn ac es h avi n g re s i stors of l i q uid m et al are u sed i n el e c tric

steel m aki n g . S uc h furn ace s con s i st of a l on g c an al con t ai n i n g
th e m olte n steel wh ich b ecom e s h eate d b y t h e p as s ag e of t h e
3 0 T H E E LEC T R I C F U R NAC E .

elec tric c u rre n t Th e c an al i s u s u ally fol de d b ac kw ard s an d

.

forwards for comp act nes s an d to red uce t h e los s of h e at ,

Th e .

c u rre n t m ay be le d i n th ro u gh water coole d m et al term i n al s as i n -

,

th e G in f urn ace F i g 2 8 p 1 0 4 ; b ut i t is prefer ably ge nera te d

,
.
,
.

d i rectly i n t he m olte n m et al by i nd uct ion th e c an al for m i n g th e ,

s hort ci rc u ited secon d ary w i n di n g of a t ran sfor m e r a s i n the

-
,

K j e ll in steel f urn a ce F i g 2 4 p 9 3 ; t he G ro nw al l s teel f urn ace

,
.
,
.
,

F i g 2 6 p 1 0 0 and th e C olby stee l fur n ace F i g 2 5 p 9 7 a n d

.
,
.
, ,
.
,
.
,

F ron ti spi ece .

III .
—E l e ctr ol yti c F u rn ace s .

I n th ese furn aces th e power of a con t i n uo u s c urr e n t to d ivi de

a fu sed ch em ical compo u n d i nto two com pone n t p art s is ut il i zed ,

wh ile th e he ati ng e ffect of th e c urre n t i s al so n e e d e d t o keep th e

con te n t s of th e fur n ace i n a st at e of fu sion Mos t ch e mi c al com .

po u nd s c an b e decomposed i n th i s w ay b u t som e b e h av e l i k e th e ,

met al s an d al loy s a nd c arry t h e c urre n t w i th ou t s u ff e ri n g d e

,

composit ion M ix t u res o f two or m or e co m po u n d s are ofte n

.

em pl oyed a s th i s facil it ate s t h e pa s s ag e of t h e c urre n t an d

,

re nders th e ch ar ge m or e fu s i bl e .

F ig . 19 .
—
El e ctr o ly ti c F u rn a ce .

F i g 1 9 re pre sen t s a furn ace for th e el ect rolys i s of fu sed zin c

.
,

ch l or i de I t con s i st s of a ch amber A con t ain i n g th e fu sed chlor id e

, , , ,

B Th e p o s mv e electrod e C i s m ad e pf c arbon an d d i p s i n to
.

, , ,
 C LA S S I F I CA T I ON .

th e elec troly te wh ile th e fu sed zi nc D re s ult i n g from th e opera

, , ,

tion form s th e n e g ative el ectrod e ; electric al conn ect ion be in g

,

m ade with i t at E . Th e p as s age of t h e c urre n t sp l it s t he z i nc

ch lorid e i n to zi n c w h ich collect s at D an d chlori n e w h ich i s
, , ,

l ibe rate d at th e el ectrode C an d i s w i th dr awn fro m t h e fu rn ace

, ,

by t h e p ipe F,
. A cyl in der G p as se s t h rou gh the roof of th e
, ,

furn ace a n d cl ip s i nto th e fu sed el ectro l y te to e n abl e fre s h chlor i d e

,

to b e ad de d wi thou t all ow in g th e chl ori n e to e sc ape .

'
F urn ace s for th e p rod uctio n of al u m i n i u m (F i gs 5 an d .

5 )2 a r e al so el ectrolyt ic .

Th e cl as si fi c at io n adopted i n th i s ch apte r i s s h own

d ia g r a m a tic a lly on t h e n ex t pa ge ; a n e x ample of e ach typ e be in g
g i ven .
3 2 THE E L E C T R I C F U RN A CE .
 E F F I C I ENC Y AND C O S T .
33

C H APT E R III .

E F F I C I E N C Y O F E L E C T R I C A N D O TH E R F U R N A C E S ,

A ND R E L A TI V E C O S T O F E L E C T R I CA L A N D
F U E L H E AT .

E l e c t ric ity woul d ge ne rally b e preferabl e t o fuel for p rod ucin g

he at i f i t we re n ot t h at th e cos t of ele ctrical e n ergy i s al mos t in
,

vari ably g re ate r a n d u s u a ll y m any t i m e s gre ate r t h an th at of a n

,

e q u ivale n t am o u n t of fu el I n cert ai n oper at ion s s u ch a s th e

.
,

prod u ct ion of c arbor u n d u m or g raph ite electricity m u s t b e e m ,

ployed bec a u se a s u fli c ie n tly h i gh te m per at ure c an n ot b e obt ain ed

,

by t he comb ust ion of fuel I n oth e r op er at ion s s uch as th e p ro

.
,

d uct ion of al u m in i u m th e electroly t ic act ion of th e electric c u r

,

re n t i s e s se nt i al to t h e proce s s A l ar ge n u mber of m etal l u rg ic al

.

operation s h owever were c arrie d o n s ucce s sfull y before ele c tric

, , .

s m elt i n g w a s th o u gh t of ; a nd for s uch p urpose s el ectricity i s on ly

e mploye d wh e n i t s gre ater e ffi c ie ncy an d co nve n ience o ut w e i gh .
-

th e u s u al ly gre ate r cost I t h a s recen tly bee n re al ized t h at

.

electricity c an som et i m e s e c o n o m ic a llv rep l ace coal or coke a s a

h e at i n g age n t i n oper at ion s s uch a s th e s m e l t i n g of zin c or e ve n
n o n ore s or i n t h e p rod uct io n of steel
,
.

I n comp ari ng elect ric ity an d coal we m ay co n s ider how m uch ,

h e at e ac h wil l p rod uce or h ow m uc h el ectr ical e ne rgy w i l l b e

,

n eeded to p rod uc e a s m u ch h eat a s on e po u nd of coal w o ul d y iel d

on b ur n i n g O n e u n it or k il owat t hou r of el ectr ical e n er gy w i l l

.

p rod uce B T U (B rit i s h Th e rm al U n it s ) of h e at an d on e

. . .
, ,

po un d of good q ual ity coal w il l p rod uce abo u t B T U . . .

Th u s fou r k i lowat t ho u rs are n eeded to prod uce a s m uc h h eat a s

on e po u n d of coal .

F or s m al l con s u m ers b uyi n g el ectric al e n ergy for l i gh t in g at

,

1 0 or 1
5 cen t s a u n i t an d coal at $ 6
,
o r $ 7 a ton t h e cos t of ,

el ectric al h eat w oul d be on e or tw o h u n d re d t i m e s t h at of coal h eat .

A s a ye a r con s i st s of h o u rs on e k i l owat t wo ul d y iel d if , ,

ope rated con t in uou sly for th at t i m e n e arly B T U ,

. . .
,

or on e el ectrica l H P ye ar wo ul d y iel d 2 2
. . B T U ; an d , . . .

as on e ton of coal wil l p rod uce abo u t B T U i t w il l . . .

,

be see n t h at an electric al H P ye ar p rod uce s ab o u t 2 5 pe r cen t . . .

l es s h e at th an a to n of good coal ; or on e ton of coal would pro

d uce a s m u ch h eat a s 1 % E H P ye ars I f an electr ical H P
. . . . . .

ye ar co uld b e p urch ase d for $ 3 0 an d a ton of coal for $ 4 t h e cost ,

of electric al h e at p e r B T U woul d b e te n t i me s th e cost of coal

,
. . .

h e at
34 T H E E LEC T R I C F U R NAC E .

I n l oc al it ie s wh ere w ater power c an b e ch e aply d eveloped a nd -

,

w h ere t ran sp ort at ion ch ar ge s for coal an d coke are h i gh i t m ay b e ,

p os sibl e to prod uce el ectr ical power at $ 1 0 or l e s s p er E H P . . .

y ear i n l ar ge amo u n t s as wo ul d b e n ece s s ary for el ectri c fu rn ace

,

*
w ork an d coal m ay cos t $ 6 or $ 8 wh il e furn ace coke m i gh t cost
, ,

eve n m ore t h an th at U n der s uch con d it ion s t h e cos t of electr ical .

he at wo uld b e l e s s th an twic e th at of co al h e at an d wo ul d a p ,

p r ox i m at e to th e cost of h e at fu rn i s h ed by good fu rn ace coke .

I t m i gh t appe ar fro m th es e fi g ure s t h at el ectr ical h e at in g ,

co ul d not be pro fi t ably e m pl oyed excep t u n der t h e m os t e x t re m e ,

con d i t ion s of ch e ap p ower an d de ar fuel b u t i t s h o u ld b e r e ,

l

m embered th at i n a n el ectri c f urn ace a l ar ge pro p ort ion of th e

‘

h eat s uppl ied i s act u ally ut il ize d i n h e atin g t h e m ater i al s i n th e .

fu rn ace wh il e i n a coal fi r e d fu rn ace th i s i s n ot alw ay s th e c as e

,
-
,

an d often p artic ul arly i n h ig h t emp erat ur e f urn ace s th e gre a ter

, ,

p art of th e h e at i s waste d an d on ly a s m all proport ion i s a c t u ally ,

util ized .

Th e e ffi ci en cy of a furn ace m ay b e de ter m i n ed by fi n d i n g wh a t

proportion of th e h eat val ue of th e coal or t h e el ectric al e n er g y
S ti l i
p p e d i s act u ally ut il ized i n h e atin g th e conte n t s of t h e fu rn ace
, .

Th e followi n g t abl e t g ive s typic al e ffi cie ncies for a n u mb er of

f urn ace s .

T A BL E I I .

Net E ffi ci en ci e s of F u rn a ce s u s e d for M e l ti n g M e tals .

C r ucibl e s teel furn aces , fi red wi th cok e

R everberatory furn ace s for m el t in g m et al s 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

R e gen erat ive ope n h earth ste el fu rn ace s -

S h aft
furn aces (fo un dry c upol as etc ) ,
.

L arge electri cal fu rn ace s

"‘
Pr 0 f .
C
Lu c k e ( E l e c t o c h e m i c al I nd u s t y v o l v p 3 Jun e
. E .
, r
g iy e s
r , . .
, . 2 0, ,

th e c o s t o f w a t p o we r a s to $ 5 p e r K W
e r-
y e ar D R S H u t t o n ( E l e c tr o 2 . . . r. .
-
e

h e m c a l I n d u s tr y v l v g i v e s fi gu r e s f o r c h e a p w a t e r p o we r
.
,
c 1
p 4 J anu a y , o . .
, . 2 , r , -

f r o m $ 0 p e r H P y e a r a t N i ag a r a t o $ 3 p e r H P y e a r i n N o r w a y D r
,

v a ry m g 2 . .
, . .
~

s a y s h e i s c r e d i bl y i n fo r m e d th a t th e wa t e r
. _ .

H a n e l ( E u op an R e po r t
9 4 p
a , r e 1 0
, , .
-v

po w r a t C h a t s F all s c a n b e d v e lop e d a t a c o s t t o p r odu c e an B H P y e a r a t th e

e e

r a te o f
. . .

+ e f gu e s a e t ak e n f o m P o f J W R i c h a r d s
Th i r r
M e t a llu r g i c a l C al c ula ti o n s
r r ’ “ "

P a t p 89
. . .
,
r . 1 , . .
3 6 T H E E LEC T R I C F U R N C E A
.

i n dic at e th e l os s of h e at th e upper edg eof e ach are a sh owi n g th e ,

m i n i m u m an d t he l ower ed ge t h e m ax i m u m los s for e ach C las s

, ,

of fu rn ace Th e di agr am al so sh ows th at for o n e h e at e q u ival e n t

.

s uppl i ed t o a n electr ic fu r n ace ; a s h aft f urn ace wo ul d re q u i re

.

ne arly two ; a n ope n h e art h furn ace th ree ; a reverber atory fu rn ac e -

s ix ; an d a cr ucibl e s teel f urn ace th irty h e at e q u ival e n t s of fuel in

‘

order to m el t th e s ame am o u n t of m et al .

I f th es e n u mbers are u s ed to m ul tiply th e cos t of a to n of th e

coal or cok e u sed as s u m i n g i t to b e of a bo u t ,
th e

res ult in g p rice s m ay b e com p ared wi th t h e cost of l yz E H P , . . .

ye ars an d will gi ve a n i de a wh eth er coal or el ectric al h e at in g

,

wo ul d be ch e aper i n an y p art ic ul ar c as e T h u s I n m ak i n g .

cr ucibl e s te e l w i th fur n ace cok e at $ 5 an d th e E H P ye ar at . . .

$ 3 0 th e cok e u sed woul d cos t

,
an d th e electric al
e ne rgy wo ul d cos t t h u s m ak i n g a good ca se f o r
th e el ect rical prod uct ion of cr uc ibl e s te el I n t h e ca s e of t h e op en .

he art h f urn ace el ectric al e n er gy at $ 1 0 a n E H F ye ar wo u ld

,
. . .

cos t a l ittle more t h an coal at $ 4 a ton wh il e i t wo ul d corre sp on d ,

*
wi th cok e at $ 6 to $ 7 a ton i n a s h aft f u rn ace .

Th e se n u mber s are b as ed o n th e m e an of th e fi g u re s give n -

by P rof R i ch ard s for th e u s u al e ffi cien ci e s of ce rt a in cl as s e s of

.

fu rn ace s ; an d i n any selecte d c as e i t wo u ld b e de s i r abl e to h ave

th e effi cie ncie s of th e p art i c ul ar el ectric al a n d f uel fu rn ace s t o b e
comp ared Th e i ncide nt a l ex p e n s e s co n n ecte d wit h e ach m eth od
.

of s m el tin g s h ould al so b e con s id ered .

Th e re s ul t s do n e ve rth el e s s g i v e a fair id e a of t h e con d it ion s

, ,

u n der wh i ch el ectr i cal h e at co ul d co m m erc i a l ly repl ac e fu el h e a t .

' f

Th ey s how cl earl y th at i n t h e p rod uction o f cr uc ibl e stee l , ,

electrical power sho ul d b e able t o repl ace cok e a s a s o u r c e of h e at '

Th e write r poi nted o ut m ore t h a n t h ree ye ars ye ars a go t t h at th e , ,

p rod uct ion of cr ucibl e s teel i n th e el ectric fu rn ace wa s tech n ical ly

an d fi n anc i a l ly p os s ibl e an d pl an t s are n ow i n ope rat io n or c on ,

str uct i on i n S w eden G e rm an y E n gl an d th e U n i ted S t at es C an , , , ,

ada an d el sewh ere

, .

I n com p arin g t h e cost of el ectric al an d fu el h e at i n g i t h a s ,

bee n as s u m ed th at t h e ful l h eat v al u e wa s obt a i ned fro m th e

electrical h ors e powe r ye ar To obt ai n -
. t h i s i t wo ul d be mece s
,

s ary for th e fur n ace s to b e operated a t t h ei r f ul l lo ad for e v ery

*
Se e al s o El H at v s u s F u el El o c h e m i c al I n
O O

e d I to r I a l
0

ec tr i c e er H e a t fr o m
‘
, e c tr

d u s tr y , v ol . v .
,
p . 2 98 .

+ S t a n s fi e ld , T h e El e c tr o h m i P o d u tio n of I o n a n d S t l T an s C an
t er c r c r ee , r Soc .
~

of
C i v il E n g i xv iii
. .

neer s , vo l . .
, P art I ,
p .
72 .
 E F F I C I ENCY A N D C O S T .

37

m in ute of t he ye ar a n d a ny sh ut down or any per i od d u rin g

,
-
,

w h ich a s m all e r a mo u n t of power w a s be in g u t i l ized wo ul d le s sen ,

the u seful e ffect w it hou t a ny corre spon d in g red uct ion i n t h e

,

amo u nt paid for th e po w e r ; a s i t is bou gh t by th e ye ar an d n ot ,

by t h e tot al k ilowatt h ou r s con s u m ed -

I n t he c ase of fuel fi r e d .
-

furn ace s a sh ut do w n or a period of red uced o ut p ut w il l in cre as e

,
-
, ,

the work in g cos t pe r ton of p rod uct ; b u t n ot t o the sa m e ex te n t ,

as th e fuel i s u s u a l ly bo ug h t by t h e ton an d n ot on som e a s s u m e d ,

st and ard of m ax i m u m con s um pt i on Th e t i me d u r i n g wh ich a .

si n gl e el ectric furn ace is sh u t dow n for rep airs wi l l n ece s s arily in

c re as e dec idedly t h e w ork i n g cos t of e l ect r i ca l e ne rg y
; b u t w h en
e l ectric s me l t in g h as becom e well e st abl i sh ed th e l os ses i n th i s ,

way w ill n ot be h e a v y I n t h e re g u l ar operat ion of an e l ect r i c

.

s m el t i n g pl an t t here w il l be few acc i de nt al s h ut down s al l work

,
-
,

i n g fu rn ace s will be kept at a ste ady l oad a nd by m e an s of sp ar e , ,

furn ace s th e f ull l oad w i l l be m ai n t a i n ed d uri n g th e per i od ic al

,

l ay o ff of e ach fu rn ace for rep a i rs

-
.

H a v i n g n ow con s idered i n a ge n eral m an n e r the e ffi c i e ncy

, ,

of f u rn ace s an d th e re l at i v e cost s of e l ectric al a n d f ue l he at in g ,

th e m eth od of c alc ul at in g t h es e effi c i en c i e s m ay b e d i sc u s sed .

Th e C a l cu l ati on of F u rn a ce Effi cie n cie s .

*

Th e word h eat i s u sed pop ul a rl y i n two s en se s ; t h u s t h e

he at of a furn ace m ea n in g h ow h ot th e furn ace i s i s q u i te d i s
,
”

ti nct from t h e a mo u n t of h e at p rod uced i n th e fu rn ace pe r m i n ut e ,

or th e am o u n t of h e at n eed ed to t u rn a poun d of ice i nt o a po u n d

of water Th e fi r s t u s e i s re all y a q u al ity of th e h ot body an d t o
.
-

a v oid con fu s ion th e w ord t e mp erat u re sh oul d be u s ed i n s uch

cas e s wh i le th e word h eat sh o u l d be re str icted to th e secon d c as e
, ,

i n wh ich t h e q u an t i ty of h e at i s referred to A de fi n ite q u an ti t y .

of h e at c an b e s u ppl ied at a h i gh or a low te m pe rat ure j u st as a ,

de fi n ite q u anti ty of a i r ca n be s upp l ied at a h i gh or a l ow pre s s u r e ;

an d t h e add i t ion of h e at to a body ra i se s th e tem perat ur e j u st i n ,

th e s ame w ay th at p u m p i n g a i r i n to a rece i v er rai se s th e pre s s ure .

Te m perat u re s are m e as ured a s i s we l l k no w n by th er , ,

m o m e te r s or pyrom eters (t h e l atte r for h i gh te mperat u re s ) an d ,

th e s cale s of th e se i n st r u m e n t s are b ased u pon t h e te mperat ure s

° °
of m el t i n g ice an d b oil i n g wate r t h es e be in g 0 an d 1 00 on th e ,

° °
C en t i grade sc al e an d 3 2 an d 2 1 2 on th e F ah re n he it sca l e
,
Th e .

u se of t he s e two scale s com p l ic ate s tech n i ca l l i te rat ure s ince t h e ,

*
a full a c c oun t w i t h e x am pl e s o f th e c al c ula t i o n of fu n a c e e ffi Ci
F or , , r e n c ie s , se e

P r of J W R i h a d s M e t allu gi c al C al c ula ti o n s P a t s I I I an d I I I
. . . c r
’ “
r ,
”
r .
, .
, .

4
38 T H E E LE C T R I C F U R NAC E .

C e nt i gr ade i s m ai nly u sed for sc ien t i fi c p u rposes wh il e th e F ah re n ,

hei t i s m ai nly u sed for ord i n ary affa i rs , a n d i t i s oft en n ec e s sary

“

to s t ate t e m perat ure s on both sc a l e s I n order to b e gen er ally u n der

s tood Th e conve rs ion from on e sc al e to th e oth er i s s i mpl e if
.

° °
i t i s re m e mbered th at t h e te m per at u re s 0 C an d 1 0 0 C ; a r e the .

° °
s am e as 3 2 F an d 2 1 2 F an d t h at 5 d i ffere nce of te mp er at u re
°
. .
,
°
on t he C e nti grad e sca l e corre spond to 9 d i ffere nce of t e m p e r at u re
on th e F ah ren he i t scal e ; wh e nc e an d
°
(F .

H e at i s m e as ured i n s ev e ral d iffere n t u n it s t h u s f urth er com ,

p l icat in g tech n i cal wr i t in gs m os t of th es e u n i t s rep re s e n ti n g th e ,

a mo u n t of h e at n ee ded to ra i se t h e t e m per at u re of u n it w ei gh t o f
w ater t h rou gh B y s el ect i n g di fferen t wei gh t s of wat er a s th e ,

po u n d gr am o r k ilogr a m an d d i ffere n t te m pera tu re s c ale s it is

, , , ,

e asy to get s i x or ei gh t d i ff e re n t u n its of h eat t h u s e n t ail i n g a ,

l arge a m ou nt of t ro ubl e both i n t h e st ate me n t of am ou n t s of h eat ,

an d i n ch an gi n g th e s e from on e sy st e m of u n i t s to a n oth e r .

Th e foll owin g h e at u n i t s are u s u a l ly u sed

Th e Gr a m —
c al ) Th e a m o u n t of h e at n ee ded t o ra i se
=ca lorie . .

t he tem per at ure of on e g ra m of water 1 C (from 0 C to °

.
°
.

Th e Kilog r a m =C a l or i e .
—
C al ) T h e am o u n t of h e at n eeded
. to

r ai se th e te mperat ure of on e k i lo gr am of w at e r 1
°
C .

Th e Pou n d =C a lor ie — Th e am ou n t of h e at n eed e d to

. C a lb .
)
°
rai se th e te mperat u re of on e p ou n d of w at er 1 C .

Th e Bri ti sh T h e r m a l U n i t B T U ) — Th e am o u n t of h ea t . . . .

'
°
n eeded to r a is e th e t em per at u re of on e po u n d of w at er 1 F ,
.

°
( fro m 6 0 F to .

Th e E v a p ora ti v e U n i t Th e a mo u n t of h e at n e eded to con vert .

°
o n e pou nd of w ater at 2 I 2 F i nto s tea m at t h e s a m e te m p e ra .

t ure (at n orm al at mos ph eri c p re s s ure ) .

*
v alu e o f th e g a m alo i e d e p e n d s up o n th e s p i fi h e a t o f wa t e b e t w e e n O O G
Th e r c r ec c r .

a nd ° C an d th a t o f th B T U o n i t s p i fi h e a t b e t w e e n 6 °F a nd 6 °F R e c e n t de
1 .
, e . . . s ec c 0 . 1 .

te m i n a ti o n s ( H T B a r n s T h e m h an i al e q u i val e n t o f h e a t m e a s u e d b y e l c tr i c al
‘
r , . . e . ec c r e

m e an s I t E l t C o n g s s S t L ou i s 9 4 p
, n . ec . Sh o w re t h a t th e s p e c i fi c h e a t a t
, .
, 1 0 , .

0 ° C i s ab o u t w o u l d m an t h a t i n c o nv e r tin
'

.
p n t g e a t
1 e t h aner t 6 °F ceTh i . r r
g a 0 . s e

D o u d c alo i e s i n t o B T U n i t s b y t h e fa t o r an e r o r of ab ou t p e r ce n t w ould '

n r . . c r 1 .

b e m ad A l s o a s t h m a s u m n t o f h e a t i s u su ally c o n du t e d b e t w e e n 5 ° C an d
e . e e re e c 1

20 °C a c o n s i d abl e c o t io n w i ll h av
er t o b e m ad e t o e du c e th e r e s ul t s t o
rre c alo i e s e r c r

a s m e a s u r d a t 0 ° C F th e s e an d o th e e a s o n s i t h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t th e
e . or r r

cal o i s h ould b b a s e d o n th e m an s p e c i fi h e a t of w a t e r f o m 0° C t o
r e e °C T hi s
e c r . 1 00 .

valu i s p a c t i c all y th e s am e a s i f m a s u r d t 5 ° C
e r r a t 6 °F Th e m e h a i c a l e e a 1 .
, o 0 . c n

e q u i val e n t o f e g am al o i eon o f h e a t m e a
r s u e d a t 5
°C ci s ab o u t r
j o ul e s m ak r 1 .
,

i g th
n h a t v alu o f k i l ow a t t s o nd
e e e C al s or
1 C a lb e c , .
, .
 E F F I C I ENCY A ND CO S T .
39

Th e fol low i n g are t he rel at ion s between t he se d i ffere n t u n it s

*
1 K ilog ram C alorie -
G ra mc alorie s -
.

I P o u n d C al ori e -
G ra m c al ories -
.

1 Brit i s h Th erm al U n i t of a Po u n d C alorie -

.

I 2
5 2 G r am c alor ie s -
.

I E vapor at ive U n it -
6
9 7 Briti sh Th erm al U n it s .

The gr a m a n d k il ogr a m c al orie s are th e m os t con ven ie n t for -

sc ie n t i fi c i nve st i gat ion s b ut i n case s wh ere th e wei gh t s a r e give n

,

i n po u nd s th e po u n d c alor i e or t h e B T U m u st u s u ally be e m
-
. . .

pl oye d .

Th e effi c e ncy of a
i fu rn a ce
i s th e rat io betwee n the am o u n t of
h e at u se fully e mployed i n t h e furn ace an d th e h e at v al ue of t he
fuel or el ectric al en e rgy s u pp l i e d : t h u s i f 1 00 po un d s o f s te e l ca n ,

be m el te d i n a cr ucibl e furn ace by th e u s e of 1 5 0 pou n d s of c oke ,

a n d if 3 00 po u n d c a l ori e s are n eeded to m el t on e po u n d of steel

-

( th i s h avi n g bee n de ter m i n ed by ex peri m en t ) a n d if on e po u n d ,

o f coke c a n f urn i s h po u n d cal ori e s (fo u n d by ex pe rim e n t ) -

,

th e e ffi c i e ncy of th e furn ace c an a t on ce b e obt ain ed -

.

W ei gh t of s te el h e at needed to m el t 1 lb . s teel .

E ffi c ie n c y
W ei gh t of coke h e at fu rn i sh ed by 1 lb . coke .

1 00 lb s .
X
3 00 C a lb .

E ffi c i en cy —o . o28

1
5 0 l bs .
x C a lb .

Th e s tat e m e n t t h at 3 00 po un d c al or ies are n eede d to m elt -

on e po u nd of ste el m e an s th at if t o on e p ou n d of col d ste el t h ere

, ,

co ul d be add ed 3 00 po u nd c al orie s of h e at wi th ou t an y of th e -
,

he at bein g lost th e steel wo ul d b e h e ate d to i t s m el tin g poi n t an d

,

mel ted I t i s of cou rse i m pos s ibl e to d o th i s b u t by po u rin g

.
, , ,

*
In ord er d i s ti n g u i sh b e tw e e n t h k i lo g a m c al o e and th e g r a m c alo r i e i t i s
to e r ri

u s u al t o u s e a C f o r t h e fi s t and a c f o th e s e c o nd thu s
r , ki lo gr a m c a lo r i e s
r , 1 00

wo uld b e w i t t e n 00 C l an d 00 g a m c alo i e s would b e

r 1 a .
, 1 r cal P r o f R i ch ar d s
r 1 00 . .

s u g g e s t s ( p r i va t e c o m m un i c a t i o n ) t h a t th e s am e r ul e sh oul d b e follo w e d wi th p oun d

c alo i e s an d oun c e c a lo r i e s ( i f s u h s h o uld e v e r b e n e e d e d )
r c T h e s e wo ul d b e w ri tt e n .

1 00 l b . C l and
a . 00 o z
1 e ] A s lo n g a s t h e lb o r o z i s s p e c i fi e d t h e l a r g e o s m a ll
. a . . . r

c ar e o nl y u s e ful f o an alo g y an d th e l b c ould n o t b e o m i tte d wi th o u t c onfu s i o n w i t h

r , .

k i lo C a L T h e a u th o r su g g e s t s th e c o n tr a c ti o n C a lb f o r p oun d c alo ri e s .
,
-
.
 4 0 THE E LEC T R I C F U R NA CE .

so m e m olte n steel i nto a ves sel of water an d n oti n g th e r i se of ,

te mperat ure of th e w ater t h e n u mbe r of c alories g ive n o u t by t h e

,

s teel i n cool i n g c an b e dete rm in ed an d th i s i s obvio u sly th e s am e ,

a s th e amou n t of h e at needed to m el t th e s teel Th e n u mb er of .

c alorie s be i n g e q u al to th e prod uct of th e wei gh t of w ate r an d it s

r i se of te mperat ure Correct ion s b ei n g m ad e for th e h e at a b
,

sorbed by th e ve s sel an d othe rw i s e l ost d uri n g t h e e x p e r i

m e nt .

Th e am o u n t of h e at n eeded to m elt o n e po u n d of e ach of th e

com m on m et al s an d th e te m pe rat u re a t w h ic h th ey m el t are g iven
, ,

i n th e followi n g t abl e ; th e fi g u re s h ave al l bee n obt ain e d by e x

e r i m e n t with th e ex cept ion of t h e h e at of fu s ion of wro u gh t iron
p , ,

wh ich h as bee n c alc ul ate d

TAB L E I I I .

M e l ti n g Te mp e r atu re s of M e ta l s an d A m ou n ts , of H e at R e q u ire d
to M e l t Th e m .

Met a l .
M el ti n g Tem p erat u re H e at to m e l t 1 lb .

*
C F BT U
L
. . C a lb n . . .

Ti n 2
32
°

L e ad 3 7
2
°

Z i nc 1
4 9
°

Al u m i n i u m 657
°

Bras s (6 5 % copp er ) 9 0
2 .
°

C opper 1 08
4
°

C ast i ron I (wh ite ) 1 02

7 1 1
° °
35
-

(gray )
° °
1 1 00 12
75
-

Tool s teel (1 % c arbon ) 1 2

4 5
°

W rou gh t i ro n or de ad “

soft s teel 3 43 61

Th e fi g u re s in th e l ast t w o col u m n s re al ly rep res en t t he

am ou n t of he at g ive n out by on e po u n d of th e m et al i n c ooli n g
*
M l ti n g t e m p e r a tu e s o f p u e m e t al s a s g i v e n b y D J A H a r k e r T h e
e r r r

i s i t s m l t i n g t e m p e a tu e w h n p r o t c t e d f r o m o x i d a t i o n
. . . .

f or c opp e r, e r r e e

o f c h a r c o al f o e x am pl e O x i d iz e d op p e r m e l t s
,
c ov er r . c

+ T h e s e fi gu s a r e m a i nl y f o m R i c h a d s
re r M e t allu r g i c al C al c ula ti o n s
r
’ “

M e l ti g t e m p e r a tu r e s o f C a s t I r o n w e e d e t e r m i n e d b
I y P of H M H owe
n
r r Se e
h i s M e t allu g i al L abo r a t o r y N o t e s p
. . .
,

r c 12
5 , . .
 E F F I C I ENC Y AND C O S T .
4 1

° °
fro m t h e m olt e n s tat e to 3 2 F I n h e at i n g th e m et al from 6 0 or
.

°
7 0 F rath e r le s s h e at wil l be n eeded b ut on th e other h an d som e
.
, ,

a d di t ion al h eat wil l b e re q u ire d i n ord er t h at t h e m et al sh al l b e

thorou ghly m elted a n d t h e h eat a ct u ally n eede d t o h e at t h e m etal

,

to a c asti n g te m pe rat u re will b e a l ittl e m ore th an t h e fi g u re s in

t h e t abl e .

Th e amo u n t of h e at th at ca n b e p rod uced fro m on e po u n d of

coke ca n be deter m i n ed by b urn i n g a s m al l wei gh ed q u ant i ty of
,
.

t h e coke i n a c alori m et e r ; wh ich i s a n i n s tr u m e n t for m ea s u rin g

t h e a mo u nt of h e at t h at i s prod uced Th e am o u n t of h e at pro .

d u c e d by u n it wei gh t of a fuel i s k nown a s its c al ori fi c power an d , ,

i s u s u ally m e a s u red i n t h e corre spond i n g h e at u n it s ; th at i s h e at ,

u n it s con t ain i n g t h e s a m e u n i t of we i gh t ; a s fo r ex am pl e t h e ,
'

n u m ber of gr a m c al ori e s p rod uce d by on e gr a m of f uel ; t he n u mber

of po u n d c al ori e s p rod uced by on e po u n d of fuel or t h e n u mb e r of ,

B T U p rod uced by on e po u n d of f uel

. . . Th e fi rs t two of t he s e .

re s ul t s wil l obv io u s l y b e i de nt ic al a n d m ay b e c all e d th e C e n t i ,

g rade c alori fi c power wh il e t h e l as t r es u l t wil l b e,

t i me s a s
l arge an d m ay b e call ed th e F ah re n h e it c alori fi c powe r
,
Th u s .

th e c alori fi c p ower of c arbon i s o n th e C e nt i gr ad e s ca l e t l u ,

. l

on t h e F ah re n h eit sc al e m ea n i n g t h at on e p art by we i gh t ,

of c arbo n wo uld give o ut as m uch h e at if com pl etely b urn t as , ,

°
wo ul d r ai s e th e t e mp erat ure of p art s of w ater 1 C or 1 4 .
, ,
°
5 8 0 p art s of w ater I F so t h e re s ul t i s th e
. s am
,
e wh atever u n it ,

of wei gh t i s selected W h en h owever t h e fuel i s m e as u re d by

.
, ,

vol u m e a s i n t h e c as e of a g as i t wil l b e n ece s s ary to s tat e t h e

, ,

c alori fi c power as so m any B T U p er c ub i c f oot or c alorie s pe r . . .

,

c ubic foot or p er c ub ic me ter C a lo r i fi c p ower s a re a l so so m e

,
.

t i m e s s tated i n evaporat ive u n it s t h u s avoidi n g th e u s e of e it h er ,

scal e of te m perat ure .

I n m any fu rn ace s t h e carbon i n th e fuel i s not b urn t com plet ely ,

an d i t t he n h a s a s m al le r e ffect ive c alori fi c power T h e com .

p l e te co mb ust ion of c arbon p rod uce s t h e g as C O 2 con ta i n i n g t w o ,

a to m s of oxy ge n wh il e it s i ncom pl et e comb u st ion prod uce s t h e

,

g as C O con t ain i n g onl y o n e atom of oxy gen

,
T h e c al or i fi c .

power i n th e l atter c ase be i n g only 2 4 3 0 C or 4 3 7 4 F wh ich i s ,

.
, ,
.
,

l es s th an one t h ird of it s calori fi c p ower wh e n b urn t c om pl etely

-
.

Th e i ron bl a st furn ace fu rn ish e s a good ex am pl e of t h i s l os s of

-

h eat t h ro u gh th e i m perfect comb u st ion of th e coke I n order to .

t horo ughly red uce th e iron ore to m et al a l arge a mo u n t of co ke

m u st b e p rese nt i n th e fu rn ace an d th i s c a n o nly be b urn t to C O ,

i n t h e l ow er p art of th e fu rn ace th u s ob ta i n i n g far l e s s h e at fro m ,

t h e s am e wei gh t o f cok e th a n i f i t co ul d b e b u rn t com pl etely to

-
4 2 T HE E LEC T R I C F U R N A C E .

CO2 Th e C O p rod uce d i n th e l ower p art of th e f urn ac e i s , h ow

.

eve r p artly ut il ized h i gh e r up for th e red u ct ion of .th e iron o r e

, , , ,

a n d t h e C O t h at fi n ally escap es from th e fu rn ace i s

e mploye d a s a fu el for h eat i n g th e bl as t an d for r ai s i n g
st e am .

I n determ i n i n g th e c alori fi c power of a fu el i n a c alori m e ter ,

th e a q ueo u s vapor re s ul ti n g f ro m t h e b u rn in g of a ny hy droge n i n

th e fuel an d any m oi st ure an d com bi ne d w ate r i n t h e f u e l w il l
,
“ ”

b e con de n sed to w at e r ; a nd its l ate n t h e at of con de n s atio n will b e

i ncl ude d i n th e re s ult i n g c alori fi c p ower W h e n t he fuel is b u r n t .

i n any m et all urgic al f urn ace th e fu rn ace gase s es cape at too h i gh

,

a t em perat ure to al low of t h e con de n s at io n of th e vapor and in ,

calc ul at i n g f ur n ace effi cie ncies a c alori fi c powe r s houl d be u sed

wh ich does n ot i ncl ude th e h eat of con den s at ion of th e w at er
v apo u r s ince t h is h e at c an n ever b e obt ain ed i n t h e fu r n ace T he
,
.

ob served c alori fi c p owe r sh o ul d th erefore b e correct ed by s u b , ,

s t r a c t in g from i t t h e h e at o f con den s at ion of all th e water v ap or

.

t h at is pre se n t i n th e fuel or is prod uce d by its com b u st ion

, Th e .

corrected val u e h as bee n c all e d t h e M et all u r gic al or P r acti ca l

*
C a lo r i fi c Powe r an d s h oul d be u s ed i n t h e c as e of al l fu rn ace s
,

from wh ich th e w ater con t ai ned i n t h e fu rn ace g as es esc ap e s i n

, ,

t he for m of vapo u r .

Th e foll owi n g t abl e con t ai n s th e M etall u r g ic al C a lo r ifi c

Powers of som e of th e com mon er f uel s an d some p ure s ub s t an c e s ,
.

Th e calori fi c powers of f uel s c an n ot h owever b e st at ed ex actl y , , ,

as th ey vary con s id erably .

Th e fi g ure s i n th i s t abl e are i n m any c as e s l owe r t h an th e ,

“

c al ori fi c powers obt ai n e d e xp eri m e nt al l y i n a c alori m ete r t h e d if

fere nce be in g th e correct io n of po u n d calorie s per po u n d of -

wate r i n th e prod uct s of com b u st ion ; th i s a mo u n t of h eat b e 1n

°
n eeded to ev apor ate a po u n d of w at er at 0 C I n c a lc u l a t m . .

f urn ace e ffi cie ncie s by m e an s of th i s t abl e t h e f urn ace th u s ,

be deb ited with th e s e n s ibl e h e at c arrie d by th e wate r v apou r a s

:
.

wel l as with t h at carried by th e oth er f urn ace gas e s b u t t h e he at ,

of con de n sat ion of th e wate r v apo u r will h ave bee n re m oved front
the b al an ce sh eet .

*
P r of J W R i c h a r d s
. . .
’
lo c . c it
.
44 T H E E LE C T R I C F U R NAC E .

Th e c alori fi c powers of th e p ure s ub st ances form in g th e fi rs t ‘

p art of th e t abl e will s erve a s d at a for c alc ul at i n g th e calori fic

,

power of a gaseo u s fu el of k now n com pos ition an d w ill e n abl e ,

app rox i m ate fi g ure s to b e obt ai n ed for so l id an d l i q u i d fuel s Th e .

co al an d oth er sol id fuel s i n th e l ower p art of th e t abl e are s u p “

posed to be i n th e con d i t i on i n wh ich th ey wo ul d n at ur ally occ u r

th e wood bein g a i r dried an d con t ain i n g som e 2 0 to 2 5 p er cen t
,
.

o f m ois t ure t h e pe at al s o a i r drie d a n d ret ai n in g 2 0 to 3 0 pe r ce nt

,
.

of m oist u re ; th e c h arco al cok e an d coal h ave t he u s u al am o u n t s

,

o f ash an d m o i st ure Th e fi g ure s g i ve n for coal an d oth e r fu el s

.

w ill not cover all case s b u t are i nten de d to rep re sen t th e ordi n ary
,

r u n of fuel s Th e Ca lo r ifi c power s of g as e s p er c ub i c foot

.

_
, ,

°
correspon d to dry gas at 3 2 F a nd wo ul d be ab ou t 5 p er ce n t .
,
.

° °
les s at 6 0 F an d 7 per cen t l es s at 7 0 F o n acco u n t of th e ih
.
,
. .

cre as e i n vol u m e of t h e g as : th e pre se n c e of m oi st u re wo ul d still

f urth er decrease th e c alorifi c powe r .

By th e a i d of Table s I I I an d I V it will b e e asy to obt ai n . .

,

approx i m ately th e perce n t age effi cie ncy of a ny f urn ace wh eth er
, ,

fi red by sol id l i q u id or gaseou s fuel or h e ate d electric ally — if i t

, , ,

i s e mp loyed for h e ati n g an d m el t i n g m et al s an d i f th e a mo u n t of

'
,

fu el o r el ectrical e n ergy correspon d in g t o t h e m el ti n g of a certa i n

wei gh t of m et al i s k nown I t w ill not b e pos s ible h oweve r t o
.
, ,

calc ul ate i n th e s am e m an n er th e effi cie n cy of a furn ace s uch a s

'
,

an ope n h e art h s te e l f u r n a c e i n wh ich t h e m et al i s kep t m olt e n

-
,

for som e h o ur s i n order to allow of cert ai n ch an ge s b ei n g m ade

in i t s compos ition I n s uch a fu rn ace th e e ffi cie ncy c a n only be
.

calc ul ate d i n refere nce to t h e ti m e d uri n g wh ich t h e ch ar ge wa s

b e i n g h eated D ur i n g th e re m ain d er of th e h e at t h e fu rn ace “ ”
.

m ay rem ai n for con s iderabl e p e riod s wi th o ut a ny m arked ri se of

t emperat ure altho ug h fuel i s co n st antly be i n g u se d ; t h u s m ak i n g
,

t h e c a lc u la te o e ffi cie ncy zero d ur in g s uch pe riod s .

Th e e ffi cie nc i e s of m etal m el t i n g f u rn ace s were fi r s t con s idered

-

o n acco un t of th e s i mpl icity of th e c alc ul at ion B u t it is e q u all y .

pos sibl e to c al c ul ate th e e ffi cien cy of a bl ast fu r n ace or a n ,

elect ric al ore s m el ti n g fu rn ace i n wh ich th e h e at i s u sed not

-
, ,

mere l y i n m el ti n g a m et al b u t al so i n e ffect i n g t h e ch e m ic al work

,

o f red uci n g t h e ore to a m et all ic con dit i on Th e a mo u n t s of h eat .

n eces s ary for th e form at io n of a l ar ge n u m ber of ch e m i c al com

po u nd s are k nown and by m e a n s of th ese it i s p os s ibl e t o d ra w
, ,

u p a b al an ce sh e et sh ow i n g wh at am o u n t of h e at is n eede d for t h e ,

c h em ical reaction s a s wel l as for m el t in g t h e m et al an d sl ag i n t h e

,

furn ace Th e effi ciency c an the n be c al c ul ated a s i n t h e s i m pler

.

c ase s.

I t m ay be of i ntere st a n d pract ic al val u e to concl ud e t h i s

, ,

ch apter by c alc ul at in g t he e ffi cie ncy of a H eroul t el ectrical steel

 E F F I C I ENC Y AND CO S T .
45

fu rn ace ope rated at L a P raz F r ance for th e H a a n e l com m i s s ion

, , ,

in March —
Th e fu rn ace b as ic l i n ed wa s m ak in g steel by
, ,

melt in g scrap wi t h ore an d l im e .

Th e ch arge sel ecte d for c alc ul at io n (n u mber 6 6 0) con s i sted

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O
O O O O O O O O O O O

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

O th er
add it io n s were m ade after t h e ch arge w as m elted b ut ,

for obt ai n i n g th e m el t in g effi cie n cy i t w il l only b e n eces s ary to con

s ider t h e op erat ion of m el t in g t h i s ch ar ge I n t h e f urn ace .

Th e s cr ap ch arg ed h ad th e foll ow i n g com pos it ion

C arbon
S il icon
S ulp h u r
P h osp hor us
M an gan es e
A rse n i c

S uppos i n g
t h at t h e i ro n ore i n th e ch ar ge cont a in ed 4 00
po u nd s of fe rr i c ox ide it m ay be as s u m ed t h at d uri n g th e m el t
, ,

i n g of th e ch arge t h is was red uced t o ferro u s ox id e by th e ox id a

,
'

t i on of m ost of th e m et al l oid s an d som e of t h e i ro n i n t he ori gi n al

.
scrap A rou gh c al c ul at ion sh ow s t h at t h e m el ted ch ar ge wo ul d
.

co n s i st of abo u t po u nd s of de ad soft s teel an d 8 5 0 po u n d s “ ”

of sl a g rich i n fe rro u s ox id e an d l i m e and th at th e react i on woul d ,

prod uce som e po u n d calor i e s wh ich m ak e s a s m al l add i -

,

t ion t o t he h e at fu rn i sh ed by th e el ect r i c c urre n t .

°
A s s u m i n g th at a t e m pe rat u re of 1 5 2 0 C i s n ece s s ary for a ,
.

c om pl ete fu s io n of t h e ch ar ge (se e Tabl e abou t 3 44 C a lb w il l .

be ne ed ed to m el t e ach po u n d of soft s teel or m all 3 4 4 x , , ,

C a lb .

The S l a g will need abo u t 6 0 0 C a lb pe r po u n d i n ord er to m elt .

a nd h e at i t to t h e s a m e te m pe rat ure or i n all 6 00 X 8 5 0 : 5 I o 000 , , , ,

C a lb .

T h e electric al powe r e m ployed w a s 2 1 5 kilow att s d urin g t h e

fi rst h o u r an d 3 4 2 d u ri n g th e re m a ind e r of t he r u n ; th e c urren t
,

be i n g s uppl ied at abo ut 1 1 0 volt s Th e t i m e occ up ied i n m elt i n g .

”
R poe rt of th e C o m m i s s io n ap po i n t d
i nv s ti g a t th d i ff n t l t o h m i
e to e e e e re e ec r -
t er c

p o c s s s fo r
r e e th e s m l i n g o f i o n o s a nd h m ak i n g o f s l i n E u o p p p 5
e t r re t e te e r e, .
4,

7 and 7
1
40 THE EL EC T R I C FU R NAC E .

th e ch arge wa s 5 % h o ur s a nd th e elect rical e n ergy s uppl ied to t h e

,

f urn ace d u r i n g t h i s t i m e wa s k ilow at t h ou rs .

Th e h e at s up pl i ed by th e el ectr ic c urren t w as
X 1 8
9 7 ,3 18
7 000z C a,
l b (S e,
e T abl e .

I n th e operat i on of m el t i n g th e ch ar ge t h e h e at ut il ize d m ay
be t ake n as t h at ne eded to m elt t h e steel a n d t h e s l a g wh il e th e ,

heat s u ppl ie d to t h e fu rn ace i s s uppl i ed i n part by th e electr ic c u r

re nt a nd i n part by th e re act ion betwee n th e scr a p an d th e I ron
,

ore .

Ba l an ce Sh e e t of H e at .

H eat
s uppl ie d to th e fu rn ac e
k i l owatt h o u rs of el ectri cal e nergy
R e act i on betwee n s teel scrap an d iron ore

Tot a l 1

H eat
ut il ize d i n th e furn ace
To m el t lb s of soft s tee l
.

To m el t 8 5 0 lb s of b as ic sl a g
.

Tot al

E ffi c 1e n c y of fur n ace
,
2 1

I n m ak i n g t h is c al c ul a t ion i t h as been as s u m ed t h at n o o x i
tion of th e s teel scrap took pl ace e x cept by react i o n wit h
ore i n th e ch arge S u ch an as s u mpt ion w oul d b e q u ite w ron
.

re gard to a n ope n h e art h fu rn ace wh ere t h e fl am e of b u r n I n

-
,

gase s con st antly pl ays ove r t h e ch arg e b u t i n t he el ect ric f ,

ace
t he ch arg e i s l argely protecte d fro m t h e ai r an d th ere i s co u se ,

q ue ntly l e ss ox id at ion I f a ny con s iderab l e am o u n t of iro

.

b u rn t i n th i s way th e h e at prod uce d by it s ox i dat ion S ho ul

, a
b e e n added i n th e b al ance s h eet to t he h e at s uppl i ed t o t h e
, ,

fu rn ace ; an d th i s wo ul d l ower th e re s ult i n g fi g ure for t h e e ffi c ie n cy .

A fte r th e ch arge was com p l etely m el te d th e sl a g w a s po u red ,

o ff an d th e steel fu rther p uri fi ed by th e add it ion of fre s h sl a gs

, ,

m ad e of l i me s an d and fl uor sp ar
, A fte r th ese were rem oved
.

t h e steel w a s r e c a r b u r iz e d i n th e fu rn ace by add ition s o f c a r “

-

b u r i te (a m ix t ure of i ron an d c arbon ) a n d ferro S il icon ; s om e

” ‘
-

fe rro m an gan ese wa s al so ad ded an d a l ittl e al u m i n i u m 1 n t h e

'

-
,

ladl e .
 E F F I C I ENC Y AN D CO ST .

47

Th e y i e ld of in got s was l b s of tool st eel of th e fol

.

lowin g co mpo s ition

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

Th ree h o urs were re q u i red for t he p u ri fi cat ion an d c a r b u r iz a

tio n of th e s teel m ak i n g a t ot al of 8 y3 ho u rs an d a tot al c o n s u m p
, ,

t ion of k il o w att ho u rs or E H F ye ars pe r ton of

,
. . .

5 A t $ 1 0 pe r E H F year th e cost of electric al

. . .
,

ton lb s ) of tool steel wo ul d be

.
4 8 TH E E LE C T R I C F U R N AC E .

C H APT E R IV .

E le ctr ic F u rn ace De s ign , C on s tr u ction an d O peration .

A n el ect ri c fu rn ace con s i st ss s e nt i al ly of s om e s u b s t an c e R

e ,

(F i g. th ro u gh wh ich a n electric c urren t fl ows a n d of a n ,

e nvelope C wh ich ret ai n s th e h e at an d t h e con ten t s of th e f urn ac e

, .

C arbon elect rode s A an d B are u s u al ly n e ede d to co nvey th e c u r

, ,

re nt ih and o ut of th e furn ace I f th e e nvel op e c0ul d b e m ad e

.

perfectly h e at t i gh t an d i f n o fres h ch arg e wer e i ntrod u c e d d u r

,
'

i n g th e o p e r a t 10n it wo uld b e pos s ibl e to ob t ai n any te m perat u re

,

i n R up to th e vol atil izi n g p oi n t of t h e con te n t s of t h e fu r n ace ,

F ig . 21 .
—I deal E lectr i c F u rn a ce .

with th e s m allest electric c urre nt p rovided it we re all owed t o p as s

,

for a s uffi cie nt l e n gth of t i m e W it h th e m ater i al s act u ally av ail

.

abl e for fu rn ace con str uct ion t h i s i s n ot pos s ibl e F or a de fi n it e .

S ize an d con st ruct ion of fur n ace a de fi n ite r at e of h e at prod uct ion
,

will be n eed ed i n orde r t o att ai n a ny p art ic ul ar t e mperat u r e .

Th e rate of p rod uctio n of h e at i s m e as u red by t he n u mb er of

W att s of electrical power s u ppl ie d to t h e fur n ace an d m ay con ,

v e n ie n tl
y be st ate d i n W att s p er c ub ic i nc h or K il ow att s p er c ub i c
,

foot of th e i nter ior vol u m e of t h e fu r n ace Th e r ate of h ea t .

p rod uct ion wh ich i s n ece s s ary to en ab l e a cert ai n te mperat u re to

b e att ai ned m ay be calc ul ated fro m a con sid erat ion of t h e are a
, ,

th ick nes s and cond uct ivity for h e at of t h e w all s of t h e fu r n ace ;

b ut i t i s more e as ily ob t ain ed by refere nce to fu r n a c e s of s i m il a r
con st ruct i on wh ich h ave att ai ne d de fi n ite te m p e rat u re s w ith
de fi n ite con s u mption of el ectric power .

Th e above con s ideration s appl y m ore part ic ul arly to an i n ter

m itten t fu rn ace s uch as t h e Moi s s an or S ta s s a n o furn ace s i n , ,

wh ich a ch arge of ore or m et al i s s ub m itte d t o th e h e at of th e

el ectric c u rre nt u nt il it h as al l b ee n red uced or m elte d a n d t h e ,
 C ON S T R UC TI ON AN D DE S I G N .
49

wh ol e of t he f ur n ace a n d it s conten t s h a s bee n h eated to a u n i

for m h igh te mp erat ure I n th e c ase of a con t in uo u s furn ace .
,

s uch as t h e H ero ul t furn ace rece ntly e m pl oye d to s mel t iron ore s
at S a ul t S te M arie F i g 2 9 p 1 0 8 a con st an t stre am of cold
.
,
.
,
.
,

m ate ri al e nt ers th e fu rn ace an d afte r red uct ion an d f u sion is , ,

t apped o ut as m olte n p i g a n d sl ag ; on ly a port ion of th e con ten ts

of th e fu rn ace be i n g h e at ed at any on e t im e t o th e s m lt i n g e

te mp erat ure I n s uch a f urn ace th e t e m pe r at ur e att ain abl e i s

.

l i m ite d by t he m el t i n g te m perat ure of th e ch ar ge ; a ny in crea se

i n t h e rate of h e at s upply wil l s erve m ai nly to i n cre ase t h e r ate of
s m elt i n g wit ho ut m ateri ally i ncre as in g t h e t em perat u re of th e
,

fu rn ace I t is l i ke m elt in g ice i n a p ail th e ice m el t s faster on a

.
,

h ot d ay t h an on a cool on e b u t th e w ater s u rro un d i n g th e ice will ,

not becom e w arm a s lon g a s t he re i s an y i ce left to m el t E ven .

i n s uch a furn ace e ach port io n of th e ch ar ge m u st ult i m ate ly be

h e ate d to th e s m el ti n g te m per at ure an d a d e fi n ite rat e of he at ,

s u p ply i s n e eded if th e furn ace i s to s m el t at a l l .

M ater ia l s of F u rn a ce C on s tr u cti on .

m ateri al s for con str uct i n g th e i nterior of el ectric and

Th e
o th er fur n ace s sh o ul d b e i nfus ible at th e te mp erat u re of t h e
,

f u rn ace ; s h o ul d re s i s t t h e act ion of th e m et all ic sl ag s or oth er

c on te nt s of t h e fu r n ace ; sh o ul d ret a i n th e h e at of t h e fu rn ac e a s .

far as p os s ibl e and sh o ul d b e c ap able of bei n g for med i nto br i c k s

, ,

or coh ere nt l i n i n g s wh ich will re s i s t t he m ech an i c al act i on of t h e

c h ar ge i n th e f urn ace Th e foll ow i n g are a n u mber of th e m ore .

i m port an t m at e r i al s th at ca n b e e m plo y e d .

*
F ire clay Brick s Th e cl ay from w h ich th e se are m ade con .

s ist s of p u re cl ay or k aol in A 12 0 3 z SiO z 2 H 2 O wi t h a vari abl e , , , , ,

proport ion of S il ica i n ad d i t ion to th e a mo u n t p re se n t i n the k aol in ,

a n d a s l ittle as pos s ibl e of fl u x in g m ate ri al s s uch as iron ox ide ,

lim e m a g n e s ia pota sh or sod a E ve n s i l i c a l ower s t h e m elt in g

'

.
, ,

poin t a n d Sho ul d b e p re sen t only i n m oderate am o u nt

,
The s e .

bri c k s are l ar gely u se d for l i n i n g ordi n ary m e t all u r gical furn aces ,

b u t are not u s u ally s u ffi cie ntly re fractory for electric fu rn ace s th e y

*
Not s e o n th e N e w J s
er ey Fi re- B r c i k I n du s try , H R ie s . . Am er . I n st Mining
.

Engin s l xxx i v
eer ,p 54 vo . .
, . 2 .

R f a t o i n s s of S o m A m i an F i B i k R F \V b
e r c r e Am I n s t Minin g e er c re- r c . . . e er, er . .

E n g i n s l xxxv p 6 3 7
eer ,
vo . .
, . .

Th Fi C la y s o f M i s s ou i H A Wh l A m I n s t M i n i n g E n g i n s l
e r e- r . . .
’

e e e r, er . . e er , vo .

x xxv .
,
p .
7 20 .

D m i n a t i o n of th e R e f a c t o i n e s s o f F i e C la y s H O H o fm an 81 C D D e m ond
e te r r r r -
. . . . .
,

A m e r I n s t M i n i n g E n g i n r s o l xx i v p 4 ; o l xxv p 3 ; v o l xxv iii p 4 3 5

. . ee , v . .
, . 2 v . .
, . . .
, . .

A H S e x to n F fe l an d R e f a t o y M a t e i al s ( t x tbook )
. .
, i r c r r ,
"
e .
5 0 THE E LE C T R I C F U R NAC E .

c an h ow e ver b e u s ed as a b ack i n g for m ore refr actory m ater i al

, ,
.

Bei n g s il iciou s i n compos it ion th ey are e a s ily fl u x e d by sl ag s con ,

t ai n i n g m et all ic ox ide s W h e n n ot ex pos ed t o s uch sl ag s t h ey .

° °
will s t an d te mperat ure s up to I 4O O C or 2 5 00 F ,
.
,
.

3 3
,
O O
°
F Th ey sh ould
. b e l a i d in fi r e cl a y m u d i n ste ad of l i m e ,

m ort ar as th e l atter woul d cr u mbl e aw ay if s tron gly h e ated

,
.

F ir e cla y b ric k s are s u bj ect to a c on s ider abl e S h ri n k ag e wh e n fi r e d .

Th i s sh ri n k a ge i s perm a ne n t an d v arie s i n am o u n t w it h th e
tem perat ure to wh ich t h e b ric k s h ave bee n h e ated S ub s e q u e n t .

heati n g an d cool in g at lowe r t em per at ure s c a u se s a s m all , ,

t em po rary ex p an s ion an d con tr act ion of t h e b ric k .

*
S il ica Brick s Th e se sh oul d con t ai n abo u t 9 5 % to 97 % of .

S il ic a S i O 2 ,
Th e m elt i n g te mperat u re of s il ic a i s a l ittl e abov e
.

th at of pl ati n u m b ei n g abou t or ,
and the
°
s il ica b ric k s h o ul d st an d up t o ab out or 3 1 8 0 F Th ey ,
.

are u seful for th e roof an d oth er p art s of Op e n h e arth s t e el -

furn aces th at are ex posed to a ve r y h i gh te m perat u re b ut not

, ,

s ubj ecte d t o th e action of m et all ic sl a gs wh ich wo ul d soon fl u x

th e m away They h ave th e property of ex p an d i n g wh e n fi red
.
,

an d th ei r ex p a ns ion a n d contraction wh e n s ub se q ue n tly h e ate d

a nd c ool ed i s g re ater th an th at of fi r e c la y b ric k s S il ica b ric ks .

s ho ul d be l ai d i n a s il icio u s m u d for m ort ar an d i n g e n e r a l a ll r e , ,

~

f r a c t o r y b rick s s h oul d be l aid i n m ort ar of t h e s a m e compos it ion

a s t h e b rick t o avoid fl u x i n g ; t h u s i t woul d n ot do t o l ay b a S I C
,

b rick i n s il icio u s mort ar as th e m ort ar wo ul d comb in e w i th a nd ,

fl ux p art of th e b ric k .

L i me C a O I Th i s i s a n ex t re mel y refr actory m ateri al a n d i s

,
.
,

u seful for l i n i n g s m all electric fu rn ace s I t s m el t i n g t em pera t u re .

i s not ex a c tly k now n b u t m ay be abo u t or ,

L i m e i s ob t ai ne d by b u rn i n g l i m e ston e (C a O C O 2 ) t h u s d r ivi n g , , ,

off th e carbon d iox ide wh ich i t con t ai n s Bu rn t l i m e ab s o rb s .

moi st u re fro m t h e a i r and s l ake s form in g t h e h yd rox id e C a O , ,

H2 O L i m e mort ar con t ai n s w at er an d c arbon diox ide a n d

.
,

*
A . H S e x to n
. F u e l an d R e f a to y M a t e i al s p 3 3
. r c r r , . 2 .

0 B ou d ou a d fi nd s t h e m e l ti n g t e m p e r a t u e o f p u r e s i l i c a t °O J ou r n
+ . r , b e S3 r o I ,
O . .

I o n S te e l I n s t
r l 9 5 N o I p 35 .
, vo . 1 0 , . .
, . 0
.

A L am p e n fi n d s th e m e l ti n g t e m p e r a t u e o f p u r e q u a r t z t o b e 7 ° c J ou r n
.
, r 1 , oo . .

A m e r C h e m So
. ol xxv iii p 8 5
. c .
, v . .
, . 2 .

A S ta n fi e ld foun d p u e s i l i a t o b e r a th e r l e s s fu s i bl e th a n pla t i nu m s a y
. s r c
, ,

( d e t e m i n a t i on abou t 89 r un publ i sh e d ) 1 2, .

IA H S .e x t on
. F u e l an d R f a t o r y M a t e i al s
“
p 3 7 e r c r , . 1 .

H Mo i s s a n Th e E l e c t i c F u n a e
.
, r r c .

O B u d o u a r d l o c c i t ap p a e n tl y a s s u m e s t h e m e l t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e o f l i m e t o
g . o , . . r

b e abou t 5 ° C 2 ,0 0 .
 5 2 THE E LE C T R I C F U R NA CE .

b i n d a nd r am m ed i nto pl ace aro u n d a c ore by m e an s of a h ot iron

,

rod M agn es i a doe s n ot comb i n e wi t h c arbon to for m a c arb ide

. ,

a n d o n t h i s acco un t it s u s e i n t h e electr ic fu rn ace i s prefe rabl e to

t h at of l im e E lectric ally fu se d m agn e s i a h a s recen tly b e e n
.

obt ai ned an d form s a very c omp act a nd re fr actory m at eri al for

,

l i ni n g electric fur n ace s or it m ay b e appl ied as a p ast e m ix ed w it h ,

sil icate of sod a to ren der ord i n ary fi r e c la y b ric k s m ore r e é

*
f r a c to r y .

D ol omi te
Th i s is a l i m eston e con t ai n i n g a con s i d erabl e p ro
.

port i on of m ag n es it e a n d wh e n b urn t i t for m s a v al u abl e r e f r a c ,

tory m ate ri al wh ich l i ke b u rn t m ag ne s ite m ay b e e mpl oye d as

, , ,

a p o w d e r or i n th e form of brick s ,
I t re s e mbl e s m agn es ite b ut .
,

is not q u ite so good .

I n furn ace s con str ucted p artly of s il ic a b rick s a n d p artly of ,

dolom i t e or m a gn es i te b rick s i t wo ul d be e x pected th at t h ey

, ,

wo uld fl u x on e a noth er at th e l i n e of cont act O n t h i s acco un t .

,

a co u rs e of ch rom ite br i c k i s som et i m e s i nt rod uced as a p ar tin g

l aye r bet w ee n th e two a s th i s b ric k it sel f very refr acto ry doe s , , ,

not e as ily fl u x with e ith er acid (sil iceo u s ) or b as i c m at erial s .

W h e n m agn esi te brick s are u sed h ow ever i t i s fou n d t h at th is , ,

p rec a ut ion i s u n n ece s s ary .

A l u min a 13 12 0 3 3 Th i s i s prep are d fro m th e m i ner al b a u x it e “

1
,

(A 12 03 2 H 2 0 ) wh ic h is a l s o th e s o urce of th e m et al al u m i n i u m
, ,
.

B a ux i te h a s l on g bee n u se d a s a l i n i n g for f urn aces an d rec e n t a t

te mp t s a t p uri fi c at ion w i th a vi ew to i m provi n g i t for u s e as a r e
f r a c t o r y m ateri al h ave bee n s ucce s s ful an d t h e p ur i fi e d calcin ed
,
°

b a ux i te bonde d wit h a l ittl e fi r e cl ay s od i u m s il ic ate or l i m e m ak e s , , ,

a n ex cell e n t b rick ; wh i ch appear s to be as g ood as m agn es i t e bric k

for u s e i n th e b as ic open h earth fur n ace I t i s al so s aid t o b e a -
.

good l i n i n g for rot ary Port l a n d ce m e n t kil n s an d for l i ni n g l e a d ,

re fi n in g f urn ace s wh ere t h ey are exp osed to th e fl u x in g a c tio n ,

'
-

of corrosive l e ad sl ags A l u m i n a i s cl as s ed a s a b as i c m ateria l .

,

l i ke m agne s i a or d olom ite a n d i t s m el tin g te m perat ur e i s abo ut ,

°
2 ,
I oo C I .

C a r b on G raph ite ) .
( oke , C h arcoal ,
C
C arbo n is th e m o st .

refractory s ub st ance k nown ; it h a s n ever bee n m el ted b ut sof ten s ,

an d vol at i l ize s at th e te mpe rat u re of th e el ectric arc th at i s abo u t ,

*
El i all y sh un k m a g n s i a
e c tr c p ap b y E K S o t t ! uo t d E l
-
r e , see er . . c , e e c tr o h e m i c al
c

l iii
‘

I nd u s t y r , p 4
vo . . . . 1 0 .

1 A H S x to n F u l an d R f a o y M a t i al s p 3 9 “
. . e . e e r ct r er , . 1 .

] W Ri ha ds M t allu g i al C al ula io n s p “
g i v s m e l ti n g
i l i
"
. . c r , 9 5 e r c c t , vo . .
, .
, e th e

p oi n t o f alum i n a a s ab ou t C 2 , 2 00 0 .

O B d . d l ou i g i v s d a t a wh i h p oi n t t ab o u t
ou a r , oc .
0C c t as
. e c o 2 , 1 00 . th e m e l ti n g
t mp
e a u o f a lum i n a
er t re .
 C O NSTR U CTIO N AN D D E S I G N .
53

3 ,7
oo or o
C .
,
I n it s m ore com p act form s i t i s a fa i r

cond uctor of elect ricit y a n d of he at t h e form er q u a l i ty togeth er ,

with it s i n fu s i bil i t y e n ab l i n g i t t o b e us ed for e l ectrode s to l ead th e

c u rre nt i nto elect ric fu rn ace s B ei n g comb u st i bl e i t i s l i abl e t o .

waste away w he n e xposed to t he a i r at a re d h e at an d for t h e ,

s am e rea son i t i s corroded w h e n ex pose d to s l ag s t h at cont ai n

e as i l y re d uc ibl e m et all ic ox ide s C arbon e x ist s i n t h e th ree d if .

f e r e n t form s of a m orph o u s arbon graph ite an d d iamon d ; ch ar

c ,

coal cok e a nd th e ot her com m on form s of c arbon bei n g of t h e

,

W h e n am orpho u s c arbon or t he d i a mond

'
a morph ou s var i ety .
,

are h eat ed to t h e te m perat u re of th e elect ric arc th ey a r e ,

ch a n ge d i nto gr aph it e C arbon b l ock s com posed of cok e or .

grap h i te ca n b e u sed for l i n in g fu rn ace s p ro v ide d t hey a r e n ot ,

ex posed t o a i r or to ox i d i s i n g sl ags b u t c arbon h as n ot bee n ,

m uch us d for m et all urg ical fu rn ace l i n i n g s

e I n t h e e l ect ric .

fu rn ace i t i s ofte n e m ployed form i n g a l in in g wh i ch al so ser v e s a s ,

a n el ect rode as i n th e H ero ul t i ro n s m elt i n g fu rn ace (F ig 2 9

, ,
.
,

p . th e al u m i n i u m fu r n ace (F i g 5 p and the ,

.
,
.

carb ide f ur n ace (F i g 7 p b u t i t c an not u s u al l y b e em p l oyed

,
.
,
.

for t he e nt i re l i n i n g bec a u s e i t i s s o good a con d uctor of el ectr i cit y

,

th at t h e c urre n t wo ul d te nd t o b e s hort c i rc u ited by t h e l i n in g in -

ste ad of p as s i n g t h ro u gh th e ch ar ge or re s i stor i n th e fu rn ace .

C ok e po w der ca n b e u s ed for l in in g p arts of furn ace s u s i n g p i tc h ,

or t a r as a b i nder a n d s uch l i n i n gs w i l l con d uct th e e lect r i c c u r

,

re nt a nd m ay b e u sed as el ectrode s I n e x peri m e n ta l w or k a l i n .

i n g of ch arcoal p owder ce m e nt ed wit h m ol as s e s an d w at er m a y

som eti m e s b e u sed an d h as the ad v an t a ge th at i t reta i n s t h e ,

he at of th e fu rn ace v ery wel l an d bei n g a poor e l ect r i cal con ,

d uctor it c an b e u sed for t he e nt i re l i n i n g w i th o u t fe ar of sh ort

,

ci rc u i t i n g t h e c urre n t I f ex pose d to th e a ir h owe v e r it w i l l b u rn .

, ,

up com p l etely i f i t o nce re ach e s a red h eat G raph i te i s a b et ter .

co nd uctor of el ectrici t y an d of he at th a n a m orph o u s carbon an d i s ,

les s e as i l y ox id i s ed by a ir or m et all ic sl ags ; h e n c e e l ectrode s are ,

ofte n com posed of it ‘

G raph it e i s ofte n u sed i n t h e con s tr u e .

tion o f c r u c ib le s th e graph it e be i n g m ix ed w it h it s own wei gh t of

,

fi r e cl ay -
Th e g raph ite re nder s t h e fi r e cl a y r e fr a c to r v an d th e
.
-

*
Th e te p o s i t i v e a bo n o f th
m p e r a tu re l t ic
of th e c w a s d t m in e d by c r e e ec r ar e er

V i oll e t b 3 5 O C m o d i f e d t h i s f g u la t t o 3 6 O C ( W i gh t E l t i
'

o d h
e , oo .
, an e i i re er . oo . r , ec r c

Fu na e s p
r c L ,
C h a t l i o b t a i n e d t h f gu e 4 o C b y h i s o p t i al p y o m e t
. e e er e i r ,
1 co . c r er

(L C h a t e l i e r Bo u d o u a d H i gh T m p a t u e M e a s u e m n t s p
e r L mm by a e er r r e , . u er .

r ad i a t io n m tho d g i v s th t m p e a tu e a s b t w n 3 5 O C an d 3 9 0 C ( L C h a t e l i e r
e e e e r r e ee , oo .
, 00 . e

F; Bo u d u d p o F e y h a s o b t a i n e d t h e valu e s 3 4 9 0 C 3 86 9 0 C an d 3 8 9 7 O C
ar , . r , 0 .
, , .
, , .

b v d i ff e e n t o p ti al m e th o d s ( W i gh t p
r c T h e valu e 3 7 O C i s ,
ad o p t d b y
'
r , .
, oo . e

R c h a d s ( M e t allu g i c al C al c ula t i on s p th e b o i l i n g p oi n t o f a b o n “
i r ol ri ,
v . .
, . a s c r .
54 T H E E LEC T R I C F U R NAC E .

fire cl ay protect s t h e gr a ph it e from ox i dat i on

-
Th e s e cr uci b l e s .

a re not s o refractory a s th e graph ite al on e wo ul d b e an d for ,

el ect ric furn ace ex peri m e nt s cr ucibl e s m ay be c u t o ut of a bl oc k ,

of g raph i te or re tort c arbon ,

.

F or l i n i ng el ectri c fu rn ace s wh en c arbon is u nde s ir abl e s om e , ,

p rod uct s of th e e l ectri c fu rn ace i ts el f are ve ry s u it abl e Th e y .

are not so refr actory as c arbon b ut are m ore refractory th a n t h e ,

oth e r f u rn ace m ateri al s s uch a s m ag n e s i a s il ica l i m e or al u m i n a , ,

.

C a rb or u n d u m *
Th i s i s p rod uced by h e at i n g s il ica a n d .

c arbon to a ve ry h i gh t e m per at ure i n th e electric fu r n ace It is .

a cry st a l l i zed com pou nd of s il i co n a nd c arbo n h avi n g th e for m ul a

S iC a nd be s i de s bei n g val u abl e a s an abr as ive , it for m s a ve ry

,

refractory furn ace l i n i n g Th e c arbor un d u m powde r c a n be .

m ade to coh ere by th e u s e of fi r e cl ay (6 p art s of t h e powder t o -

I of fi r e cl ay
) or by a sol u
-
tion of s il icat e of sod,
a or water gl
,
a s s , ,

wh ic h s ho ul d be very dil ute i f t h e h i gh e s t te m p erat u re s are t o be

re ach ed a s th e s i licat e of sod a m a ke s th e c arbor u n d u m l e s s r e
,

f r a c to r y T ar or gl u e c a n al so be u se d a s bi nd i n g m ateri al s a n d
.
,

a ve ry s tron g b ric k c an b e obt ai ned by u s i n g gl u e a s a te m porary

ce m e nt a n d e xpos i n g t h e m o u l ded art icl e to a n ox id izin g at m os
p h e r e at a h i gh tem per at u re for som e h o ur s wh e n t h e p art i a l o xi ,

d at ion of th e c arbor u n d u m fu rn i sh es s il ic a wh ich act s a s a per

m ane n t bon d .

C a rb or u n d u m F ir e =S a n d
Th i s i s a n am e appl i ed t o th e u m .

cry st all ized v ari ety of c arbor u n d u m wh ich is fo u n d i n t h e cool er ,

.

p art s of t h e c arbor u n d u m fu rn ace I t only d i ffers fro m car .

b o r u n d u m i n n ot be in g cryst al ized an d ca n be u s ed i n t h e s am e ,

m a n ne r a s a re fractory m ater ial .

S ilox icon t Th i s is m ad e i n th e s am e m an n er a s c arbor u n d u m

.

b u t l e s s carbon i s us ed i n t h e ch arg e w ith th e re s ul t t h at th e ,

s il ica i s not com pl etely red u ced an d th e re s ul ti n g s ub st an ce re ,

“

t ai n s som e oxy ge n Th e com pos ition is n ot con st an t a s a s eri e s .

,

of com po und s are form ed b u t a t yp ical for m ul a i s S iz C z O Th i s , .

‘
Th e C a b o und um Fu n a
r r r ce, F A J
. . . F it z G e r a l d , El e c tr o c h e m i c al I nd u s t ry , v ol .

iv .
, p 53 . .

Th E l e c t o h m i c al I ndu s t i e s o f N i ag a a F all s F A J F i t G e r a l d E le ct r o
e r c e r r , . z

h e m i al I n du s t y v o l iii p 5 3
. .
,

c c r 2
, . .
, . .

R e f r a c t o y M a t e i al s i n E l e c tr i c al R e s i s t an c e F u n a c e s F A J F i t G e r a ld
r r r , . . . z ,

E l e c tr o c h e m i al I nd u s t y v o l ii c p 4 39 r , . .
, . .

R e f a c to y M a te i al s f F u n a c L i n i n g s E K S c o tt E l e c tr o c h e m i c al I n d u s tr y
r r r or r e

iii
, . .
, ,

vol . . p 4
, . 1 0 .

+ O x i d a t i o n o f S ilo xi c o n E G A c h e s on E l c tr o c h m i al I n du s tr y v ol i p 3 7 3 , . .
, e e c . , .

Sil o x i c o n B i c k E l t r c h e m i a l I nd u s t y v ol i p p 8 7 an d 3 7 3 ; v ol ii p 44 ;
. . .

r c o c r 9
, 2

iii p 4 45 ; v l i v p 4
, . .
, . . . , .

vol . .
, . o . . , . 0.
 CON S T R UC T I ON AN D D E S I G N .
55

form s a refractory m ater i al for l i n i n g furn ace s a n d m ay b e m ade ,

to cohere by gri nd i n g i t t o p owder m oi ste n in g th e powd er , _

with wate r p res s i n g it i nto a m o ul d a nd s tron gly fi ri n g

, ,

th e m oul ded m ateri al The fi ri n g prob abl y ox id ize s t he

.

s il o x ic o n grai n s s upe rfi c ially form i n g s il ic a wh ich act s a s a ,

bon d S ilo x ic o n i s s aid t o be u n affect ed by ac id or b as ic sl ag s

.
,

a n d to be u nd i s sol v e d by m ol te n i ron b u t altho u gh t h i s m ay b e ,

tr ue at m oder ate furn ace tern p e r a t u r e s i t c an sc arcely hol d at th e

h i gh er te mper at u re s of th e el ectr ic fur n a c e .

Th e s il icon c arb ide s al t ho u g h very refractory are sl owly , ,

ox id ize d a t h i gh t e mpe rat u re s i n th e p re se nce of air ; s ilo x ic o n

O
ox i dizi n g wh e n h eated above or 2 6 7 4 F C arbor u n d u m ,
.

was for a l on g t i m e t h ou gh t t o b e u no x id izabl e b u t i t h a s b ee n

, ,

fo u n d t o ox id ize slowly at h i gh te mpe rat u re s .

Th e s e s ubs t ance s are fa r l e s s refr actory th an c arbon be in g ,

d i s soci ated i nto gr aph ite an d s il icon v apo u r at h i gh el ectric

*
fur n ace t e m p erat u re s Th ey c an b e u sed i n s om e form s of
.

elect ric fu rn ace a s a l ayer p rotecti n g s om e l e s s refractory m ateri al

s uch a s fi r e cl ay or m agn es ite br ic k s an d appl ied a s a p ain t m i x ed
-
,

with s il ic ate of sod a t h ey i m prove very m ateri ally t h e l ast in g

q u al i t ie s of fi r e cl ay brick s i n ordi n ary m et all u rg ical f u rn ace s
-
.

TA B L E V
R e fr a ctor y M ate r i a ls .

M ateri a l . M el ti n g Te m p erat ure .

° 0
1 ,4
oo C . 2 , 5 50 F .

F ire -clay b ri ck . K aol i n w it h add it ion al s il ic a to to

° o
1 ,
8 00 C .
3 ,
27o F .

S i l ica b r ick . S il ic a with b i nd in g m ateri al .

S il ica (p ure )
L ime (p ure )
M a gn e s i a b r ick
Ba u xi te b rick
M a gn e s i a (p u re )
A lu min a (p u re )
C arb or u n d u m , S iC . d ecompose s
C a rb on boil s
I‘
S . A Tu k
. c er and A Lamp n Am
. e , er . Ch m e . Soc .
, v ol . xxv ii i .
,
p . 8 5 8, fi nd th e die
s o c i a ti o n te m p e r a t ur e o f a b o r u ndu m
c r to be 9 , 9 2 00 C:
5 6 T H E E LE C T R I C F U R NA C E .

N oteVer y l i tt l e re l i a b l e i nfor m at i on w i th re g ard to the me l t i n g

.

te m p eratures o f refractor y m ater i a l s i s a v a i l ab l e and the abo v e tab l e

m ust b e re g arde d as an atte m p t t o co m b i ne w hat l i tt l e there i s i n ,

the ho p e t h at ex p er i m enters m a y b e i nduced to su p p l y the m i ss i n g i h

for m at i on Wi t h re g ar d to s i l i ca the w r i ter a number o f y ears a g o
.
, , ,

foun d th e che m i ca l l y p ure m ater i a l t o b e a l i tt l e m ore refractor y than

p l at i nu m ; s a y w h i l e Bo u d o u a r d has r ecent l y state d i t t o b e
Th e d ata f o r a l u m i na l i m e a n d ma g nes i a are v er y confus
°
1 83 0 C
,
.
,

i n g ; M o i ssan states that a l u m i na i s m ore fu s i b l e than l i m e and ,

m a g nes i a l ess fu s i b l e t h an l i m e b u t other fi g ures g i v en f o r the i r ,

m e l t i n g p o i nts g i v e m a g nes i a as an d a l u m i na as about

t h u s co m p l ete l y re v ers i n g the order T h e fi g ures state d i n .

the tab l e are b ase d u p on the con fl i ct i n g i nfor m at i on a v a i l ab l e It .

shou l d b e re m e m b ere d ho w e v er that the m e l t i n g p o i nts o f so m e o f

, ,

these refractor y m ater i a l s and st il l m ore the d i ssoc i at i n g p o i nts o f ,

the s i l i con car b i d es m a y n o t b e shar p l y d e fi n e d l i ke the m e l t i n g p o i nts -

o f p ure m eta l s b u t ha v e i n the former case a ran g e o f i ncreas i n g

, , ,

softness b efore true m e l t i n g occurs a n d that th i s m e l t i n g te m p erature ,

i s l ar g e l y aff ecte d b y the ox i d i z i n g o r reduc i n g at m os p h ere i n the

furnace S i lox i c o n has b een sa i d to turn i nto carboru ndu m at 5
.

or 2 c o r b o r u n d u m fi r e san d t o cr y sta l l i ze i nto carborundu m at

o
o r 3 87 o C a n d car b orundu m t o b e i nfu s i b l e at the sa m e
,
.
,

te m p erature w h i l e i t i s a d m i tte d t h at these sub stances are l ess re

,

f r a c tor y than car b on w hose b o i l i n g p o i nt i s ta k en t o b e

,

6 7 00 F
,
R ecent ex p er i m ents ho w e v er p l ace the for m at i on te m p era
°
.
, ,

t u re o f car b i d e o f s i l i con at 1 i ts cr y sta l l i zat i on at 1 9 5 o C ,

o
.

a n d i ts d eco m p os i t i on i nto g ra p h i te and s i l i con v a p or at 2

I n addit ion to its ab i l ity to re s i s t h ig h te m per at ure s an d cor

r o s iv e sl ags th e powe r of a fu rn ace l i n in g to re t ai n t h e h e at wh ich
,

i s p rod uce d i n th e f urn ace m u st b e con s idered I t i s rare t h at .

good refractory a n d h e at ret ai n in g q u al it ie s are com bi n ed i n t h e

s ame m ateri al a n d to get t h e b es t e ffect i t i s u s u ally n ece s s ary
,

to adopt a stratifi ed con st r uct i on pl ac i n g refr actory m at eri al s on ,

t he i ns i de an d h eat reta i n i ng m ateri al s o ut s id e G en er ally sp ea k

, .

i n g th e l i gh t poro u s s ub sta n ce s are good ret ai n er s of h eat wh il e ,

he avy com pact bod ie s are poor h e at i n s ul ators C omp arat ivel y .

l ittl e i nform at ion i s avail abl e with re g a rd to th e con d uct ivity of

furn ace m ateri al s for h e at p art ic ul arly at h i gh t em p er at u res Th e , .

followi n g fi g ure s are t ake n from Prof R ich ard s Met all urgica l .
“

(
”
C al c ulat i on s vol 1 p to w h ich th e re ade r i s referre d fo r
, .
,
.

furth er i n form ation

*
S A Tu k
an d A L a m p e n l o c i t
:E l
. . c er . c
, . .

+ S e e al s o a p ap e r b y H u tt o n an d B e a r d o n H e a t I n s u
la ti on i al
e c tr c R ev
an d E n g R e c o d N o v 5 th 1 9 5
. .
,

N Y
. .J ul y
, d 9 5 2 2n , 1 0 , . r , . 2 , 0 .
 C ON S T R U C TI ON A ND D E S I G N .
“

TAB L E V I .

He at C on d u ctiv itie s of F u rn a ce M ater ia l s .

In C e nt i m eter , G ra m ,
S econ d , U n it s .

F i re cl ay b ric k s
-

F i re cl ay b rick s
-

A l u m i n a b ric ks
Magn e s i a brick s
L im e
! u art z s an d
C arbo r u n d u m s a n d
F ire bric k d u s t
I nfu sori al e art h
I n fu sori al e art h

Th e fi g u res i nd ic ate t h e n u mbe r of gra m c alorie s of h e at

th at wo ul d p as s i n on e secon d th ro ug h a ce nt i m eter c ub e of t he
°
m ate ri al if th e h ot an d col d si de s d i ffered i n te mp erat ure by 1 C
,
.

T h e be st con d uct ivity varie s w ith th e te m perat ure b ein g gre ater ,

at h i gh t e mp erat u res as i s sh o w n by t h e fi rs t tw o an d th e l a st two

,

ite m s i n t h e l i st . Th e fi g ure s rep re se n t t h e m e an con d uct ivi ty

for t h e ran ge of te m perat u re i nd ic ated an d were prob ably obt a i n
,

ed by m eas ur i n g th e fl o w of h ea t th ro u gh a w all of de fi n ite th ic k

n es s an d are a t h e tw o s ide s of wh ic h were m ai nt a i n ed at th e
,

te m perat u res m e nt ioned I t w ill b e u n der stood t h at a m aterial

.

h avi n g a h i g h con d u ct ivity for h e at a s sh ow n i n th e t abl e M tl i d

, ,
o ,

i f u sed i n th e con str uct ion of a fu rn ace wa ll all o w a con s iderabl e ,

am o u n t of h e at to e scap e a n d b e w a sted L i gh t powder s l i ke

.

i n fu sori al e arth are good for ret ai n i n g th e h eat i n a furn ace b ut ,

th e se do n ot ret ai n t he i r heat i n s ul at i n g q u al iti es at h i gh t e m pe ra

t u re s an d s h o uld only be u sed a s a n o uter j acke t t o th e fu rn ace .

U n do ubtedly m uch co ul d b e gai n e d i n ord in ary fu rn ace s by a m ore

careful atte nt ion to t h e h eat con d uct i n g q u al i t ie s of t h e m aterial s
of wh ich th e w al l s are com posed an d i n el ectric fu rn ace s wh ere
, ,

th e cost of t h e h eat i s u s u all y c o n s id e r a b lv greater it i s e v en more ,

i m port an t to g u ard a s far a s pos s ibl e a gai n st l os s O n th e other .

h an d c ase s are co m m on i n l arg e fuel fi red furn ace s an d occ ur -

,

eve n i n el ect ric h e at i n g wh ere th e i mp ort an ce o f p re servin g som e

,

portion of t h e fu rn ace th at i s ex posed to corros i v e sl ag s or very

h i gh t e m pe rat u re s i s gre ate r t h a n th e n eed to s ave th e he at a n d ,

i n s uch c ases air cool i n g a n d eve n wate r cool i n g of th e fu rn ace

, ,
-

wall s m ay be adopted I t s h o ul d b e re m e mbered t h at t h e rat e

.
58 T H E E L EC T R I C F U R NAC E .

of los s of he at from a f urn ace will b e p roport ion al to th e are a of

its wall s th at i s to t h e s q u are of t h e l i n e ar d i me n s ion s
, ,
Th e .

rat io of h e at l os s per u n i t vol u m e wi ll th erefore b e i nve rsely , ,

p roportion al to th e d i me n s ion s of th e furn ace or a fu r n ace th at ,

i s twice a s l ar ge a s anoth er (i n l i n e ar d i m e n s ion s ) w il l only h ave

,

h alf a s l ar ge a h e at l os s for a give n vol u m e of th e i nt erior of t h e

,

furn ace Th i s s uppose s t h e f urn ace w all s to be of e q u al th ic k

’

nes s i n th e two fu rn aces b ut i n s m al l e x peri m e n t al fur n ace s t h e

,

wall s are us u ally t h i n ner th a n t h ey a r e i n ful l s ized fu rn ace s an d -

,

u nd e r t h ese con dition s th e s m all f urn ace fare s eve n wors e i n p ro

portio n ; a n d i n t h e e x tre m e c as e of a s m all f urn ace con str ucted
a s a n e x act m odel on a scal e of on e i nch t o t h e foot of a l ar g e

furn ace th e h e at los s for e ach c ub ic i n ch of th e m ode l woul d b e

,

1 44 t i me s as gre at a s fro m th e l ar ge fu r n ace provided of co u rs e , , ,

t h at bot h att ain ed t h e s am e t e mper at ure I n oth er word s if t h e .

f urn ace s were m erel y bei n g kep t h ot no wor k be in g d on e i n

.

7
th em t h e s m all furn ace wo ul d need 1 4 4 t i m es a s m uch h e at per
,

c ub i c i nch as th e l ar ge fu rn ace i n ord er to keep it h e ate d to t h e

”

s am e te m pe rat u re .

I n Tabl e V I t he fi g ure s i n br ac ket s s h ow th e tem per at u re s

.

b etwee n wh ich th e ex p eri m e nt al d eterm i n at ion s we r e m ad e t h u s ,

i n th e fi rst l i n e of th e t abl e on e s id e of a fi r e b rick m ay h ave b e en

O O
ke p t at SO O O an d th e oth er s id e at O G wh il e t h e rat e at wh ich
, .
,

h e at p as s ed th ro u gh i t w as determ i ned Th e con d u ct ivity i n th e .

l as t col u m n i s con se q ue n tly a m e a n v al u e for th e g ive n

t e mperat ure r ang e an d th e act ual con d uct ivity of fi r e b ri c k s at
,
-

h ig h te m perat u re s wil l be eve n h i gh er t h an th e fi g u re given on

th e s econ d l i ne I n apply i n g t h e s e fi g ure s to c alc ul ate th e l os se s
.

of h eat throu gh fu rn ace w all s i t sh o ul d b e re m e m bered t h at th e ,

he at t ran s m itted i s p roportion al to t h e cros s s e ct ion t h at i s th e , ,

are a of th e piece of w al l con s idered i nve rsely proport ion al to it s ,

t h ic k n es s an d proport ion al t o t h e d i fferen ce of t e m p erat u re b e

,

twee n th e two s ide s o f th e w all Th e con d it ion s are i n fact j u s t

.

t h s am e as i n th e fl o w of electrici ty i n a con d uctor B y way o f .

comp arison w ith th e fi g u re s i n th e t ab le i t m ay b e m en tion ed th at ,

th e con d uct ivity for h eat of s i lve r is of coppe r an d of i ron

*
wh en cold .

F u rn a ce w al l s w i th ou t re fra ctor y m ate r ia ls Th e p ropert i e s .

of a n u mber of refractory m ateri al s h ave b een con s idered b u t it ,

‘

not i nfreq u e ntly h appen s i n elect ric furn ace con str uction th at , ,

th e h e at c an be develope d i n th e m id st of a l arge m as s of t h e m a
te r ia l to b e h e ated ; an d al th ou gh a very
hi gh t e m perat u re m ay
‘
R i h a d s M t allu g i al C al ula tio n s
c r
’
e r c c , v ol . i .
,
p . 1 75 .
60 T H E E L E C T R I C F U R NAC E .

by t h e fl a me i s s u in g fro m t h e f ur n ace , an d l e s s l os s of h e at occ u r s .

A noth er u se of wate r cool i n g i s i n el ectrolyt ic f urn ace s wh e n th e

-
,

m olte n electrolyte i s con t ai n ed i n a n iron ve ss el wh ich i s r e ,

q u ired to be g as t i gh t S i nce bot h t h e el ectrod e s p as s t hro u g h

-
.

th e w all s of th e ve ssel or t h e ve s sel it s el f m ay b e on e el ectrode

, ,

it is nece ss ary to i ntrod uce an i n s ul at i n g j oi n t at som e p oi nt an d ,

th i s j oi nt m u st b e u n a ffected by h e at by t h e el ectrolyte or by th e , ,

gases give n off i n th e ope rat ion A s at i sfactory m eth od of e ffect .

in g th i s is t o m ake th e ves sel i n two p art s on e of wh ich m ay

, ,

b e t h e l id an d to m ai nt ai n by w ater cool i n g a l aye r of s ol id i fi ed

, ,
-
,

el ect rolyt e b etwee n t h e two p art s wh ich are sl ig h tly sep arated ,
.

’
Th i s m eth od is e mpl oy ed i n B orch ers ap pl i ance s for th e
electroly s i s of fu sed z i nc c hlorid e an d for th e elect roly s i s of fu s e d ,

*
s alt s of l e ad E l ectrod e h ol der s are s om et i m e s w ater cool ed to
.
-
,

preve n t th e m from becom i n g u n d u ly h e ated an d occ as ion al l y ,

eve n t h e el ectrode s t h e m selve s are w ater cool ed as th e m et al t ub e -

,

el ectrode i n S ie m en s a r e fu rn ace (F i g 3 p ’
or th e w ater ,
.
,
.

’
cool ed i ron el ectrode i n B orch ers al u m i n i u m furn ace + or i n G i n s ,
’

s teel f urn ace (F i g 2 8 p ,

.
,
.

P r o d u cti on of H ea t in E l e ctric F u rn a ce s .

A s al ready m e ntio ned th e r ate at w h ich h e at i s prod u ce d i n ,

a n electric furn ace m ay be m e as u re d by th e n u mber of w att s of

~

el ectrical powe r s upp l i ed to th e furn ace all ow ance be i n g m ad e ,

w h e n n eces s ary for any el ect roly s i s t h at t ak e s pl ace A certai n .

rate of h e at in g i s n eces s ary for th e att ai n m e n t of a de fi n it e

tem perat u re ; t h i s rate dep e ndi n g o n t h e th i c k n es s an d h e at r e
t ain i n g q u al itie s of th e fu r n ace w al l s upon t h e s iz e of t h e fu rn ace , ,

a n d upon any cool in g i n fl ue nce s uch a s th e i ntrod uct ion o f fr e sh ,

ore to th e furn ace A few e x am pl e s w il l n ow b e g ive n of t h e

.

rate of h eat p rod uction i n typ ical el ectric fur n ace s t h e r at e be in g ,

g i ve n i n w att s p er c ub ic i nch or i n k ilowatt s per c ub i c f o o t I , .

’
I n Moi s s a n s s m a l l fu rn ace (F i g 6 p wh ic h wa s com ,
.
,
.

posed of block s of qu i ck l i m e h e e m pl oyed 3 5 to 4 o a mpere s at ,

'

5 5 vo l t s d i rect c u rren t ; or
, to w att s § T h e i n terior .

c avi ty o f t he furn ace wa s abo u t i nch e s i n d i am eter an d about ,

i nch e s i n h ei gh t corre spo n d in g to a vol u m e of

, c ub ic I n ch e s .

The w a t t s per c ub ic i nch will th ere fore be 4 7 0 to 5 3 8 or s a y 5 00 , , ,

*
Bo r c l 1e r s
El i S m l i n g and R fi n i n g (
ec tr c e t e , 1 89 7 Fig s 1 57, 1 5 8, an d 1 65

+B o h s El i S m l i n g an d R f n i n g ( Fig
. .

’
rc er ec tr c e t e i 1 8 97
, 86
W i i 8 Ki lowa tt s p ub i c f oo t
. .

1 a
1 t p ubt n h :
er
7 c c c 1 . 2 er c

H M oi s s an T h i
.

§ .
E l F ,u n a p e
5 e c tr c r ce , . .
 C ON S T R UC T I ON AND DE S I G N .
OI

a s a ro u n d fi g u re S om e allow a nce s ho uld be m ade for th e h e at

.

prod uce d i n th e electrode s th e m s el ve s a n d th i s wo ul d l eave p er ,

l i a p s 4 00 or 4 5 0 w att s p er c ubic i nch for th e i n teri or of th e f u rn a

c

Th i s fi g u re a s w il l be s ee n d irectly i s abo u t on e h u nd re d t im e s
, ,

a s g re at as th e u s u al rate of h e at i n g i n a fai r s ized el ectric fu rn ace -

,

a s u sed fo r s teel m ak i n g for i n s tan ce , .

Moi s s a n s el ectric t ub e fur n ace con t ai ne d a c arbon t ube in

’

wh ic h t h e m ate ri al to be h e ate d wa s pl aced an d th e furn ace it self ,

w a s com posed of l i m e stone an d wa s l i ned with alt ern at e l ayers of ,

carbon an d m a gne s i a I n t h i s furn ace h e e m p l oyed 3 00 a mp ere s

.

at 7 0 vol t s ( : 2 1 ooo w att s ) or ,

a mpere s at 6 0 vol t s , ,

0 00 Th e d im e n s 10 n s of t h e i nt eri or of th e furn ace as s u m ,

i n g th at h i s p erspect ive dr aw i n gs are t o sc al e would b e i nc he s ,

lon g ,
i nch e s wide a n d 4 i nch e s h igh ; corre spon d in g t o a
,

vol u m e of 5 6 c ubic i nch e s Th e w at t s p er c ub ic i nch wo ul d .

vary from 3 80 t o A d ed uct i on for th e h e at prod uced i n th e

elect rode s t h e m sel ve s w o ul d red uce t h e s e fi g u re s by 1 0 % or
A n e ve n m ore i nt e n s e rat e of he at in g i s m e nt ion ed i n wh ich ,

h e e m p l oy s to a m pere s at 1 00 vol t s i n an u n l in ed
l i me stone furn ace r Th e i n tern al d iam eter i s st ated to be 4 i nc he s
.
‘
,

a nd as s u m i n g t h e h e i ght to be th e s am e th e vol u m e of th e c avity ,

w o ul d b e 5 0 c ub ic i nch e s Th e watt s s uppl i ed w o ul d b e .

to or to w att s p er c ub i c i nch Th e op e rati on .

of t h i s fu rn ace i s o nl y of sh ort d u rat i on t he l i m e prod uce d by , ,

he at i n g t he i n te rior of t h e l i m e ston e bl oc k s soon m elt i n g an d , ,

r u n n i n g l i k e w ater wh i le v ap or i ze d l im e roars o u t aro un d th e

,

el ectrodes a nd t h e f u rn ace i s soo n de stroyed

,
T h e te m perat u re .

p rod uced w a s l i m ited b y t h e rap id m e l t i n g a n d v aporizi n g of th e

l i me b u t b y s upply i n g th e h e at at s u ch a n en orm o u s rate t h e
, ,

gre at er part of th e ca v ity m ig h t we l l be con s i derably hotter t h an

t h e boi l i n g te m perat u re of m el ted l i m e .

Th e s m al l fu rn ace fi rst m e nt i on ed co ul d be u sed for l on ger , ,

pe riod s a s th e rate o f h e at prod uct i on wa s so m uch l es s an d t h e

, ,

fu rn ace w a s th e refore l e s s r apidl y des tro y ed ; wh il e th e t ube

fu rn ace l in ed wi th ca rbo n a n d m ag ne s i a co u l d be r u n con t in u
, ,

o u s ly .

Th e S t a s s a n o steel fu rn ace (F ig 3 7 p re se mble s th e ,

.
,
.

Moi s s an fu rn ace a s t h e ore to b e s m el ted i s h e ated by radiat ion

,

fro m a n arc Th e fu rn ace de scribed by D r G ol d sch m id t in

.
.

w h ich is som ewh at l a rge r th a n th e on e fi g u red i n D r .

*
H . M oi s s an
, Th e El e c tr c i Fu na r ce ,
p . 1 7 .

+H . M oi s s an , Th e El e c tr c i Fu na r ce, p . 14 .

I E le c t r o c h e m ic a l I nd u s t y r ,
vo l . i .
,
p . 24 7 .
62 T H E E LE C T R I C F U R NAC E
“

*
Haanel R ep ort ,
took an al tern at i n g c u rre n t of amp ere s
’
s

at 1 7 0 u se d abo u t 4 5 0 h or se power Th e h orse powe r -

.
-

corre sp ond s to 3 36 k ilo watt s b ut p art of t h i s wo uld b e w as te d -

,

o ut s ide th e f ur n ace Th e vol t am pere s are . an d as s u m in g -

a power factor of -
t h i s wo u l d give 2 5 5 k ilo w att s con s u m e d in
t h e fu rn ace Th e i nterior of t h e fu rn ace w a s abo ut 4 0 i nch e s
.

c ube or ,
c ub ic i n ch es g ivi n g 4 w att s per c ubi c i n ch or , ,

kilow at t s per c ubic foot Th e d i ffere nce be twee n t h i s rat e of .

h eati n g an d th at e mployed by Moi s s an d epe n d s i n p art u pon t h e ,

lower te mper at u re re q u i red i n p art u pon t h e g re at l os s of h e at in , ,

th e Moi ss an fur n ace prod uced by t h e v a p o r i z m g of th e m ateri al s of

,

th e furn ace a nd i n p art up on t h e l arger s i ze an d better h eat re

,

tai n in g con s tr uct i on of th e S t a s s a n o furn ace .

Th e H ero ult steel fu r n ace at L a P raz (F i g 2 3 p ,

.
,
.

fi g ure d b y D r H a a n e l r i s abo u t 7 fee t l on g 4 fee t w ide an d 2

‘
‘
.
, , ,

feet h i g h i n s i de givi n g a vol u m e of 5 6 c ubic feet

,
T h e powe r .

em pl oye d was 3 5 3 k ilo w a tts I or k il ow att s per c ubic foot , ,

wh ich agrees wel l w ith th e S ta s s a n o fur n ac e .

Th e fur n ace rec e n tly e m pl oye d at S a ul t S te M ari e for .

,

s melt i n g C a n ad i an iro n ore s (F i g 2 9 p h ad an i n ter i o r ,

.
,
.

vol u m e of c ub ic fee t a nd con s u m ed abo u t 1 6 6 k il owatt s o f ,

“

el ectr i c al power or 9 k ilow att s per c ub ic foot §

,
Th i s i s onl y a .

l ittl e l arger th an t h e fi g u re s for th e H ero ul t steel fu rn ace

kilowatt s p er c ubic foot an d t h e S ta s s a n o fur n ace k il ow att s
, ,

per c ub ic foot ; b u t th e m e an in g of t h e fi g ure i s n ot q u it e t h e s a m e .

Th e whol e i nterior of t h e S ta s s a n o a nd H ero ul t st eel fu rn ace s is

he ated to abo ut th e m e l t i n g te m p erat u re of th e s teel an d the ,

rate of h e at p rod uct ion for e ach c ub ic foot of t h e fu rn ace i s o f

t h e fi rst i m port ance i n dete rm i ni n g th e te m per at ure to wh ic h t h e
furn ace c a n be h e ated I n t h e H ero ul t ore s m el t in g furn ace
.
-
,

h owever the t e mpe rat u re i s far fro m u n i form t h ro ugh o u t th e in

,

t e r io r only th e lower p art be i n g h e at ed to a s m el t in g te m perat u re ;

,

a n d t h e vol u m e of t h e up per p art of t h e fur n ace wh ere th e ore is ,

grad u ally h e ate d d ur in g it s d e sce n t t o t h e s m el t in g zon e could ,

be very m uch greater witho u t t h e c h an ge h avi n g any m ateri a l

e ffect upon the t emperat u re i n t h e s m elt i n g zon e of t h e fu rn ace .

I n s uch a furn ace i t i s con s eq ue ntly of l ittl e i mport an ce to c o n

s ider th e tot al vol u m e i n rel ation to th e el ectrical powe r a m ore ,
'

si gn i fi can t fi g u re be i n g o b ta in e d b y d ivid i n g th e k il ow att s by th e

I‘
Eur op e a nCo m m i s s io n R p o t p e r , . 11 an d F ig s .
9 an d 1 0

+ E u o p an C o m m i s s i o n R p o t p 5
r e e r , . a nd Fi g s .
3 a nd 4 .

I E p
uro C o m m i s
eans io n R p o t p 53 e r , . .

D H l R p o t o n Ex p i m n ts S aul t Ma ie p an d pl a t
§ r. aane , e r er e a t S te . r , 1 9 07 , .
46 , e

( A l s o i n th C an ad ia n E n g i n x iii pp an d
" ”
v n. e e er, v ol . . , . 221
 C o N s T R U C T 10 N AN D DE S I G N . 63

vol u me i n c ub ic feet of th e fu s ion or s m elt in g zon e of t h e fu rn ace .

Th is zon e i s nece s s ari l y d i ffi c ul t to de fi n e b u t as s u m i n g t h at th e ,

el ectrode C i n F i g 2 9 i s i n its norm al w ork i n g p os it i on t h e

, ,
.
, ,

s melt i n g zo ne wo ul d occ upy abo ut 7 c ub i c feet m ak in g th e ,

electric al powe r 2 4 k i low att s pe r c ub i c foot of t h e zon e .

Th e rat e of he at i n g i n t h e s m el ti n g zon e of th i s fu rn ac e i s , ,

ve ry m uc h gre ater th a n i n a steel fu rn ace a n d t h i s i s e x pl ain ed ,

by th e co n st an t s upply of cool e r m at eri al wh i ch ab sorb s m ost of

t he h e at Th e e ffi cie ncy wi l l te n d to i ncrea se a s th e fu rn ace i s
.

d rive n faste r ; b ut wit h th e m ore r apid s m e l t in g t he zon e of

, ,

fus io n wil l becom e e nl arged t h u s corrod in g t h e w all s of t h e ,

f urn ace Th ere i s con se q u en tly a l i m i t beyon d wh ich it i s n ot de

.

s i rabl e to i n cre ase t h e r ate of h e at i n g i n el ectric furn ace s , .

Th e K el ler furn ace (F i g 3 0 p con s i st s of two s mel t

,
.
,
.

i n g s h afts with a co m m on re ser v o i r for th e m olt en p rod uct s

,
.

Tak i n g th e d i m e n s i on s fro m F i gs 1 1 an d 1 2 of D r H a a n e l s . .
’

E u rope an re port t he s m el t i n g zone A B of each s h aft om itt in g

, , , ,

t h e con n ect i n g p as s age CC w h ich act s a s a re servoir for th e ,

‘
,

fused i ron a n d s l a g w i l l occ upy abou t 1 9 c ub i c feet

,
T he po w er .

u sed i n th e fi rs t r u n of fu rn ace s N os 1 1 a n d 1 2 was 6 1 3 k ilo

, ,
.
,

*
watts or 3 06 k ilo w att s for e ac h of t h e two sh aft s
,
Th i s i s .

eq u al to 1 6 k ilowatt s for e ach c ub i c foot of t h e fu s ion zon e If .

th e wh ol e v o l u m e of th e sh aft w ere con si dered t h e powe r woul d ,

correspon d t o 5 k ilow att s per c ub i c foot or to 6 k il owatt s pe r c ub i c ,

foot of th e s h aft up to t h e l e v e l F G at wh ic h th e gase s e scap e , ,

from th e fu rn ace .

T hes e fi g u re s are l es s t h an w ere ob tai ned from t he H ero ul t

f u rn ace t h e d i ffere nce bei n g d ue m a i nly t o t he l arger s ize of t h e
,

Kel l er fu rn ace i n wh i ch t h e s m el ti n g zon e w a s th re e t i m e s a s

,

l arge a s i n t h e H e ro ul t fu rn ace Th e l arger s ize of th e Ke l l e r .

fu rn ace occ as i o ned a s m all er l os s by r ad i at io n an d con d uct i on pe r

c ub ic foot an d a corre spo nd in g ly s m all er r ate of h eat p rod uct io n
,

wa s req ui r d I n t h i s conn ect ion i t sho ul d b e m e nt ioned th at

e
.
,

th e rat e of s m el t in g pe r c ubic foot of s m elt i n g zon e i n th e

, ,

Kel le r fu rn ace w a s l es s t h an on e t h ird of th e rat e of s m el t in g i n

,
-

th e H ero u l t fu rn ace w h il e t he con s u mpt ion of electrical en ergy

,

pe r ton of p i g iron w as twice as gre at i n th e K ell er fu rn ace as i n

-

th e H ero ul t furn ace Th i s s ee m s t o i nd ic at e t h at t he s u pp l y of

.

power i n th e K ell e r fu rn ace was not q u ite s u ffi cie n t b ut ,

as th i s f urn ace wa s work in g b adly a s a re s u l t of a

s h ut down i t i s u n s afe to d r a w ded uct ion s fro m it s rat e
-
,

of s m elti n g .

l‘
Dr . I I aa nel
-
'
s E u op an R po
r e e r t, 1 90 4 , p .
40 .
‘

64 TH E E LE C T R I C F UR NAC E .

B etter re s ult s were ob t ai n ed i n t h e s econ d r u n wit h th e ,

Kel l er f urn aces N 1 and Th es e we re st at ed to b e ide nt ic al

with N os 1 1 a nd 1 2 w ith t he ex ception of th e con n ect i n g ch an n el
.
, ,

wh ich wa s ab se n t i n N os 1 a n d 2 A s s u m i n g t h e s m elt i n g zon e

. .

t o b e of th e s a m e s ize th e rat e of h e at p rod uct io n wo ul d b e only

,

6 kilowatt s per c ub ic foot of th i s p art of t h e fu r n ace Th e e n er gy .

co n s u mpt i on p er to n of pi g iron i n t he s e fu rn ace s w a s a l ittl e le s s -

, ,

th an i n th e H e ro ul t furn ace .

I n t h e K j e llin steel f ur n ace (F i g 2 4 p n o el ectrode s ,

.
,
.

are em ployed ; t h e s teel i s con t ain ed i n a ri n g s h ape d t ro u gh an d -

,

i s m elte d by a n el ectric c urren t wh ich i s i n d uced i n t h e st eel j u st

a s i t i s i n t h e second ary wi n di n gs of a t ran sform e r .

Th e furn ace sh ow n i n D r H a a n e l s r e p o r t 1 h as a t ro u g h of .
’

,
L

1 2 c ub ic fe et capaci ty Th e power del ivere d t o th e p ri m ary of

.

t h e t ra ns form er wa s 1 5 0 k il owatt s A s s um i n g t h e tr an s form e r .

los se s to b e 1 0 % of t h i s 1 3 5 k il ow att s wo ul d b e s uppl ie d to th e

,

m olte n steel or 1 0 k ilow att s per c ub ic foot of t h e fu rn ace

, .

Th is fi g u re is l arge r t h an i n t h e H ero ul t steel f urn ace an d ,

th e d i ffe re nce m ay b e p artly acco u nted for by t h e l ar ger a mou n t of

w as te s pace i n th e l atter fu rn ace
. Th e e ffi c ie n cy of t h e K j e llin .

”
furn ace i s l ow on acco u n t of t h e s m all cros s s ection (6 by
,

of t he t ro ug h cont ai n i n g th e m ol te n s teel ; a n d a som ewh at s m al l

cros s section appe ars to be nece s s ary i n t h i s typ e of fu rn ace .

Th e G in s teel fur n ace (F i g 2 8 p re se mbl e s th e K je llin

, .
,
.

fu r n ace i n con s ist i n g of a l on g t ro u gh or c a n al of s m al l cros s ,

sect ion co nt ai ni n g th e m ol te n steel ; b u t t h e el ectri c c u rre n t 1 3 I n

,

t r o d u c e d at th e e nd s of t h e t ro u gh t h ro u gh water cool ed ste el -

te rm i n al s I n ord er to red uce th e l os s of h e at t h e c an al is fold ed

.
,

u pon i t sel f l i ke the fi l am e n t of a n i n c an de scen t l am p .

M r G i n c al c ul ate s th e d i m e n s ion s for a n u mb e r of fur na ce s

.
,

i n a p aper t h at h as bee n pr i nted i n D r H a a n e l s r e p o r t I F or a ’

. .

7 00 k il owat t fur n ace th e vol u m e of t h e steel i n t h e t ro u gh woul d

,

be c ub i c feet an d as s u m i n g th e t ro ug h t o be h al f fi l le d b y
,

t h e mol te n s teel it s c ap ac ity wo ul d b e 3 9 c ub ic feet corre spon d

, ,

i n g t o 1 8 k i lowatt s per c ub ic foot of th e t ro u g h Th e t ro u gh .

wo uld be n early 3 0 feet l on g wi de deep an d h al f ful l , , ,

o f m olte n steel .

I n t h e A ch eson f u rn aces F i gs 8 an d 3 8 4 1 th e h eat i s ,

.
,
-
,

p rod uced by th e p as s age of a n el ectric c u rre n t t h ro u gh a ce n t ral

*
Dr . Ha an el
’
s Eu o p an R p o t
r e e r , 1 9 04 , p .
44 .

+Dr . H a a n el
’
s Eu op an R po t
r e e r , 1 9 04 , p . 2 and F i g . 1 .

I Dr . H a anel
’
s Eu op an R po t
r e e r , 1 9 04 , p . 1 73 .
 C O N S T R U C T 10 N AN D D E S I G N . 65

core or t h ro u g h th e ch ar ge i tsel f Th e ch arge does n ot m e lt .

,

and re m ai n s n earl y i n th e s a m e p os i t io n u nt i l t h e e n d of th e opera

tion V e ry l i ttl e d at a i s avail ab l e w i t h re gard t o t h e act u al wor k
.

in g of th e se fu rn ace s Th e fo l l owi n g e x am pl e s m ay b e g ive n .

*
I n a pate n t by E G A ch es on for a m et hod of m ak in g carbon . .

art icle s of a h i gh d e n s ity an d con d uct i v i ty by h e at i n g t h e m i n a n

e lectri c fu rn ac e wi th ou t re ach i n g t h e poi n t o f gr aph it izat ion th e
’

furn ace i s st ated t o be 3 0 feet lon g 3 0 in ch e s wide an d 1 0 i n ch e s , ,

deep i ns ide Th e powe r u s ed wa s abou t 7 5 0 k ilo vol t ampere s

.
- -
.

A s s u m i ng t h e powe r factor to b e th i s woul d corre spon d to 1 0

or 1 1 k ilowatt s pe r c ub ic foot of t h e fu rn ace .

Th e Ach e son grap h ite a n d electrod e fu rn ace s a re descr i bed

by F A J F itz G e r a ld f wh o t a ke s t h e d at a i n p art from A ch e son s
. . .
’

p ate nt s Th e g raph i te furn ace is s aid to be 3 0 feet lon g 1 4

.
,

i nch e s wi de a nd 1 8 i nch e s deep t h u s h avi n g a vo l u m e of 5 2 72

, ,

c ubic fe e t I Th e c urren t at t h e be gi n n in g of t h e r un i s st ated

. .
,

to b e 3 00 am pere s at 2 00 vol t s an d F itz G e r a ld as s u m e s t h at ,

wh e n th e fu rn ace h a s becom e h e ated i t ab sorb s 7 5 0 k ilo w att s .

Th e l atte r fi g u re wo ul d corre spond t o 1 4 k i low att s pe r c ub ic foot .

I n t h e elect rode fur n ace th e l en gth b etwee n term i n al s i s 3 0 feet , ,

an d t h e cros s sect io n of th e p i le s of el ectrod e s u n der t r ga t m e n t i s

2
4 i nche s by 1 7 i nch e s A l lowi n g a few i nch es of gra n ul a r .

ca rbo n aro u n d th e el ectrode s t h e vo l u m e of t h e fu r n ace woul d b e ,

1 0 c ubic fee t k ilow att s were e m pl oyed correspon d in g to le s s

5 7 0 0 , ,

t h an 5 k ilowatt s pe r c ub i c foot I f n o al lowance were m ad e for .

th e gra n ul ar c arbon th e rate of h e at i n g wo ul d be 8 k ilowatt s pe r ,

“

c ub ic foot of th e ch ar ge .

A d raw i n g of th e c arbor u nd u m fur n ace § s h ow s i t to be

feet l on g 6 feet wi de a nd 5 % fe et h i gh i n s ide
,
Th e p owe r u sed ,
.

i s 7 5 0 k i l owatt s wh ich i s o nly 1 % k i l ow atts pe r c ubic foot If ,

.
,

howeve r it i s con s idered th at p art of th e c h arg e i n t h e fu rn ace

,

serve s a s a h eat re t a i n i n g wall a nd t h e c al c ul at ion i s l i m ited to t h at ,

port ion of t h e ch arge wh ich i s converted i nto carb or u nd u m th e ,

rate of h e at i n g i s fo u nd to b e 3 k ilowatt s p er c ub ic foot .

”
E . G . A h s onc e , U S . p at nt
. e E l e c t o h m i c al I n du s t y
e ol se r c e r , v . ii p.
, . 1 08 .

+Th e R u th e n b u r g an d A h s o n F u r n a c s F A J F i t G e ld E l e
c e e , . . . z ra , c tr o h e m i al
c c

I n du s t ry , vo l . iii p .
, .
416 .

I G
E A h
. e s on U S p a te n t
. c s E l t o c h e m i al I n d u s tr y
, .ol i. p 13 ee ec r c , v . . , . 0 .

T h e au th o h a s b e n i nfo m e d b y t h A h e s o n G aph i t e C o m p a n y th a t th e s d i m e
r e r e c r e n

s i on s a e i n o e t r I f a s s e e m s a s o n abl t s u pp o s th
c rr c . o s s s e t io n f o a 7 5 re e o e e cr c r 0

k i lo wa t t fu n a c e i s s o m w h a t la g e th an s t a t d abov th
r a t e o f h e a ti n g wo uld
e r r e e, e r

b e p o po t i o n a te l y
r ed uced
r and would ag e e m o n a l y w i t h th e o th e fi gu e s f or
r ,
r re e r r r

t h i s c la s s o f fu n a r ce .

T h e C a b o un du m F u n a F A J F i t G e r a ld E l t o h e m i c al I n du s t y
§ r r v ol
r ce , . . . z , ec r c r , .

iv p 53
.
, . .
66 -
T H E E L E CT R I C F U R NA C E .

th e re s u l ts obt ai n ed above for th e p ower re q u ire d

C oll ect i n g
p er c ubi c foot of el ectric furn ace th e fol l ow i n g ge n er al fi g ure s ,

m ay b e g ive n for m oderate or l ar ge s ize d fu rn ace s u s i n g fro m ,

2 00 t o h ors e p o w e r z— S teel m el ti n g f urn ace s s uch a s t he

-
,

H ero u l t a nd S ta s s a n o fur n ace s e m pl oy 5 to 8 k il ow att s ; s teel ,

m elt i n g f urn ace s s uch a s t h e G in or K j e llin f ur n ace s e m pl oy 1 0 to

2 0 k ilowatt s ; ore s m el ti n g fu rn ace s s uch as th ose of Kell er a n d ,

H e ro ul t em ploy abou t 1 0 to 2 0 k ilow att s p er c ub ic foot of t h e

, ,

z on e of fus ion ; an d t h e power u sed i n f ur n ace s of th e A ch e son

type varies from abo u t 3 kil owatt s i n t h e car bor u n d u m f urn ace to
abo u t 1 0 k ilowatts i n th e graph ite fu rn ace S m al l s ized f u rn ace s .

for el ect ri c s m el t in g m ay e m ploy a s m uch as 3 0 t o 1 00 k il owat t s

per c ub ic foot a nd M oi s s an u se d n o l e s s t h a n 5 00 to
,
k il o
w att s o f el ect rical p owe r per c ub ic foot of h i s furn ac e s .

V ol ta ge R e qu ire d f or E le ctric F u rn a ce s .

H avi n g dete rm i ned h ow m any w atts s h o ul d b e s up p l ie d to th e

furn ace t h e v ol ta ge of th e s upply m u s t n e x t be con s ide red
,
Th e .

watt s s uppl ied are for di rect c u rre nt th e prod uct of th e am p ere s
, ,
-

and th e vol t s wh il e for altern at i ng c urren t t h ey are som ewh at l e s s

,

the p rod uct of vol t s a n d am pere s bei n g m ul t ipl ie d by a fact or

—
th e powe r factor wh ich varie s fro m abo u t to i n d i ffere nt
form s of fu rn ace i n order to obt ain th e watt s ,
Th e he at pro .

d u c e d depe nd s s i m ply upon th e p rod uct of vol t s a m pere s an d ,

*
power factor so th at i t wo ul d appe ar pos s ibl e t o u s e e ith er a
,

h i gh or l ow volt a ge p rovided t h e w att s were s u fli c ie n t ,

If a .

m oderate c u rre n t at a h i gh vol t age co ul d b e em pl oyed it wo ul d ,

be a g re at con ve n ie n ce b u t t h i s is u s u al ly i mp ractic abl e b eca u s e

, ,

:
i t is not ge nerally fe as ibl e to con str uct a fu rn ace h avi n g a s u f
fi c ie n t ly h i gh e l ectrical re s i st an ce

Th e wh ol e probl e m t ur n s upon th e el ectric al re s i st ance of th e

res i stor R (F i g , S uppos e t h at a f u rn ac e n eed s 2 5 0 kilo
.

wat t s to h e at i t th en t ak i n g d i rec t Cu rre n t for s i mpl ic ity in

, , ,
’

il l u st ration i f th e furn ace re s i st an ce we re 1 oh m a 5 00 vol t s u p p l y

, ,

wo uld drive a c u rre nt of 5 00 am pere s th rou gh th e fu r n ace a n d

wo ul d develop th e n ece s s ary 2 5 0 k ilow at t s I f , h owever t h e .
,

f urn ace h ad a re s i st an ce of only oh m th e c u rren t i n a m pere s , , ,

wo ul d be o ne h u ndred t i m e s t h e vol t s an d a mpere s at 50 ,

vol t s wo ul d be n eed ed Th e l atter case is approx i m ately th at of .

A s s u m i n g th a t ll th
‘
a e ene gy i s
r c o nv e r te d i n t o h e a t an d n o n e o f
, it s pe nt in
c h m i al w o k s u h a s l
e c r , c e ec t ol y s i s
r .
68 T H E E LE C T R I C F U R NA C E .

TA B L E V I I .

V ol tage of M oi s s a n ’
s A rc F u rn a ce .

A m p eres . V ol t s .

3 5 40 55
-
.

1 00
45
2
5 0 7 ,
0 75 0
5 , 6 0 , 7 0 , 80 , 1 10

3 00 60 , 7 ,
0 7 ,
0 1 00 , 1 10

40 0 80 6 0 , 80 , 1 00

45 0 60 , 75 60 , 70
6 00 60

Th is t abl e i nd ic at e s t h at t h e vol t age of th e arc i s n ot d e

te r m in e d by th e a mo u n t of c urre n t flowi n g t h ro u gh th e fu rn ac e ,
-

b u t depen d s m ai n ly u pon t h e l e n gt h of arc an d t h e k i n d of vap o u r

prese nt i n th e f ur n ace Th e l en gth of arc i s u n fort u n at ely n ot
.
.

g i ve n b ut
,
p robably varie d fro m abo u t h al f a n i nch to two i nch e s
or th ree i nch e s ; al u m i n i u m vapo u r i s m e nt ion e d a s givin g a lon g
a r e of two i nche s to two an d a h al f i nch e s a n d t he an d ,

ampere arc s at 6 0 vol t s were ob t ain e d i n t h e pres enc e of iron

vapou r Th e act u al vol t s acro s s th e arc w il l b e so m ewh at l e s s
.

t h an th e fi g u re s g iven o n acco u n t of t h e drop of volt s al on g th e

,

el ectrode s a s wel l a s i n t h e con n ect ion s Th i s d rop i s q u it e con .

s id e r a b le i n th e c ase of h e avy c u rre nts an d wo ul d vary from ,

a bo ut 5 to 2 0 or e v e n 3 0 vol t s depe nd in g o n th e c u rren t an d th e

s ize of c arbo n em pl oyed .

Th e altern ati n g c u rren t i s ge n er ally u se d i n arc fu rn ac es in !

te nd ed for i n d u stri al u s e a n d th e H e roul t a n d S ta s s a n o s t e el

fu rn ace s m ay be t ake n as ex am pl e s .

Th e S ta s s a n o fur n ace (F i g re semble s t h e M o i s s a n

,

fu rn ace i n gene ral con st r uct ion A l on g a r e G H i s m ai n t ain ed

.
, ,

be twee n t he en ds of som ewh at sl en de r el ectrode s an d wh e n t h e ,

furn ace b ecom e s t horo u gh l y h ot t he arc m ay b e d r aw n o u t u n t 11 ,

*
i t t r avers es t h e wh ole width of th e fur n ace I n on e furn ace th e .

wi dth wa s an d a n altern at i n g c urren t a r e of amp ere s “

at 1 7 0 vol ts w a s u sed I t wil l b e s ee n th at th i s volt age i s very

.

m uch l ower th a n wo uld b e re q ui red by th e for m ul a g ive n above ;

th e h i gh te m perat u re of t h e furn ace t h e pre sence of m et all ic an d ,

‘
El e c tr o h e m i c al I ndu s tr y
c , v 0] . i .
,
p 24 7 .
 C ON S T R UC T I ON AN D D E S I G N . 69

ot h er vapou rs a n d t he u se of a l tern at i n g i n ste ad of d i rect c u rre nt

,

al l contrib ut e to th i s e ffect .

Th e H e roul t fur n ace as s h o w n i n F i g 2 3 re se mble s a W el l ,

.
,

m a n t ilt i n g ope n h e art h fu rn ace from wh ich th e g a s an d a i r port s

-

h ave bee n re move d an d t w o l ar ge carbon electrod e s C C e nte r

, , , ,

th ro ugh h ol e s i n t h e roof Th e fur n ace is b as ic l in ed b ut i t .

,

wo ul d be pos s ibl e to e m ploy a n acid l in i ng Th e a r e doe s n ot .

pl ay from on e c arbo n to th e oth er as i n t h e Moi s s an an d S ta s s a n o ,

.
fur n ace s , b ut th ere i s a n a r e b etwee n e ach el ectrode and th e s l a g
an d m et al i m m ed i ately be ne at h i t I n t h i s w ay th e h ea t of t h e .

a r e i s d irectly com m u n ic ated t o th e m et a l an d as two arc s a r e ,

prod uc ed i n se ri e s th e vol t age of th e f urn ace w il l be tw i ce a s

,

gre at a s t h at of a s i n gl e arc Th e fu rn ace s ee n by th e C o m .

m is s ion at K o r t fo r s t ook ampere s at 1 2 5 vol t s t h e po w e r ,

*
s u ppl ie d b ei n g abo u t 4 5 0 k ilow att s w h il e t h e s m al le r furn ace a t ,

L a P ra z t oo k abo u t am pere s at 1 0 8 volt s Th e pow e r .

L
s uppl ied w a s 3 5 0 k ilow att s b u t t h e c urre n t w as n ot m e a s u r e d b ,
.

Th e volt age of e ach a r e i n th es e fur n ace s w il l b e abo ut 4 5 or 5 5 .

an d t h e arc will be q u it e s hort t h e c arbon s bei n g k ep t j us t cle a r ,

of t h e sl a g .

V olta ge of R e s tan ce F u
i s rn a c e s — R e s i st ance furn ace s h ave .

u s u ally a l ower vol t age th an a r e fu rn ace s of th e s am e s ize Th e .

H ero ul t O r e S m elti n g F u rn ace (F i g 2 9 ) i s of th e resi st an ce typ e ,

-
.

as n o arc i s form e d ; th e c u rre n t flow i n g be twee n th e m ovabl e

el ectrod e C an d th e c arb on l i n i n g at th e botto m of t h e fu rn ace
, ,

th ro u gh t h e sol i d a n d l i q u id m ateri a l s i n th e s m el ti n g z on e Th e .

el ectric al re si st a nc e of t h e s e m ate ri al s c a u se s th e e ner gy of th e

c u rre n t t o b e co nve rted i nto h eat an d l ar gely de term in e s th e volt
a ge of th e f urn ace ; th e vol t ag e b ei n g h i gh er for a gi v e n c u rre nt ,

i f th e con te n t s of t h e fu rn ace h ave a h i gh e r el ectrical re s ist an ce .

I n th e rece nt ex peri m e n ts with t h i s fur n ac e only 3 6 volt s were r e ,

q uire d to m ai nt ai n an altern at in g c u rre n t of a m p e re s t

T h e Kel le r O r e S m el t i n g F u rn ace (F i g 3 0 ) i s e q u ivalen t to

-
.

two H e ro ul t fu r n ace s wit h a con nect i n g p as sa ge betwee n th e ,

cr uc ibl e s of th e tw o fu rn ace s Th i s p as sa ge serve s as a re servo i r .

for t h e m ol te n sl a g an d iron an d al so s erve s t o con n ect electrical ly ,

th e m ol te n m et al at t h e bottom of each fu rn ace ; an al tern at ive

p as s a ge for th e c u rre nt i n c ase th e reservoir were e mp tie

,
d at any
ti me i s provid ed th ro u gh t h e c arbon pl u g s B E B E an d cop p e r
, , ,

con nector BE E l ect ric ally th e tw o fu r n ace s are arran ged in

I
.
,

‘
Dr . H a a n el , E u o p an R po t 9 4 p 5
r e e r , 1 0 , . 2 .

+D r . H a a n el , Eu o p a n R po t 9 4 p 54
r e e r ,
1 0 , . .

I DI ’
. Ha anel , R p o t o n E xp i m n t s t S aul t
e r er e a S te . Ma i
r e, 1 90 7 , p .
52 .

6
70 T HE E LEC T R I C F UR NAC E .

s eri es t h e c urre n t be in g s uppl ied th ro u g h t h e two m ovab l e

,

el ectrode s D A D A an d p as s i n g i n s eries t h ro u gh t h e two

,
‘ I
,

s m elti n g z on e s A B A B an d t h e volt ag e i s i n con se q ue n ce twic e

, ,
I I

a s gre at a s i t woul d b e i n a s i n gl e fu rn ace of t h e H e ro ul t ty p e .

I n t h e ex peri m e n t s m ad e by D r Haa n e l at L ivet

*
t h e do ubl e .
,

s h aft fu r n ace N o s 1 1 a n d 1 2 took a c u rre n t of

,
. a m pere s ,

at 5 9 vol t s a n d th e do uble fu rn ace N os 1 an d 2 took

,
-
,
.
,

a mpere s a t vol ts .

F or a g i ve n s ize an d sh ap e of fu rn ace an d d i st anc e b e tween ,

t h e el ectrode s an d t h e m ol te n i ron i n t h e botto m of t h e fu r n ace ,

t h e vol t age of t h e furn ac e w ill i ncre as e w it h t h e c u rre n t th at is

p as s ed th ro u gh it Th e vol t a ge will i n cre as e l es s r ap idly t h an
.

t h e c urre n t h owever b eca u s e at t h e h i gh e r te mp erat ure s pro

, ,

d u c e d by th e i ncreased c urre n t th e el ectric al re s i st ance of t h e ,

f u r n ace conte nt s w ill be l es s th an i t w as w it h th e s m al ler c ur re n t ,

a nd so th e r atio of volt age to c urre nt wil l be red uced I f th e . .

c ros s sect io n of t h e f urn a c e were i n cre ased s o t h at t h e c u rren t ,

de n si ty re m ai n e d con st an t i e t h e n u m ber of a mp ere s for each ,

. .
,

s q u a r e foot of cros s s ect i on of t h e fur n ace w a s t h e s am e as b efore ,

t h e v ol t age wo ul d re m a i n co n st a n t ; an d i f th e h ei gh t of th e fu rna c e
a nd th e d i st ance b etwee n th e m ov abl e el ectrod e an d th e bottom
of th e sh aft were i ncre ased p roporti on ately t h e vo l t a ge w o ul d ,

i nc reas e i n th e s am e r at io Th at i s to s a y i n f u rn ace s of s i m il ar
.
,

sh ape s b u t of d i ffe re n t d i m e n s ion s an d for con st an t c u rre n t

,

de n siti es t he volt age will be proport ion al to th e l in ear d im e n s i on s

, ,

a n d t h e c urre n t wil l b e p rop ort i on al to th e s q u are of t h es e

d i m e n s ion s I t foll ow s from th i s t h at th e vol t a ge i s p r opor t ion a l
.
,

to the s q u are root of t h e c urre n t a n d as th e s ize of el e c tric ,

fu rn ace s i s i nc re ased th e vol t a ge n ece s s ary t o oper at e th e m will

,

al so i ncre ase ; b ut w i t h far l e s s r ap idity th an th e el ectrical c u rren t

wh i ch m u s t be s uppl i ed I n p r act ic e th e volt a ge will t e n d to
.
,

i ncre ase l es s r ap idly t h an t h e d i m e n s i on s of t he fu rn ac e ; b ec a use'

'

i n l arg e furn ace s t h e s am e c u rren t de n s ity woul d prod uce a r ath er

h i gh er te m per at u re an d so wo ul d m ake the ch arg e a b etter
,
~

el ectrical con d uctor or s ma l l er c u rre n t d en s it ie s co ul d be e m :

,
.

pl oyed wh i ch wou l d need a lower volta ge .

Th e vo l t a ge of a n ore s m el t in g f ur n ace of t h e K e ll er o r -
“

H ero ul t type d epe nd s m ostly u pon th e h e i gh t t o whi ch th e

, .

el ectrode i s raised from th e botto m of t h e fur n ace an d th i s c an ,

'
b e eas i ly ch an ged d uri n g th e s m elt in g ope ration t h u s a fford in g a ,

co nve n ie nt m e an s of re g ul ati n g th e el ectri c c urre n t I f th e c u rr e n t .

we re s uppl ied to s uch a furn ace at a n ab sol utel y con st an t vol ta ge ,

*
Dr . H a a n el, E u o p an R p o
r e e r t, 1 9 04 , p .
36 .
 C ON S T R UC TI ON AND D E S I G N .
7 1

a ny ch an ge i n th e re s i s t ance of t h e fu rn ace wo ul d l e ad to a ch an g e
i n th e a mou n t of c urre nt t h e vol t age re m ai n i n g con st an t ; an d i n
,

r u n n i n g a fu rn ace u n de r s uc h con d it ion s t h e el ect rod e wo ul d b e ,

l owere d t o i ncre as e t h e c urre nt a n d r ai sed to d ecre a se it In

, .

p ract i ce t h e vol t age at th e furn ace t erm i n al s i s n ot ab sol utely

,

c on sta nt b ut decre ase s wit h a n i ncr e as e of c urren t on accou n t

, ,

o f th e re s i stan ce of c abl es t ran sform er s etc ; an d i n co u s e

, ,
.
,

q u e n ce t he
,
vol t s an d a mp e re s s uppl ied t o a furn ace w il l u s u ally
v ary i n opp osit e d irection s Th i s refers o f cours e to ch an g e s
.
, ,

i n th e c urre n t prod uce d by ch an ges i n th e fu rn ace it self ; e x tern al

'c h an ge s s uc h a s a Ch a n ge i n t h e sp eed of t h e dy n am o s upply i n g

t h e c urren t wo ul d red uce or i nc re as e both t h e vol t s a n d th e

a mpe re s Th e drop of vol t age t h at accom p an i e s a n i ncreas e of
.

c u rre n t is n ot obj ect ion able i n el ectric s m el ti n g an d it serve s to ,

so m e ex te n t as a n a utom at ic re g ul ator of th e c u rre n t .

R e g u l ati on of E l e ctric S me ltin g .

Th i s i s u s u ally e ffecte d by electric m otors wh ich ra ise or l owe r

t h e m ovabl e e l ect rode s Th e m otors are st arted stopped an d
.
, ,

revers ed by i n str u m e n t s operated by th e volt a ge of th e fu rn ac e

, ,

i n s uch a m a n ner a s to keep t hi s co n st ant I n t h e K ell er furn ace .

,

F i g 3 0 an d th e H e ro ul t s teel furn ace F i g 2 3 t here a r e two

.
, ,
.
,

m ovabl e el ectrode s ; each of t h es e b e i n g i ndepe n den tly re g ul at e d

s o a s to keep a con st an t v ol t a ge b etwee n it sel f an d t h e m ol ten

m etal i n th e furn ace Th e a utom at ic re g ul at i n g apparat u s for

.

t he H ero ul t f ur n ace i s de scribed i n D r H a a n e l s report *

.
’
.

Th e ch an g e i n el ectrical res i s ta nce d ue t o a ch ang e i n th e

hei gh t at wh ich th e el ectrode i s k ep t i n a s m el t i n g f ur n ace a fford s ,

a m e an s of ad apti n g t h e fu rn ace t o a v arie ty of vol t age s .

E l ect ri c al ly i t i s advan t ageo u s t o ope rate t he f urn ac e at as h i gh

‘

a vol t age a s i t wil l t ak e a n d i t i s t h erefore i mport an t to a s c e r

, , ,

t ai n how h i gh th e el ect rode c an b e r ai sed wi th o u t c a u si n g tro ubl e

in th e fur n ace T he ex act h ei gh t th at i s m os t de s irabl e will de
.

pe nd u po n a n u mbe r of factors s uch as th e sh ape of fu rn ac e , ,

size of el ectrod e n at u re of th e ch arge an d am o u n t of c urren t

, ,
.

b ut th e d i st ance b etwee n t h e el ectrod e a n d th e m ol t e n sl a g i n

S h aft s m elt i n g f urna ces sh o ul d p rob ably be l es s th an th e w idt h
of th e c r uc ibl e of th e fu rn ace .

I n oth er type s of re s i st an ce s m el ti n g fu rn ace s th e c u rr e n t ,

pas se s th rou gh t he m olte n sl a g an d m et al i n ste ad of t h rou gh th e ,

mel ti n g ore t h e c urre n t e n teri n g by m e an s of two or m ore c arbon

,

*
Dr . H a a n e l, E u o p an R p o
r e e r t, 1 9 04 , p . 6 .
 7 2 THE E LEC T R I C F U R NAC E .

el ectrode s wh ich d ip i nto t h e f u se d s l ag a s i n th e H arm e t fu rn ace , ,

(F i g . by el e c trode s of fu s ed m et al ly i n g b en e at h th e s l a g a s ,

i n t h e L a v al f urn ace (F i g or by i nd uct ion w itho u t t h e u s e

,
.
,

of el ectrode s as i n th e S nyder fu r n ace (F i g

,
I n s u ch fu rn ace s ,
.
,

th e sl ag b ecom e s h e ate d ab ove i t s m el t i n g t e mp erat ure by th e ,

p as s age of th e c urre n t an d m el ts or d i s solve s th e ore wh ich re st s

,

upon it Th e vol t age dep en d s upon t h e s h ap e an d s ize of th e

.

fur n ace b u t o n acco u n t of th e low speci fi c re s is t an ce of m ol t en

,

sl ags i t wil l u s u ally b e l ower th a n i n furn aces i n wh ic h t he c u rren t

pas s es th ro u gh th e m el ti n g ore as well as th ro u gh t h e fu s e d sl ag ,
.

Th e m ol te n m et al acc u m u l at i n g i n th e botto m of th e furn ac e w il l

al so te n d to lower t h e volt a ge by c arryi n g o n acco u n t of it s , ,

g re ater con d uctivity a l ar ge p art of t h e c u rre n t ,

F u rn ace s in .
,

wh ich th e el ectrode s d ip i nto t h e fu se d sl ag a r e al so l es s e as il y ,

r eg ul ate d an d ch a n ges i n th e a m o u n t of m ol te n sl a g an d m et al
,

a ffect very greatly th e am o u n t of c urren t th at fl ows th ro u gh s uch

furn ace s .

I n t h e K j e llin an d G in f urn ace s th e electric al re s is t an ce of ,

th e s teel its el f i s rel ied upon for co n verti n g th e e ner gy of th e

c u rre n t i nto h e at Th e speci fi c re s i st an ce or res i st iv ity of s teel
.
, , ,

eve n wh e n m olte n i s s o s m al l th at th e m e t al m u s t b e c ont ai n ed

,

in a t ro u g h or c an al of con si derabl e l e n gt h an d m oder at e cros s

section i n order to obt ai n a ny app reci abl e el ectric al res ist an ce
, ,

an d eve n th en th e volt age i s very s m all an d e norm o u s c u rr en t s

, ,

m u s t b e s uppl ied i n orde r to h e at t h e f u rn ac es

,
I n t h e K j e llin .

fu rn ace al re ady referre d t o a c urre n t of

,
a mp eres i s s u p ,
-
6

pos ed t o circ ul at e aro u n d th e ri n g of m o l te n steel th e vol t a ge r e ,

q u i re d to dr ive s uch a c u rr en t b ei n g only 7 I n t h e G in fu rn ace .

,

th e volt a ge i s al s o very s m all th e c alc ul at ion s al r e ady referred to ,

bei n g for a n electric al s upply a t 1 5 vol ts th e c u rre n t s r an g i n g ,

fro m to am p e r e s F u rn ace s of s uch l ow re s i st .

a nce are very u n s at i s factory el ectric ally ; b u t th e ab sen ce of car

bon el ect rode s an d th e prod u ct ion of th e h e at d irectl y i n t h e
,

molte n steel ren der the m very s u it abl e for s teel m ak in g

,
-
.

I n t h e A ch eso n furn ace s t h e re s i s tor con s i st s of a spe cial ,

core of c arbon s u rro u nd ed by t h e ch arg e or t h e ch arg e it s el f i s

, ,

t h e re s istor I n e ith er c ase t h e re si stor re m ain s sol i d d u ri n g th e

.
,
“

Ope ration an d c an not b e l e n gt h en ed or sh ort en ed i n ord er t o

,

re g ul ate th e c u rren t M oreover a s th e furn ace is i nt e rm itt en t m

.
,

act i on t he t em perat u re of th e re s i stor i s n ot con st a n t a s I n a

, .
,

Sm el tin g furn ace b u t ri se s c ont i n uo u sly d uri n g t h e r u n

, Th I S .

r i se of te m perat ur e red u ce s very con s iderably th e res i st ance of th e

furn ace an d h e n c e t h e rel ation b etwee n th e vol t s an d th e am pere s
, ,
“

.
 C ON S T R UC TI ON AND DE S I G N .
73

For e x ampl e s uppos i n g th e f u rn ace h ad a core of coke t h e r e

, ,

s is ta n c e wo ul d f a l l to abo u t on e h al f it s ori g i n al val u e whe n t h e -

furn ace b ec am e th oro u gh ly h ot a nd i f th e h e at were s u ffi cien t ,

to g raph itize t h e coke t h e re s i st ance wo ul d fal l s t il l furth er t h e , ,

re s i st a nce of th e h e ated grap h it e b e i n g only abo ut hi of th at of

t h e cold cok e from w h i ch i t w as ori g in al ly prod uced S u ch a .

furn ace wo ul d be ve ry d i ffi c ul t t o operat e w i th a con st an t vol t a ge

s upply ; bec a u s e i f it w ere p roport ion ed s o a s to dr aw a s u it abl e
c urre nt wh e n h e ated th e c u r fe n t th at wo ul d flow t h rou gh th e col d ,

fu rn ace wo ul d b e s o s m al l (on l y 54; o f t he fi n al c urren t ) th at th e ,

fu rn ace wo ul d b e a t up very slowl y a n d t h e con s u m pt ion of power ,

wo ul d ch an ge very con s ide rably d u ri n g th e r u n Th e price p a i d .

for el ectrical e n ergy is u s u al ly b ased upon th e m ax i m u m r ate at

wh ich i t wi ll be u se d an d a fur n ac e wh ich onl y u sed 1 5 to 2 5 pe r ,

c e n t of its m ax i m u m power for a l ar ge pro p ort i on of t h e r u n

.
,

wo ul d be very i ne ffi cien t fi n anc i al ly I t i s n ece ss ary th erefore .

, ,

to ch an ge t h e volt ag e of th e s upply d uri n g t h e r u n an d for t h i s ,

p u rpos e a spec ial i n d uction re g ul ator h as bee n d evi sed w h ic h w il l ,

c h an ge th e vol ta ge fro m abo u t 2 00 vol t s a t t h e b e gin n in g of th e

r u n to 80 vol t s at t he e n d of th e r u n m ai nt a i n i n g th e s am e power ,

*
( abo ut H P ) al l th e t i m e . . .

I t w ill be not iced t h at th e ch an ge i n th e volt a ge i s l e s s th an

t he ch an ge i n the res i st an ce of th e furn ace Th i s fol lows d irectly .

from t he rel at ion sh ip betwee n vo l t s am pere s a n d watt s bec a u se , , ,

O
( m i tt i n g a ny con s ider at i o n of i n d uct ance ) th e vol t a ge m u s t vary , ,

f o r con st an t powe r a s t h e s q u are root of t h e re s i st an ce of th e ,

fu rn ace Th u s i f P i s th e po w e r i n w att s E th e vo l t a ge C th e
.
, , ,

c u rre n t i n am pere s an d R t h e re si st ance i n oh m s ,

E
P z EC, a nd C th erefore P
R R
o r, fo r con st an t po w er E m u s t v ar v as th e s q u are root of R , .

R e s is tor s . +

T h e m at eri a l s e m pl oyed a s res istors d eter m in e v ery l ar gel y ,

t he vo l t age of el ect ric fu rn ace s an d h ave bee n re ferred t o un de r ,

"
1
F . A .
M i s c e ll an e ou s A c e s s o i e s o f R e s i s t an c e F u n a c s
J . F i t z G e r a ld , c r r e ,

F l e c t o h e m I ndu s t y
r c ol iii p
. r , v . .
, . 11 .

+ Th i s o nv e n i e n t t e m f a s ub s t an c e u s d b e c au s o f i t p o p e ty o f o ff e i n g
“
c r or e e s r r r

re s i s t a n c e t o th p a s s a g e of a n e l e tr i c u rr e n t wa s s ug g s te d b y F A J F i t z
e c c , e . . .

G ald E l tr o h m i al I nd u s t y o l ii p 4 90 to avo id a t t a h i n g t w o m e an i n g s t o
er , ec c e c r , v , , c

wo d e s i s t an c e
. . .

th
“ ”
e r r .
74 T H E E LE C T R I C F U R NA C E .

th at h e ad in g ; b ut i t will b e c o nve n ie n t to con s ider th e m p a r t ic u

l a r l y at th i s poin t .

Th ree c as es p re s en t th e m s elve s : ( )
1 A re
—
fu rn ace s in wh ich
th e res is tor con s i st s of th e i nte n sely h e ated g ase s an d vap ou r s i n
t h e a re F ur n ace s h avi n g a spe c i al re s i st in g core i n w h ich
( )
2 . ,

t h e h eat is devel ope d (3 ) F u rn ace.s i n wh ich th e c urre n t p as se s

th ro ug h an d d irectly he at s th e ch arg e its el f

, ,
.

Th e a r e fu rn ace s n e ed n o t b e sp eci ally con s idere d as an y ,

g as es or vapo u rs th at are ord i n aril y p res e n t i n el ectric fu rn aces ,

will serve t o c arry t h e c urre nt Mor e fu rn ace s b el on g to cl as s

.

(3 ) t h a n to cl as s a n d i t w il l obv io u sl y b e m ore s at i sfactory ,

wh e n pos s ibl e to p as s t h e c u rre n t t h ro u gh t h e m ater ial of th e

,

ch ar ge i n ste ad of provi d i n g a sp eci al re s i stor for t h i s p u rpose

,
.

Th e electric al con d uct ivity of th e c h arge will u s u al ly d eterm in e

wh eth er i t c an b e u sed a s a re s i stor O f t h e ordi n ary m at eri al s .

fo u n d i n n at ure only th e m et al s a n d c arbon are s u ffi cie n tly con

,

d u c t iv e t o c arry l ar ge electric al c u rre n t s ; b u t wh e n h e ate d to ,

t h e ir m el t i n g te m perat u re m os t of th e roc k form in g m I n e r a ls w ill

,
-

c arry an electri c c urre n t ; a n d wh e n m ix ed i n s u it abl e proport ion s

for a m el tin g ch arge an d fu s ed th ey alw ay s for m s u ffi c ien tly good
, ,

el ect rical cond uctors .

Th e con d uct ivity of m olte n sl ag s e n abl e s con t i n uou s s m el t ,

i n g furn ace s to be Oper ated el ectr ic ally al th ou gh th e o r e fed into ,

-

th e f ur n ace m ay b e n on co n d u ct i n g Th e fu rn a c e m ay b e st arte d
- .

i n th e fi r st pl ace by m ea n s of a n a r e b e twee n th e el ectrodes ; th e

.

he at of t h e arc m el t i n g s o me of th e s urro u nd in g m ateri al w h ich ,

'

ult im ately fi lls th e sp ace betw e e n t h e el ectrod e s wi th a m ol te n c on s !

d ucti n g sl ag H e at is th e n ge n e r at e d by th e p a s s ag e of th e c ur
.
!

re nt th ro ug h th e sl a g m ore ore becom e s h eated an d m elted and

, ,
.

afte r a t i m e t h e wh ol e c r ucibl e of th e furn ace b ecom e s th o r o u h l

h eated a nd fi lled wit h mol te n sl ag an d m et al th er w a of .

s t art i n g s uch a f urn ace i s by pl ac in g s om e coke b etwee n t h e

electrodes Th e cok e be i n g a m oder atel y good con d uctor soo n
.
, ,

b ecom e s h e ate d by t h e p as s ag e of t h e c u rre n t an d m el t s th e s ur ,

e

ro u nd i n g ore ch ar ge Th e el ect rodes are th en p ull e d fu rth e r

.

ap art a n d th e operat io n goe s on a s describe d above A th ird .

m ethod con s is t s i n pou ri n g i n to th e f urn ace a p otfu l of m ol ten

sl ag wh e n th e c urre n t m ay b e at once switch e d on a nd th e
, ,
’

fu rn ace wil l soo n be i n re g ul ar oper ation .

ore m i n e r al s are very poor

A lth o ugh th e or d in ary rock s a nd

el ectrical cond uctors wh e n col d th e coke w h ich is ofte n added

, , ,

to t h e ch arge as a red ucin g reage n t is a fai r con d uc tor a nd if , , ,

7 6
‘

TH E E LE C T R I C F U R NAC E .

T A BL E V I I I .

R e s i s ti vity of Gra ph i tize d C ok e P ow d er .

(O h m s for on e c ub ic i nch ) .

R e d h ot
-

S i ze
of G r ai n s . C ol d . R ed hot . 81 wei gh ted .

Betwee n 5 m esh e s an d 6 m e sh e s
'

to th e i nch
Betwe e n 3 m esh e s a n d 4 m es h e s
t o t h e i nch

T h e fi rs t p o w de r h ad b ee n p as sed th rou gh a s ieve h av in g 5 m esh e s

to th e l i n e ar i nch an d h ad bee n p as s ed over a s iev e of 6 m esh e s
,

to th e i nch Th e s econ d powder h ad b een p as se d t h ro u gh a 3

.

m esh s ieve a n d ove r a 4 m e s h s ieve Th e r e s tiv itie s are g iven

.

for t h e col d p owder an d at a re d h e at ,

T h e th ird col u m n s how s .

th e res ist ivity of th e red h ot p owde r wh e n a w e i g h t w a s l aid

upon it t h u s m ak i n g a bett er el ectrical con t act b et w ee n th e
,

adj ace nt gra in s Th e powde r w a s pl ace d i n an op e n t ro ugh a n d

.
,

w a s only fo u r i n che s i n de pth ; i t wo uld t h erefore b e m ore l i gh tly , ,

p acked th a n i n t he core of a f ull s ize d f urn ace Th e fi g u res l n

-
.

th e l as t Col u m n woul d con s eq u e ntly m ore n e arl y rep re se n t reg ul a r

furn ac e condit i on s Th e fi g ure s are g ive n for on e c ub ic i nch
.
,

as i nch es are s ti l l m or e fre q uen tly u sed i n th is co u n try th a n , ,

ce nti m eters ; t o co nvert to ce nt i mete r res is t ivit ies m ul ti ply by ,

— th e n u mbe r of ce n ti m eter s i n on e i nch .

F or m any p urp ose s ord in ary coke powder wo ul d form a b et

t er re si stor t h a n t h e graph it i ze d m ateri al o n acco un t 5 h1 her ,

res i st ivi ty ; b u t i t h as th i s s er io u s d i s adv ant a ge t h at i f ver y ,

s tron gly h e ated i n t h e f ur n ace th e coke wil l becom e gr aph iti ze d ,

a n d i t s res is t iv i ty wil l fa l l to abo u t a q u arte r of its ori gi n al val ue

for correspond in g te mper at ure s I t Wil l con s eq u en tly b e b ette r
.
,

i n h i gh tem perat u re furn ace s to u s e a core th at h as p revio u sly

,

b ee n graph it ized t h u s ob ta i n i n g a m ore ne arly con s t an t m ateri al

,

for th e re si stor .

S ol id rods of c arbon (a morp ho u s or graph i tized ) are som e

t i m es u sed a s re s i stor s as in Borch er s re s i st ance furn ace (F i g
,
’

,
.

4 p a ge or i n A che so n s s ilo x ic o n fu rn ace (F i g 4 1 pa g e

’
1 , .
, ,
3
Th e re si st ivi ty of rods of c arbon s uc h as are u se d f o 1 ,
’

el ectric l i gh t i n g an d f urn ace el ectrode s a n d of t h e g raph it ized ,

electrode s i s v e r v m uch l e s s th an t h at of th e s am e m ateri al i n

,

th e form of a powde r Th e fol low in g are approx i m ate val u e s

.
 C ON S T R UC TI ON AND DE S I G N .

TAB L E IX .

R e s istiv ity of S oli d C arb on .

(O h m s for on e c ub ic i nch ) .

C ol d .

.
.
00 I 2 4 00 0 6 —
. o oo 8

. 000 3 2 — ooo 4 2
. 00 0 1 6 00 0 2

I n t h i s t abl e am orph o u s refer s to t h e ord i n ary carbon electrod e

, ,

“ ”
or a r e l i gh t c arbon ; wh il e gr aph it ic refers t o th e gr aph it ized -

”
e lectrode s Th e word h ot re fe rs t o el ectr ic f urn ac e
“
.

t e mpe rat u re s s uch a s ,

or a nd i t wil l b e obviou s
th at o n ly a p p r o x im a te v al ue s ca n b e g ive n
. .

Th e s m all e r v al ue s u n der th e h e ad i n g col d wer e determ in ed “

by M r P M L i ncol n of th e N i ag ar a F al l s P ower C o on rod s

. . .
,
.
,

of abo u t s q u are i nch e s cros s s ect ion an d abo u t 1 2 in ch e s ,

lon g . Th ey are p ub l i sh ed by t h e A ch eson G r aph ite C om p an y in

t hei r p a mphl et on A ch e son G raph ite E l ectrode s Th e l ar ger .

val ue s are t ake n from a p aper by Me s srs F itz G e r a ld an d F ors s ell .

a nd repre se nt a l arg e n u mbe r of ex peri me n t s o n el ectrod es of

4 x 4 i nch e s sect ion an d fro m 4 0 i nche s t o 93 i nch e s i n len gt h
,
.

Th e v al ue s u nde r th e h e ad i n g h ot do n ot repre sen t act u al ex “ ”

p e r im e n t s b ut depe n d o n t h e as s u mpt i on th at at fu rn ace

,

te mp er at u re s t h e re s i st ivi ty of carbon is one h al f of its re s i st ivity -

wh e n col d M r F r anc i s F J F itz G e r a ld h a s k i n dly furn i sh ed

. . . .

th e a ut hor (be fore p ub l icat ion ) w it h t h e re s ult s of h i s e x p e r i ,

*
me nt s fro m wh ich th e foll o w i n g t abl e h as bee n s u m m arized
,
.

U n fort u n ately th e ex peri m e nt s were n ot cont i n ued to s u ffi cien tly

h i gh t e m per at u re s to gi ve m uch i n for m at ion ab ou t t h e re s ist ivity
at electric f urn ace t e mperat u re s b u t a s f ar a s th ey go t hey in d i ,

cate a m ore rap id decre ase of re s ist i vity w it h te m per at u re i n th e

graph i te th a n i n th e am orph o u s c arb on Th e ex perim en t s .

were m ade at th e wor k s of th e N at ion al C arbon C o m

p any .

The res ul t s q uoted a r e from a n am orph o u s c arbon electrode ,

4 x 4 i nch e s s ect io n an d 7 3 i nch e s l on g an d fro m a n A ch e son ,

graph it ize d electrod e 4 x 4 i n ch e s sect ion an d 4 0 i nch e s

lo n g .

and F o s s ll T an s A m xi
i

‘
F i t z G e r a ld r e , r . er . E l e c tr o c h e m , So c .
, v ol . .
7 8 T H E E LEC T R IC F U R N A C E .

TAB L E X .

R e s i s ti v ity of A m or p h ou s an d Gra ph i ti c C a r b on .

E xp eri m e nt s by F itz G e r a ld an d F or s s ell .

R es i st ivi ty oh m s for ,
1 in c h c ube .

Tem p erat ure . A m orp ho u s . G ra ph itic .

F u rn a ce s in w h ich th e C u rre n t Pa s s e s th r ou gh th e C h ar ge .

Th e writer h as att empte d to c al c ul ate th e re s i st i v i ty of th e m el t

i n g m ate ri al s i n t h e fu s io n zon e s of th e H e ro u l t an d K ell er ore
i

s m el ti n g f urn aces an d al s o of m ol te n sl ag s th e m selve s,

Th e .

d at a avail abl e we re very u n s at i s factory a n d th e re s ul t s obt a i n ed ,

c a n only b e t ake n as repres e n t i n g i n t h e ro u ghe st w a t he re

y
s is t iv it ie s of th es e m ateri al s Th e H e ro ul t an d Keller s melt in g! .
-

z o ne s appe ar to h ave a re s i st ivity of ab o u t oh m for on e c ub ic

i nch varyi n g perh ap s from abo u t
,
to oh m Th e
re s ist ivity of m ol te n sl a g i s l e s s t h a n th is b ei n g i n th e orde r of ,

I n th e G in an d K je llin
’
to oh m for on e c ub ic i nch r .

steel f u rn aces th e re si st ivi ty of m ol te n i ro n i s an i mport an t fact or ;

,
‘

an d th i s i s very s m all be i n g abou t oh m for o n e c ub ic

,

i nch 1 .

W it h very few ex cept ion s th e electrod e s wh ich s er v e t o , , ,

-

le ad th e el ectric c urre n t i nt o t h e fu r n ace are com pose d of c arbon ,

.

"
C al ula t d f o m
c ep ubl i s h e d d aw i n g s and l e t i c al m e a s u m n t s f r th e e
r th e r e c r re e o s

fu r n a c e s a s s u m i n g th a t th e r s i s ti v i ty i s un i fo m t h o u gh o u t th e v o lu m e b e tw e e n th e
, e r r

b o t to m o f th e l e t o d e and th e s u fa e o f t h m l te d c h a g e
e c r r c e e r .

+ T h e r e s i s ti v i ty o f fu s d s al t s i s o f ab o u t th i s o r d er s e e J W R i h a r d s C o n
e , . . c ,

du c t i o n i n fu s e d and s o l i d l e c t ol y t e s T an s A m e r E l e t o h e m S o c
e r . ol r . . c r c . .
,
v .

p 71 .

I O .
Gi n (H a a n e l
’
s E u o p an R p o
r e e r t, 1 9 04 , p . g iv s s i s t i v i ty o f m ol t e n
e th e re

pig i on a s 6 x
-
r p e r c e n t i m e t e r c ub e
21 10 o h m p r i n c h c ub e ) H h a s al o
e .
i

e s

m e a s u r e d th r e s i s t i v i ty o f m o l t e n p i g i o n
e -
r at 1 , 300 0C
(T a s E le c t o h e m So c
. r n . r c . .
,

vol v iii
. p an d fi nd s i t t o b e 6 x
.
, . 1 1 0-
5
oh m p e r i n c h c ub ) e .
 C ON S T R U C TI ON AN D D E S I G N .

79

E l e ctr od e s .

T h ey are m ade from retort c a rbon pet rol e u m cok e an d coal t ar ; ,

t h e p ulver ize d carbon b e i n g m ix ed w it h t ar a nd pre s sed t h ro u gh a

d ie of th e re q ui red s h ape a nd s ize Th e el ectrode s are the n s ub

.

j ec t e d to a b ak in g proce s s w h i ch dri
,
v e s o ff th e vol at il e part of t h e

tar an d l e ave s a h ard com pact m as s of c arbon

, ,
G r aph it ized .

el ectr o d e s are m ade i n l ik e m an n er fro m p et role u m coke an d , ,

t ar wi th th e add it io n of
,
or 2 % of h ae m at ite ; bein g h e ate d
i n a n A ch es on fur n ace t o a very h i gh te mperat ure Th e iron .

wh ich i s con t ai ne d i n t h e h mm a tite e ffect s t h e con ver sion of th e ,

c arbon i n to graph it e an d i s fi n al l y ex pe l l e d by vol at i l izat ion at

, , ,

t h e e x t re m ely h i g h te m perat u re of t h e fu rn ace ; l e a v in g t h e

e lectrod e s com posed of com pac t grap h i te Mol te n iro n h a s t h e .

p roperty of di s solvin g c arbon w h i c h s ep ar ate s from t h e iron a s

,

g raph ite o n cool i n g ; b u t i t i s d i ffi c ul t to u nders t an d h ow so s m all

a p roportion of iro n ca n ch an ge th e w hole el ectrode i n to graph i t e .

G r ap h i t ize d electrodes h ave th e ad v ant age of p u rity good ,

co nd uc t i v ity an d gre at re s i st ance to ox i d at ion

,
.

Th ei r p u rit y re n der s th e m v e ry adva nt a geo u s i n operat i on s

li k e t h e prod uct i on of al u m i n i u m i n wh ich th e el ectrod e as h e nter s
,

t h e el ect rolyte an d con t a m i n ate s th e re s ul t i n g m et al

,
Th e cha r .

a c t e r is t ic re s i s ta nce of t he s e el ect rode s t o ox id at ion re d uce s t he i r ,

co n s u m pt ion and the i r good con d uct ivity h a s a s i m i l ar e ffect

, ,

s i nce s m all e r elec trode s c an b e e mpl oyed G r aph it ized electrode s.

are l argely u s ed for elect rolys i s b u t i n electric s m e l t in g fu rn ace s

, , ,

che aper one s m ad e of coke a n d t ar h a v e u s ually b ee n e mployed ;

wh ile i n som e ca se s t h e coke form i n g p art of th e furn ace ch arg e
h as bee n ut il ized for l e ad in g i n t h e c urre n t ; el ect rica l con tact b e
i n g m ade t h ro u gh th e ch ar gi n g h oppers Th e k i n d of el ect rod e
.

to be e m pl o y ed w i ll depen d l argely u pon t h e ox idizin g or red uc in g

ch aracter of t h e fu rn ace I n th e form e r c as e t h e graph iti ze d
.

electrod e s woul d be p re fer abl e wh il e i n th e l atter t he ord in ar y

, ,

ki n d wo ul d se rve t h e p urpose .

A pp rox i m ate fi g ure s for t h e re s i st ivi ty of c arbon an d

,

grap h i te el ectrodes h a v e al re ady bee n g iven B y m e an s of th ese

,
.
,

it i s ea sy t o c al c ul at e th e d rop of vo l t a ge th at wo ul d be prod uce d

i n elect r ode s of a cert ai n l en gt h an d cros s sect ion by a n y ,

part ic u l ar c urre n t Th e c ros s sect ion of a n el ectrode i s u s u a l l y

.

det erm i ne d by t h e amo u n t of c u rren t to be carr i ed Th e c urren t .

d e n s ity or t h e n um be r of a mpere s per s q u are i n ch o f cros s section

of th e electrod e d i ffer s con s iderabl y i n di fferen t type s of f urn ace s
,

an d for d i fferen t k i n d s of el ect rode s bei n g m uch h i ghe r i n ,

 80 T H E E L E C T R I C F UR NAC E .

gr ap h i t ized el ectrode s th a n i n t h e ord i n ary variety Th e l ar ge .

e lect rode s u s ed i n t h e H e ro ul t a n d K el ler fu rn ace s c arry abo u t

am pere s p er s q u are in ch wh il e s m all ro u n d e le c tr o d e s a nd

’

20 ,

graph i te el ectrodes c a rry m ore u p to ab o u t 1 00 a mp ere s p er ,

Sq u are i n ch M oi s s an u sed c urre n t s up t o 2 00 or eve n 7 00

.

a mpe re s p e r s qu are i nch i n s m al l u n graph it ize d ele c trod e s b u t , , ,

th i s wo ul d b e far too h i gh for co m m erci al work a s th e c arbon s ,

wo uld b ecom e red hot an d wo ul d r ap idly w as te aw ay a n d th e ,

co n s u m ption of el ectric al e n ergy i n t h e elect rode wo ul d b e too , ,

h i gh t o be tol er ated Th e l os s by ox id at ion of th e ex posed p art .

,

of an el ect rode c a n s om eti m es be preve nt e d b y a sy s te m of w ater

,

j acket s a s i n th e H ero ul t steel fu rn ace F i g

, ,
.

Th e only fu rn ace s i n wh ich som e for m of c arbo n electrod e i s

not e mployed are t h e el ectrodel e s s fu rn ace s s uc h a s th e K je llin
, ,

fu rn ace an d f urn ace s i n wh ich m et all i c el ectrode s u s u ally w ate r

, ,

cool ed are e mployed s uch a s th e G in ste el fu r n ace t h e L aval ore

, , ,

s m elt i n g furn ace an d Borch er s al u m i n i u m fu rn ace ,

’
.

E l e ctr od e h ol d e r s
are e m pl oye d for m ak in g elect r ical co n n ec
tion betwee n t h e el ectrode an d t h e c abl e wh ich s uppl i e s t h e el ectri c
c urre n t Th ey are al so u s ed for s u pporti n g a n d m an ip u l a t i n g
.

m ovabl e el ectrode s Th e h ol ders are m ade of coppe r o r b ro n z e .

,

wh ich are prefer abl e o n acco u n t of th ei r good electri cal co n d u e

tiv i ty or of i ron or s teel w h ich are ch e ape r an d d o n ot m el t s o
, ,

e asily if over h e at ed I t is n ot e asy to m ai n t ai n a th oro u gh l y

-
.

good el ectrical con t act b etwee n th e h ol der an d th e c arbo n

el ectrode beca us e t h e el ectrode s an d th e ir h ol d er s beco m e h e ated
, ,

an d t h e ex p an s ion of th e m etal l oos e n s its h ol d o n th e c arbon

Th e rel at ivel y poor con d uct ivi ty o f carb on m a ke s a l ar ge are a of
p erfect co nt act de si r abl e wh il e i ts s m al l m ech an ic al s tr e n gt h ,

re nders i t d ifl i c u lt to cl am p t h e h ol der s u ffi cie n tly t i gh tly with o u t

b re aki n g th e el ectrode I n add it ion t o th i s t h e h e at of th e
“

.
,

furn ace te n ds to re n der u nwork abl e a ny b ol t s an d n u t s or s i m il ar

m ech an ic al device s .

G raph iti ze d
el ectrode s c an be e as ily m ach i ned or th readed ,

an d att ach ed i n th i s w ay t o t h e h ol der ; b u t for el ectri c s m el t in g

fu rn ace s el ectrodes of rect an g ul ar cros s s ect ion are m ore u s u all y
,

e m pl oyed a n d th es e are sec u red i n t he i r h older s by bol t in g or

,

cl amp i n g Th e electrodes i n s m elt i n g f u r n a c e s a r e u s u all y

.
, ,
°

M B e k e t p o p o s e s t p e v e n t th ox i d a t io n a n d d e s t u t i o n o f c a r b on or
*
F . . c r o r e r c

b y s u rr o un d i n g t h e m w i t h wa t e r c o ol e d
j a k e t s a t th e p oi n t
g aph t e e l c tr od e s
r i e , -
c

wh t h e y e n t e r t h e fu n a
e re U S p a te n t see rE l e c tr o c h e m i c al I n du s t y v o l
ce . . .
r
p 79
, .

v .
, . 2 .
 C ON S T R UC TI ON AND D E S IG N . 81

ve rt ic al i n order t o b e m ore e a s il y m an i p ul ated an d are s u spen ded

, ,

by a ch ai n so as to be e as ily r ai se d or lowered ; th e electric c abl e

,

bei n g at t ach ed d irectl y to th e electrode h older Th e h olde r u sed .

i n th e Hero ul t ore s m el tin g fu rn ace F i g m ay b e t a ke n a s

-
, .

a n ex a mple Th e p ar t A is m ade of steel an d t h e de sce nd in g

.
,

j aws JJ fi t i nto th e s i de s of th e electrod e an d are p reve nte d from

s pre ad in g by th e two b ol t s Th e el ectrod e i s drive n downward .

by wed ge s th u s m ak i n g good con t act w i th t h e j aws

,
Th e u pper .

'
p art B is m ad e of s h e et copp er an d e n abl es t h e electr ic c abl e an d , ,

th e p ull ey an d ch ai n by wh ich th e el ect rod e i s s u spe n ded to b e ,

pl ace d s o far above th e fu rn ace t h at th ey w il l not b e over h e ated ,

-
,

w h il e t h e lower p ar t A ca n b e cooled by ai r or w ater i ntrod u c ed

from ab ove Th e electrode s of th e H ero ul t s teel f u r n ac e t are

.

s upporte d by arm s from t h e b ac k of th e fur n ace i n s te ad of b y ,

c h ai n s ; th is co n str u ct ion be i n g bette r ad apte d to a t ilt in g fu r n ace .

Th e el ectrode i s s q u are i n sect ion an d i s s urro u n ded by fo u r con ,

t act p iece s o n e for e ach s ide ,

O n e of th es e p iece s i s att ach ed .

to t he arm a n d t h e ot he r th ree are t i gh te n e d agai n s t th e el ectrode

by a s t eel s t rap wh ich e n circle s th e m a n d i s draw n ti gh t b y a
, ,

sc rew cont a i n ed wi th i n t h e ar m .

F ig . 22 .
—E l e ctr o d e H old er of H e r ou l t S tee l F u rnace .

Th e h ol de r i s s h ow n i n outl i n e i n F i g 2 2 A A i s th e arm . .

wit h t i gh te n i n g screw S a n d n u t N to wh ich i s att ache d th e stra p

, ,

F wh ich d raws th e co ntact p iece s B C an d D a gai n s t t h e el ectrode

, ,

E a n d th e l atter a gai n s t th e arm A

, A c abl e n ot S h own i n th e .
,

s ketch i s bol te d t o A B C a nd D t h u s d istrib uti n g th e cu rren t

, , , , ,

to th e m ovabl e electrod e s A s h iel d i s p rovided to p rotect th e .

hol de r fro m th e h eat an d s m ok e of th e furn ace .

‘
Dr . H a a n el , R p o t o n E xp i m n t s t S aul t S t
e r er e a e . Ma i
r e, 1 907 , pla t e v ii .

+D r . H a a nel , E u o p a n R po t 9 4 F i g s 3 7
r e e r , 1 0 , .
-
.
82 T H E E L E C T R I C F U R NAC E .

M e a s u re men t of F u rn ace Te mp eratu res .

I n m any fu rn ace oper at ion s i t i s very i m port an t t o b e abl e to

m e as u re th e te m per at ure att ai n ed an d pyrom e try or t h e m e as ure , ,

m e nt of h i gh te mper at ure s h as developed r api dly d u rin g rece nt ,

y e ars .

F or th e m e as ure m e n t of ord i n ary or fu el fi r e d f urn ace s m any -

*
s ati s factory i n str u me nt s ex i st a mon g wh ic h m ay b e m en t ione d ; ,

t h e S e ger cone s th e electr i ca l p r y o m e te r s s uch as t h e C al le n da r,

resi st ance pyrom eter a n d th e th erm o el ectri c pyrom eter an d ,

-
,

vario u s op t ical py rom eters Th e S eg er c o n e s t are a se rie s of .

L

s m all pyr am i d s con s is ti n g of cl ay an d oth er m ateri al s c aref u lly

, ,

p roport ion ed s o th at e ach h a s a de fi n ite m el t in g t e m per at u re By .

p l aci n g s everal of th ese i n a fur n ace a n d n ot i n g w h ic h of t h e m

a r e mel ted d uri n g th e oper atio n i t i s pos s ibl e to s t ate a p p r o x i ,

m ately wh at te m per at ure w a s at t ai ne d Th e C all e nd ar re s i st .

a nce p y r o m e te r I cont ain s a coil of pl ati n u m w ir e c areful ly in

s u l a t e d an d protecte d from t h e fur n ace g as es an d s o arra n g e d ,

t h at it s el ectrical re s ist an ce c an b e acc ur ate ly m e as u red Th e .

res ist ivity of p ure m etal s i n cre ase s very re g ul arly wit h t h e
t e mp erat u re a n d acc ur at e t e m per at u re m e as ure m e nt s c an b e m ade
,
°
i n th is m an ner up to or 1 1 0 0 C T h e t h erm o el ectr ic ,
.
-

p yrom eter § co n si st s of two w ire s of d i ffere n t m et al s Th es e a r e .

f us ed or t wi sted togeth er at on e e n d wh ich i s pl ace d i n th e fu rn ac e ,

wh ile th e oth er e n d s of t h e wire s a r e con nect e d t o a g al van om e t e r

o r i n s tr u m en t for m e as uri n g a very s m al l el ect ric c u rre n t W hen .

t h e j u nct io n of th e wire s is h e ate d a s m all el ectric c u rre n t i s ,

g e nerate d a n d i n t h i s w ay th e t emp er at u re of th e f urn ac e c an b e

m e as ured Th e i n dic ation s of t h i s i n str u m e n t are s om e wh at le s s
.

a cc u rat e th a n t h os e of t h e pl at i n u m re s i st ance pyrom eter b u t th e ,

th erm ocoupl e ca n b e u s e d u p to a n d i n m a ny w ay s 15
m ore con ve n ie nt th an th e res ist a nce pyro m eter F or very h i gh .

t e mperat ure s th e w ire s are com pos ed of pl at i n u m an d an all oy of

*“
Hi gh t m p a tu -
e er re M e a s ur e m e n ts , by Le Ch at li e er an d Bo u d o u a r d , tr an s . by
( K Bu g s s
3 . . r e .

P y o m t s s u i t abl f M t allu g i al W o k J ou n I on a nd S t l I n s t I 9 4
r e er e or e r c r . r . r ee . .
, 1 0 .

M th o d s of P y o m t y C L W a i dn
e P o E g S o f W s t n P 9 4 p 98
r e r , . . er, r c. n . oc. e er a .
, 1 0 , . .

+S g C on s L C h a t l i an d B d
e er e d p 7
, H ofm an and D m on d T a n
e e er ou ou a r , . 1 0
. e . r s .

A m I n s t of M i n i n g E n g i n s l xx i v p 4 an d xx i x p 6 8
er . . eer , vo . .
, . 2, .
, . 2 .

T h i l Th m o m a p a m phl t i s s u d b y th C am b id g S i n ti fi
I ec t y n ca er I t e r , e e e r e c e c n s ru

m ent Co .
, 1 9 06 .

C all nd a P h i l M a g
e l xlv ii
r, 89 9 p p 9 a nd 5 9
. .
, vo . .
, 1 , . 1 1 1 .

C h ap p u i s an d H a k P h i l T a n s R y S A l r
94 9 er, . r . o . oc . .
, vo . 1 , 1 00, pp .
37
-
1 34 .

B a u s B ull U S G ol S u v y N W a s h i n g to n
§ r .
,5 4 . 8 89
. e . r e , O .
, , 1 .

R ob t s A u s t n T an s A m
er -
I n st of Minin g Engin s
e , r . er . . e er , 1 89 3 .

S t a n s fi e ld , P h il . M ag . xlv i .
, 1 89 8 , p .
59 .
84 T H E E L E C T R I C F U R NAC E .

a m o u n t of very varie d i n form ation C ert ai n b r an ch e s s u ch a s .

,

th e d e t ail s of electr ical m e as ure m e n t an d con s tr uction h av e bee n

om i tted a s b ei n g too l arge for i ncl u s ion an d as h av i n g bee n f u lly

, ,

t re ated i n s t an d ard wor k s R efe ren ce s ho ul d b e m ad e to th e

.

followi n g p apers on E l ectri c F u r n ace D es i g n by F r an c i s A J . .

F itz G e r a ld an d b y C L C oll e n s :
,
. .

F . A . J
. F itz G e ra ld .
— N ote on S ome Theoret i cal C on s i derat i on s i n
the C on struct i on o f R es i stance Furnaces T ran A mer E l e c tr oc h e m . . . .

I ndustr y v ol i v p 9
,
. . S om e fi rst p r i nc i p l es of E l ectr i ca l R es i stance
,
. .

Furnaces E l e c tr oc h e m I ndu str y v ol i i p 3 4 2 M i sce l l aneou s A c

,
.
,
. .
,
. .

c e s s o r i e s o f R es i stance Furnaces v ol i i i p 9 R es i stance Furnace,

. .
,
. .

f o r C ruc i bl es p 55
,
E x p er i m ents w i th an E l ectro T h e r m i o M u ffl e
. .
-

Furnace p 1 3 5 T h e Borchers Furnace , p 2 1 5 T h e R u th e n b u r g

,
. .
’
. .
v

and A cheson Furn aces p 4 1 6 The C arborundu m Furnace v ol i v

,
. .
,
. .
,

:
p 53
C . L C olle n s
. . S
ome P r i nc i p l es of the R es i stor Fur nace D es i g n
T ran s . A m er E l e c tr oc h e m S oc , v ol
. . . . ix .
, p .
31 .
 I R ON A N D S T E EL .

C HAPTE R V .

PR O D U C TI O N O F I R O N A N D S T E E L IN TH E
E L E CT R I C F U R N A C E

I ron i s e m pl oyed i n t h e m ech an ic art s i n c omb i n at io n with

variable am o u n t s of c arbon an d oth er m e t al loid s an d m et al s a s ,

wro ugh t iron cas t i ron or steel The se t erm s cover a w ide ran g e
, ,
.

of di fferen t
C a s t ir on or p ig i r on i s t h e form i n wh ich th e m et al i s u s u ally
, ,

ob tai ne d fro m th e ore ; i t con t ain s from 2 % to of carbon ,

from to 4 % of s il ico n an d s m al l b u t v ar iab l e am ou n t s of ,

m an gan es e s ulph u r an d p hos ph or us ; th e re m a i nder be in g i ron

,
.

Th e c arbon an d oth er el em e n t s are ab sorbed by t h e iron d ur i n g

its p rod uction i n t h e bl ast furn ace a nd m ak e i t m ore eas i l y fu s ibl e
-
,

th a n i f it were p ure ; th e m e l t i n g te m per at ure of p ure i ron be in g

o °
I
5 5
o C . or
,
2 7 4 o F wh il e t h at of ca st
. iro
,
n var ie s from abo ut
° ° O °
1 02 7 C .t o 1 2 7 5 C or fro m I 8 8O F t o 2 3 2 7 F depen d i n g upon
.
,
. .
,

it s com p os it ion Th e fu s ib il ity of cas t iron m ake s i t s u itabl e f o r

.

u s e i n th e fo u nd ry b u t th e p re s e nce of a l ar ge am o u n t of c arbon
,

a nd oth e r m et alloi d s re n der s it far l es s va l u abl e m ech an ica l ly th an

th e p urer for m s of wro u g h t iro n an d s tee l .

Wr ou gh t iron con s i st s of n early p u re i ron reta i n in g on l y ,

s m al l amo u n t s of c arbon an d oth er m et al l o i d s together with a ,

s m all a mo u n t of adm ix ed S l a g I t i s m ade by m e l t in g p i g i ron in .

th e p uddl i n g fur n ace i n cont ac t w i t h a c i nde r or sl ag r ich i n

”

ox i de s of i ron Th e carbon an d ot h e r m et alloid s i n t h e p ig

.

iron are l argel y re m o v ed by re act ion w ith t h i s s l ag an d t h e ,

ne arly p ure i ron for m s i n gra i n s i n th e furn ace be in g too i n fu sibl e ,

to be m elte d Th e s e grai n s of i ro n are welded togethe r b u t st ill

.
,

ret ai n som e of th e sl a g from t h e furn ace Th e p udd l ed i ron afte r .

,

bein g roll e d i nto b ars i s c ut i nto s h or t p i ece s w h ich are m ade -

i n to b u ndle s or p ile s wh i ch are reh e ated and rol l ed i nto bars or

“

oth er s h ape s Th e oper ation of p il in g re m o v es som e of the sl ag

.
“ ”
,

an d i mprove s th e q u al ity of t h e i ron A l arge amo un t of s o c alled .

-

wro u gh t i ron i s m ade by p il i n g p iece s of m ild steel .

Ste el i s a very com preh en s ive term an d i ncl u de s ,

( )
a C r ucibl e S teel wh i ch i s m ad e from c a r e f u ll v
,
sel ecte d
var i etie s of wro u gh t i ron or st eel h as bee n m el ted i n crucible s , ,

an d cont ai n s fro m abou t t o 1 }é% of c arbon togeth er w it h ,

e no u gh m an gan e se a nd s i l i con to p rod uce a sou n d ca st in g .

'
“
Th e d i ff e n t v a i e ti s o f i o n an d s t l h av e b e e n d fi n d
er r e r ee e e by th e I n te n a ti o n a l
r

A s s o c i a ti o n f o r T e s t i n g M a t i al s J o u n I o n and S t l I n s t
er . r r ee .
,
1 90 7 , I .
 86 T H E E LE C T R I C F UR N A C E .

( )
b Bes se m er
a n d O p e n h earth S teel s i ncl ud e all th e -

prod uct s of th ese furn ace s an d m ay r an ge fro m th e h arde s t of ,

tool s te el t o a m ateri al wh ich i s p ract ic ally p ure iron an d on ly ,

di ffers fro m wro u gh t I ron i n h avin g b e e n f u s e d a n d b ei n g i n con '

,

s e q ue nce ne arly free fro m sl a g an d i n th e pre s e n ce of a l ittl e ,

m a n gane se added to e n s u re a so u n d c as t i n g
,
.

Th e prod uct i on of i ron an d s teel i n th e el ectri c fur n ace ma y

"

be con s id ere d u n de r th ree h e ad s

I Th e prod uctio n of s teel by m el ti n g steel scr ap either alon e
.

i i
,

o r w i t h t h e a d d i t io n o f p i g i ron i rOn o re etc i n an e l ect ric , ,

.
,

fu rn ace .

II Th e prod uction of pig i ron by h e ati n g ir on o r e wi th

.

c arbon an d fl ux es i n a n electr i c f urn ace .

III Th e prod uct i o n Of s teel by h e at i n g i ron o r e w ith c a r b Oh

.

a nd fl ux e s i n a n e lectric fu rn ace
“

Th e fi rs t is i n co m m erc ial op eration th e s eco n d is n ow b ei n g ,

‘

t ried o n a com m erc i al s c ale an d wil l p rob ably b e e m pl oye d to a ,

l i m ited ex te nt wh ile th e t h ird h a s b e en e xp er i m e nted with by

,
.

S t a s s a n o an d oth er s b ut ap pears l es s prom is i n g th a n th e oth er

,

two
I —
.

. P r od u ction of S te e l F r om S cr a p Pig I r on an d I r on O re ,

Th e fu rn ace s u s ed a r e el ectri call y h e ate d m el t in g f u r n a c e s in , .

wh ich th e s cr ap p i g i ron etc c a n b e m elt ed an d t he re s ul t i n g

,
“

,
.
, ,

s tee l c a n b e kept m olte n u n til its com pos it ion h a s b ee n a d j ii s te d .

Th e m et al i s t h e n t app ed or p oured an d c as t i n to m o u ld s A st e e l .

c o r I es p o n d i n g to a ny p rod uct of th e cr u cibl e B es s em e r Or

'

, ,

S i em e n s f u rn ace s c a n b e p rod uce d i n th i s Wa y .

Th e ope r at ion m ay be m erely a m el ti n g on e in w h i c h p u ric ,

-

st eel scr ap i s m el ted an d c as t i nto i n got s afte r s m all add i tion s o f -

pure p i g iron ferro m an g an es e etc Or t h e c h ar g e m ay con s i s t

,
-
,
.
,
'

l argely of p i g i ron i n wh ich c as e co n s ider abl e add it ion s o f i ro n , .

ore are n eed ed to rem ove e xces s Of c arbo n a n d ot h er const i t u en t s

of th e p i g i ron Th e pre sen ce of p h osp hor u s or s ul ph u r i n! s t e el
.

i s obj ection abl e an d wh en th es e are fo u nd i n m ore th a n tr a c e s i n ’

‘

,
'
th e ch arg e t hey m u s t b e re m o ved b efore th e st eel c an b e c a s t
,
-

th u s p rol on gi ng t h e ope ration .

Th ree type s of el ectric fu rn ace h ave been e mpl o yed for th i s

k i nd of st eel m ak i n g t h e H er oul t fu rn ace F i g 2 3 t h e K j e llin , ,
.
,
’

fu rn ace F i g 2 4 a n d t he G in fu rn ace F i g 2 8
,
.
, ,
. .

Th e H e ro u l t S te e l F u r n a ce F i g res e m bl es a W el l m a n ,
.
.
'

t i lt i n g o pe n h earth f u rn ace f ro m wh ich th e g as an d a if por t s

,
-
,

h ave bee n r e m o v e d a n d w it h th e ad d i tion of two vert ical c arbon , ,

*
E u o p an C o m m i s s i o n R p o
r e e r t, 1 9 04 , Fig .
4 .
88 T H E ELE C T R I C F U R NAC E .

m ot ion of th e l atter th ey ca n not b e Su spe n ded a s i n t h e ore s m el t

,
-

in g f u rn ace s b ut are h el d i n a d j u st able holde rs F i g 2 2 wh i ch

, , .
,

are s up ported by th e f urn ace s o th at t h e h ei gh t of e ach electrod e

,

i n th e furn ace i s u n a ffecte d by th e t ilti n g m ovem e n t Th e low e r .

en d of e ach i s kep t a s hort d i st ance above th e sl ag l e avi n g a ,

s p ace for th e el ectric arc a n d th e c u rre n t i s re g ul ate d by r a is in g

,

or l oweri n g th e el ectrode s Th i s adj u s tm e n t is e ffected by a uto

.

m atic m ach i nery con troll ed by t h e vol t age of th e f urn ac e ; an d i n

order th at t h e two arc s m ay b e k ep t e q u al e ach e le ctrod e is oper ,

ate d s ep arately bei n g co ntroll ed by t h e vol t a ge b etwee n its el f and

,

th e m et al i n th e fu rn ace Th e h e art h is l in ed with dol om it e o r

.

m agn es ite e ith er of w h i ch h a s th e advan t ag e of bei n g m ore r e

,

f r a c to r y th an s il ic a bric k an d of allowin g s tron gly b as i c s l a gs to

,

b e u sed for th e p u rpos e of re m ovi n g ph osp h or u s an d s ulp h u r

,

from th e s teel .

Th e H e ro ul t f ur n ace i s ve ry m uc h s m all er t h a n th e u s u al
op e n h e arth f urn ace th e o n e at L a P raz be i n g ab o u t 7 ft by 4 f t
-
,
. .
,

i n tern al ly a n d t aki n g a ch ar ge of only 3 to n s wh il e t h e furn ac e

, ,

at K o r tfo r s wa s a l i ttl e l arge r t h an t h i s F or p rod uct s l i k e .

c r ucibl e s teel th e s m all s i ze of th e ele ct ri c fur n ace m ay b e n o

di s advant age b u t i f i t i s d e s i re d t o t u r n o u t s tr uct u ral or ra il
,

s teel l ar ge r f urn ace s will h ave t o be e m ploye d t o compete wit h

,

th e 5 0 ton ope n h e arth fu rn ace s

- -
.

Th e H a a n e l C om m i s s ion s a w t h e p roce s s of m ak i n g bot h l ow

a nd h i gh c arbo n steel i n t h e f urn ace at L a P raz *
by m el t in g ,

m i scell an eo u s s teel s crap p u ri fyi n g i t by rep e ate d add i t i on s of

,
'

i ron ore a n d l i m e an d t h e n m ak i n g s u it abl e add ition s to obt ai n

,

th e re q u i red pe rce n t a ge of c arbon m a n gan ese an d s il icon Th e ,

.

sc r ap co nt ai n ed of s ul ph u r an d of ph os ph o r u s ,

w h il e t h e fi n al ste el con t a i ne d on ly of s ulp h u r an d

of p hosphor u s t h e c arbon b ein g
, an d i n t h e two steel s .

Th e scrap w as m el ted with s om e ore a n d l i m e an d wh e n fu si o n ,

w a s com pl et e th e sl a g w as po u re d o ff an d a s econ d sl a g w a s m ade -

by add i n g l i m e w it h a l ittl e s a n d an d fl uor sp ar as fl ux e s Th e .

s econ d sl a g w as p ou red o ff an d a t h i rd sl ag m ad e i n th e s am e
way b efore t h e fi n al add ition s were m ad e to th e s te el Th e s teel .

i s m ore compl etely p u ri fi ed i n th is way by t h e re p e ated a d diti on ,

of fres h sl a g form i n g m ater i al s th an if th e wh ol e am o u n t we re

-
,

added at o nce I n m ak i n g t h e low c arbon s teel so m e fer 1; o

.

m an ganes e w as add ed i n th e fu rn ace a nd a l i ttl e al um i n i u m i n th e

l adl e wh il e i n m ak i n g t h e h i gh c arbon s teel t h ere w a s al so adde d
,

""
E u r 0p e a n Co m m i s s i o n R p o e r t, pp .
7 72,
0-
c h arg e s 65 8 an d 6 60 .
 I R ON AN D S T EE L .
89

i n t h e f ur n ace som e c a r b u r ite wh ich is a m i xt ure of iron an d ,

c arbon a n d som e fe rro s il i con

,
-
.

*
Th e el ect rical p owe r e m pl oye d wa s abo u t 3 5 0 k ilowatt s i n
e ach operat ion ; th e vol t age w as 1 1 0 and the c urren t wh ic h wa s , ,

not m e as u red w o ul d p rob ably be abo u t ,

a mpere s Th e .

e l ectric al e ne rgy per ton of steel w a s h ors e powe r ye ar s 1 ‘

-
.

Th e ti m e req u i red w as 5 h ou r s for a s m al l ch ar ge of 1 ton s of

l ow c arbon s teel an d e i gh t h o u rs for 2 V3 ton s of h i gh c arbon
,

s teel D uri n g t he fi rs t p art of th e oper ation be fore t h e steel scrap

.

i s m elte d th e c urre nt fl uct u ate s vi ole n tly a n d i s re g ul ated by

, ,

h an d ; b ut after th e ste el h as m e l ted aro u n d t h e electrode s t h e c ur

re nt becom es m ore s te ady h e ati n g b y a n arc be n e ath e ach e l ec ,

t rode an d a utom at ic reg ul at ion ca n b e e m pl oyed Th e ful l power

,
.

w a s n ot appl ie d u nt il abo u t a n h ou r afte r th e s t art M r H arbord . .

s t a te s l t h at t h e h i gh c arbon steel i s a s good as corre spon d in g

g rade s of cr ucib l e steel and t h ere appe ars to b e no re ason
,
why i n ,

l oc a l it ie s wh ere wate r powe r i s ch e ap th i s furn ace s hou l d n ot r e ,

pl ac e th e cruc ibl e f urn ace a nd ope n h e art h fu rn ace for th e m a n u -

fact u re of tool steel s a n d oth e r spec i al v ari et ie s of steel s i n wh ich

q ual it y r ath er t h an q ua nt i ty or ch eap n e s s i s a im ed at .

More rece n t d at a w it h re gard t o th e oper at i on of th e H ero ult

.
tee l fu r n ac e are g i ve n by P rofe s sor E ic h h o ff of C h arl otte nb ur g
.
,

H e f urn i s h e s a nu mb er of fi g ures for th e o utp u t a nd powe r con

"

s u m pt i on of H e ro ul t furn ace s from w h ic h th e fo l l owin g m ay be ,

q u oted
TA B L E X I .

O p e r ati on of 5 =ton H e rou l t F u r n a ce .

K N V h rs . .

L e n gth of h eat . pe r t on .

W it h D raw i n g once 6 hrs

1 1
. . . o5 .
7 2
5
co m 7S
i

O K sl a g t wice 795
Ji
“
.

ch ar ge J
.

t h rice .
7 . 22 86 8

W ith \ Vith
only on e sl a g . 219
D ra w i n g once 26
h o t ll L 6 43 .
5
c h arge i sl a g tw i ce
. .
3 24

‘
E u o p an C o m m i s s i o n R p o
r e p p 5 3 5 5 h a g e s 6 5 8 an d 6 6
e r t, .
-
, c r 0 .

B e sul t s h av b e n ob t a i n e d m o e e c e n tl y e e T abl XI
+ e t te r r e e r r ,
s e .

T h e lon g t o of n lb s i s e m pl o y e d i n t h i s c h ap t r
.
e .

I Eu op e r R po
an t p pe 8 5 89
r and
,
p .
5
-
, . 1 1 .

a h l und E i s e n N o p p an d H R po pp 46
’
S D l r t, -1
S t 907 ,
1 5 , 5 8 . aa
2, 9 . 0- ,
r . ne s 1 07 e . 1 39 .

t e e l f o m t h e o p e n h e a r th fu n a c
fl M o lte n s r -
r e .
9 0 THE ! E LE C T R I C F U R N A C E .

W ith th e pos s ibil ity of m ak i n g s tr u c tu r al Steel in

' i

re g a rd to
t h e H e ro u l t fu rn ace i t s h oul d b e r em em be red th at th e m aterial
,

o f th e ch ar ge wo ul d be l argely p i g i ro n a n d ore
'

as th er e wo ul d ,

not b e Suffi cie n t s crap avail abl e an d t h i s w oul d i ncre as e th e ,

t i m e an d elect ri cal e ner gy re q u ired for th e ope r at ion O n th e .

oth er h an d t h e p i g i ron cou l d b e ch ar ge d m ol ten an d th e p u r i fi c a ,

t io n of th e m et al n ee d n ot b e c arr ie d s o far as w a s n ece s s ary f o r

tool s teel wh il e t h e l arger s cal e of th e f urn ac e wo uld al so re d uc e
,

th e co n s u m ption of el ec trical e ne rgy p e r ton of p rod uct A 50 .

to n fu rn ace m i gh t b e ex pecte d t o re q u ire w it h a col d ch a r ge , ,

ab ou t kil owatt s or abo u t a mp er e s at 1 1 0 vol t s ; wh il e

,

ampere s m i gh t b e s u ffi cie n t if m ol te n p ig i ron were u s ed .

Th e cos t of m ak i n g s tr uct u ral steel i n a 5 0 ton H ero ul t -

fu r n ace i f a fu rn ace of t h i s s ize co ul d b e s ucce s s fully op erated

, ,

wo ul d p rob ably wit h el ectric al e ner gy at

,
a h ors e powe r -

y ar be abo ut th e s am e a s i n a g as fi r e d ope n h e art h f urn ac e

‘
,
- -

us i n g coal at a ton A s s u m i n g t h at t h e ge n er al cos t of

.

Op erat i n g th e two f u rn ace s w as th e s a m e th er e re m ai n s fp r th e ,

H e ro ul t elect ric f u rn ace t h e cos t of el ectri c e n ergy wh i ch at , ,

h ors e p ower y ears p er ton wo ul d b e

-
p er ton an d th e cos t ,

of ele c trode s wh ich are s t ated t o cos t 2 0 Ce nt s p e r to n ; wh ile fo r

,

th e ope n h e art h furn ac e th er e i s th e cos t of co al wh ich at 7 00 lb s

-
,
.
’

per to n wo ul d b e $ 1 00 an d th e cos t of oper at in g th e ga s pro

.

d u c e r s a nd Ch ec ke r ch am be rs wh ich wo ul d m or e th an b al ance th e ,
'

c os t of ele c trode s U n t i l l arger f u rn ace s h ave b e e n b u il t it is

.
,
-

n ot wort h wh il e to at tem p t t o e st i m at e i n det ail th e cos t of o p er at

i n g th e m b ut th e fi g u re s give n are e n o u gh to S h ow th at u n der
,

favorabl e con d ition s l ar g e el ect ri c fu r n ace s m i gh t be e xpected to

,

co mp ete wit h g as fi r e d f urn ace s for th e m an u fact u re of s tr u c t u ral

-

s teel.

A H e ro ul t fur n ace for th e prod uct io n of 5 0 ton s of s teel a d ay

h as bee n i n st alle d in th e pl an t of th e H alco mb S teel C o , in
. .
’

S yrac u se a n d i t i s l i k e l y th at th is w ill l e ad to fu rth er de velop

,

m e nt s i n s i ze a n d e ffi cie n cy Th e fur n ace i s b e i n g u se d i n con

.
”

j u nctio n with gas fi r e d fu rn ace s an d i s ch ar ge d w i th mol te n

-
,

s u p e r o x id iz e d st eel fro m a W ell m an fu rn ace t h e ope rat io n of r e ,

fi n i n g bei n g fi n ish ed i n th e el ect ric fu rn ace .

A n il l u s trate d de script ion of s uch a pl a n t appe ared i n th e

E le c troch e m ic al I n d u st ry , volv p 2 7 2 fro m w h ich t h e foll o w . .
,
.
,

i n g p art ic ul ar s are t ake n — Th e s teel is m a d e fro m s crap etc , ,

.

i n a W ell m a n ope n h e arth fu rn ace h ol d i n g 2 5 ton s

-
Th e opera .

'

t ion i s c arr ied furth e r th a n i n ord i n ary ope n h e art h practic e u nt il

’

- -
,

th e c arbon an d p hosp horu s h ave bee n al mo st en t irely el i m in ated ;

9 2 THE E LE C T R I C F U R N A C E .

()
c T h e sl ag i s con s ider ably h ot te r th an th e m et al an d w il l
th erefore b e fl uid e no u gh t o act freely o n th e m et al with o ut th e
l atte r b ei n g overh e ated W i t h re gard to t h e pos sibl e overh e at in g .

o f th e s teel i n el ectric furn ace s n oth i n g de fi n i t e app ear s to b e

k nown b u t it i s con s idere d th at i f s teel i s overh e a ted i n t h e p re s
,

e nce of b as ic sl ag s i t w il l ab sorb n it rog en a n d b ecom e l e s s to u gh

*
in con s e q ue nce I n t h e el ectric furn ace h owe ver eve n n itroge n
.
, ,

i s l argely e xcl u ded by t h e g ase s ari si n g from t he oper at ion a s n o ,

ai r or oth er gas n eed b e i n tr od uce d from w itho ut .

( )
d I n t h e fi n al or r e c a r b u r iz i n
g st a ge i n th e el e ctr ic fu rn ace ,
t h e cond ition s are s o s tron gly red uci n g an d t h e t e m perat u re i s s o
hi gh th at eve n calci u m c arb id e i s for m ed i n t h e sl ag Th ere i s .

t h erefore p ract ic all y n o w aste of t h e ferro m an g a n es e or oth e r -

m et all i c add i tion s wh ic h are of co u rs e m ade i n th e fur n ace it sel f

,

a n d not i n th e l adl e .

( )
e Th e cost of t h e el ectric proce s s i s dec idedly l es s t h an t h at
o f th e cr uc ibl e proce s s an d speci al v arie tie s of s teel c an b e m ad e
,

co m m erci ally i n t h e electric fu rn ace i n pl ace s wh e re ch e ap p ower ,

“

c a n b e obt ai n ed Th e l ar ge st fu rn ace wh ich h as be en op erate d

.

up to t h e p re s en t h old s abo u t 5 ton s a n d th e n u mb e r of k ilowatt ,

ho urs p er to n of steel p rod uce d i n s uch a fur n ace v ari e s fro m 8 00

o r 9 00
. wh en col d stoc k i s e m pl oyed an d i s p u ri fi ed b y r e p e a te d
,

t re at m en t s w i th fre s h sl ags t o abou t 2 00 wh e n it i s m erel y r e ,

q u ired t o fi n i s h a ch arge of s teel fro m th e op en h e arth fu rn ace -

.

Mr . H e r o u l tt h a s
p roposed a n electric ally h e ate d s teel m ix e r '

of 3 00 or 4 00 ton s c ap acity to receive t h e s teel fro m a n u mb e r of ,

ope n h e art h o r B e s s e m e r fu rn ace s t h u s e n s u ri n g a u n iform pro

-
,

d uct a nd allowi n g a m ore pe rfect deox i d at ion of t h e stee l a n d

,

sep a r ati on from t h e sl ag t h an by t h e u s u al p roce s s of c as ti n g -

.

P rof R ich ard s h as s u g ge s ted t h e u s e of el ectric al h e at in g a s a n

.

a u x il i ary i n an ord i n ary ope n h e art h f ur n ace for r ai s in g t h e -

,

0 °
t e mpe rat ure of th e steel th ro u gh t h e l as t 1 00 or 2 00 C be for e .

t appin g a s a l ittl e el ectri cal h eat for re ach in g th e h i gh e s t

,

t e mpe r at ure wo ul d som et i m e s s ave a good de al o f t im e an d fu el

:
.

F u rn a ce ) T hi s is s ub st ant i al ly th e s am e a s th e
Ke ll e r S te e l
H e ro ul t steel fu rn ace an d ne e d n ot b e furt h er d e scribed .

*
J u n I o n and S t l I n s t 9 5 N o
0 r . r ee .
, 1 0 , . p .
7 77, and 1 9 06 , No IV p .
, .
923 .

J L T H o ul t U S p a t n t
P . . er , . . e see E l e c tr o c h e m . I n du s tr y , v ol . iv .
, 1 9 06 ,

I E u ro p e a n R p o t p 7 7 an d E l t o h m i al I nd u s t
e r , .
, ec r c e c ry , v ol . i .
, 1 9 03 , p . 1 62 .

A lb ert K ll J o u n I o n and S t l I n s t 9 3 I p
e er, r . r ee .
, 1 0 , .
, . 1 78 .
 I R ON A ND S T EEL .

93

F ig . 24 .
—Th e Kj e llin Stee l F u rn a ce .

Th e Kj e llinF u rn ace i s of t h e i nd uc tion type an d re se mble s

, ,

a step dow n t ra n sform er

-
In Fig wh ich rep resen t s a 2 2 5
. .

hors e p ower f u rn ace at G y s i n ge S we de n A i s t h e pri m ary wi n d

-
, ,

i n g to wh ich a n al tern at in g c u rren t of 9 0 am pere s at v olt s

i s uppl i ed
s
B i s a ci rc ul ar t ro u gh con t ain in g th e m olte n steel
.
,

an d corre spo nd i n g el ectr ic ally t o a secon d ary w i n d i n g of on e t urn .

C i s th e m ag n eti c circ u it wh ich p as se s th ro ug h bot h th e pr i m ar y

an d t h e s econ d ary wi n di n gs Th e al tern ati n g c urren t i n th e
.

p ri m ary wi n d i n g s i n d uce s a n altern at i n g c urren t i n th e rin g of

mol te n steel ; th i s secon d ary c urre n t bei n g e st i m ated at
am pere s a n d 7 vol t s Th i s fu rn ace h a s th e gre at advan ta ge of
.

re q u iri n g no el ect rode s wh ich i s n ot only a g a i n a s re gard s

,

*
E u op a n R po
r e e r t, Fi g s . 1 and 2, and p p . 1 -
4 .
94 THE E LE C T R I C F UR NAC E .

t ro ubl e an d ex pe n s e b u t avoid s any co nt a m i n atio n of t h e s teel b y

,

th e m ateri al o f th e elect rode Th e h e at is ge ner ated u n iform l y

.

th rou gh o u t t h e steel wh ich i s con t ai n ed i n a cl osed recep t acl e

, ,

u nder co nd it ion s wh i ch rese m bl e t hose of t h e c r uc ibl e s te el

fu rn ace .Th e el ectrical furn ace h as h owever t h e a dva n t a ge o f , ,

h ol d i n g as m u ch s teel as m a ny c r ucibl e s a nd of bei n g q u ite free ,

from t h e furn ace g as e s wh ich are l i abl e t o e nter eve n a closed

cr ucibl e .

C om p are d wi t h th e H e ro ul t furn ace th e K je ll in fu rn ace h a s ,

th e obj ection t h at th e an n ul ar groo v e cont ai n in g t h e s teel i s very

lo n g i n com p ari so n w ith it s cros s s ect io n wh ic h w il l c a u s e t h e los s ,

of h e at to be ex ce s s ive a n d t h e we i gh t of s teel t o b e s m al l for a

fu rn ace of a g i ve n s ize Th e fur n ace doe s not for m a ve ry e ffi c ie n t
.

t ra n s form er an d i t appears to b e l i m ited i n s i ze th e p ower fact or

, ,

becom i n g s m alle r as th e fu rn ace becom e s l ar ger u nl e s s t h e ,

fre q u en cy of th e c u r r en t i s corre spon d i n gly O n th e

oth e r h an d th e c u rre n t c an b e u sed at h i gh volt a ge s S uch a s ,

o r eve n or v olt s wh ic h w oul d perm i t of t h e gen e r a

,

t ion of th e c u rre n t an d its t ran s m i s s ion ove r m oder at e d i s t an ce s

with o u t th e u s e of a s tep down t ra n s form er a t th e fu rn a c e
-
.

Th e K j e llin furn ace w a s i n operation at G y s i n ge S w eden , ,

wh e n vi s ited by th e C o m m i s s ion i n 1 9 0 4 an d w a s u s u al ly m a k i n g ,

a h i gh cl as s of tool s teel from p ure p i g iron s teel s crap an d b ar ,

i ro n for wh ich p urpos e i t s ee m s pa rt ic ul arly ad apted I n operat

, .

i n g th e fu rn ace th e m o l te n steel fro m on e r u n i s not t app ed o ut

compl etely b u t abo ut on e t h ird of it i s l eft i n th e groo v e to act a s
,
-

a cond uctor to c arry th e c urren t at t h e b e g i n n i n g of th e n e x t r u n ;

th e fre s h ch arge of ch arcoal pig i ro n an d p u re iro n or s teel scrap
is added t o th e s u perh eat ed steel a s fas t as i t c a n t ake i t wi th o u t
ch ill i n g N o re fi n i n g is atte mp ted i n th i s fur n ace t h e op erat ion
.
,
,

bei n g m e rely o ne of m elt i n g a m etall i c c h arge m ad e u p i n correct ,

p roport io n s to give a steel of th e ri gh t com pos it ion .

Th e fu rn ace i s b uil t i n a ci rc ul ar i ron cas i n g L L wh ich i s , ,

li ned wit h fi r e bric k at E E Th e t ro u gh B i s s u rro u n ded with

.

m ore re fractory m ate ri al D D fo r wh ich e ith er m a gn es it e or d ol o

, ,

m ite b ric k s ca n be e m pl oyed Th e ope n s p ace i n th e m id dl e of

.

th e b ric k wor k s erve s t o cool th e p ri m ary wi n d i n g by th e c u rre n t

, ,

of a i r p a s si n g th rou gh i t W at er j ac ket s are al so e m p lo y e d to

.
‘

p rotect th e w i nd i n g fro m th e h eat o f th e fu rn a ce Th e groov e .

B i s cove red by a se rie s of m ovab le l id s t o ret ai n t h e h e at a s fa r

as pos s ible an d a ny of th es e can b e re m oved for ch ar g i n g t h e
, .

"‘
In mo re rece n t fu n a c e s th i s d i ffi c ul ty h a s b e e n p a r tl y ov e r c o m e
r “
96 TH E E LE C T R I C F U R N A C E .

M ore re c e n t d at a w ith re gard to t h e f urn ace at are G y s in ge

*
give n by th e A m eric an E l ect ri c F urn ace C O Th ey st ate th at .

t h e fu rn ac e re q u ire s for i t s op erat ion 1 6 5 t o 1 7 0 k il ow att s an d ,

h as a c ap acity of lb s of m et al of wh ich abou t lbs .

,
.

a r e t app ed o ut at th e e n d of e ach h e at Th e l e n gth of a h eat i s .

fo ur h o u rs an d th e con s u mpt ion of e n ergy w h e n all t h e ch ar ge 1 5

, ,

a d de d col d i s 8 00 k ilowat t ho ur s pe r t on
,
W or k i n g wi th h ot .

m e tal from t he bl as t f ur n ace a l ar ger o ut p u t an d gre ater econ o my

i s obt ai ned Th i s 1 s p artly b ec a u s e th e f urn ace c a n b e com
.

p l e t e ly e mp tied afte r e ach h eat a s i t c a n e as ily b e rest arted by ,

po u ri n g i n a ch arge of m ol te n pig i ro n Th u s a ch ar ge of .

lb s of m olte n p ig i ron wa s po ure d i nto th e e m pty f urn ace an d

.
,

,
86 0 lb s of col d p i g an d sc rap w ere ad de d
. I n s ix an d th r e e .

q u arter h o urs w ith 1 8 2 K W t h e ch arge wa s fi n i sh ed th e con . .

,

s um pt io n of e n er gy b ei n g 6 5 0 k il ow att h o ur s pe r to n of st eel in
g o t s. Th e w ast e of m ater i al d u ri n g t h e m el ti n g ope rat ion i s
fou n d to b e and t h e fu r n ace l i ni n g w ill l a st for twelve wee k s ,

c osti n g abo ut s ix ty ce nt s p er ton of steel P u rch as in g electrical .

e nergy at ce n t p er k ilowat t h ou r an d u s i n g col d m ater ial i n ,

t h e f urn ace th e electrica l e nergy w ill cos t a l i ttl e m ore th a n th e

,

fuel i n t h e c r uc ibl e p roce s s b u t a gre at econ omy i s e ffecte d b y , _

avoi di n g t h e u s e of cr ucibl es Th e cos t for l ab or i s al s o m u ch .

l es s i n th e electrical m eth od .

Th e C o l b y S te e l F u rn a ce More t h an t e n ye ar s b efore th e .

i nve nt ion of t h e K je llin fu rn ace M r E dw ard A ll e n C olby h ad ,

.

p ate nted a n i nd uction f urn ace for m el t i n g m e ta l s n I n on e of h i s L

fi rs t p a te n t s I th e pri m ary w i nd i n g i s s h own s u r r o un d in g t h e

,

c i rc ul ar ch an n el i n s tead of be in g w i th i n i t a s i n t h e K je ll in
,

fu rn ace ; t h e furn ace t ilt s i n orde r t o p ou r th e ch arg e a nd 1 5 ,

cove red w i th a hood for th e p u rpos e of ex cl u d in g th e air ; th e

h ood be i n g arr an ged so th at th e m ol te n m et al co ul d b e po ured i nt o
a m o ul d w ith ou t bei n g ex pose d to th e air .

I n h i s l ater furn ace s h oweve r t h e pri m ary w i nd i n g h a s b e e n

, ,

pl aced with i n th e s econ d ary as i n t h e K j e llin fu rn ace an d th e ,

cove r i n g h ood h a s bee n d isc arded b ut t h e a r r a n g e m e n t f o r t il t ,

‘

i n g th e furn ace i n orde r t o po u r it s conte n t s i s st ill e mpl oyed .

A bou t t w o years ago Mr C ol by a n d D r L eo nard W al do § . .

p rod uced th e fi rs t s teel m ade i n th e i n d u ct ion fu r n ace i n th e U n ited

*
A m i an E ler c e c tr c i Fu na r ce Co .
, 45 W all S t ree t, N ew Yo k r . B ull e ti n No . 1 , J un e,

+U .
S p at nts
. e an d of May 2 o th , 1 89 0 Se e El e c tr o c h e m i c al
iii p
.

I ndu s t ry v ol . .
, . 1 34 .

I U . S p at nt
. e see El e c tr o h m i al I nd u s t y
c e c r , v ol .
iii .
,
Fig .
3, p . 2 99.

§ E l e c tr o h e m i al I ndu s t
c c ry , v o l. iii .p 85
, . 1 .
 I R ON AN D S T EEL .
97

S t ate s an d at ,
t h e p re se n t t i m e a C olby f urn ace h ol d in g 1 9 0 lb s .

of cr uc ibl e steel i s i n oper at ion at t h e wor k s of H e nry D is ston 81

S on s ne ar
,
P hi l adelph i a *
an d s ever al m uch l ar ger
,
furn ace s are i n
p roce s s of con str uct i on .

IRO N

C O RE

F ig 25
. .
—C o l b y I n d u cti on F u rn a ce .

Th e s m al l f ur n ace i n u s e at th e D is ston s teel p l an t is shown

i n t h e fron ti sp iece a n d d ia g r a m a t ic a lly i n F i g 2 5 1 I t con s ist s
L
. .

of a l am i n ated i ron core aro u n d wh ich i s a pri m ary wi nd in g of ,

2 8 t urn s of th ic k wal l ed copper t ub e P an d a n an n ul ar cr ucibl e

‘

,
, ,

C co nt a in i ng t h e ste el S wh ich form s t h e second ary c irc u it of

, , ,

th e tra n s form er T h e who l e f urn ace t i l t s to po u r th e m olte n

.

s teel rot at i n g abou t a n ax i s i n d ic at ed by th e l i n e X Y

,
Th e .

pri m ary w i n din g c a n b e cool e d very e cie ntly by w ate r

f
fi c i r c u l a t

i n g t h rou gh t h e coppe r t ub e of w h ic h i t i s composed an d can , ,

t herefore b e pl ace d i n clos e p rox i m ity t o t h e secon d ary Circu i t

w it ho ut an y d an ge r of b ecom in g ove rh e ated Th e arran ge m e n t .

of th e coil s a s sh own i n th e fi g u re gives far l e s s opport u n ity for

, ,

m agnetic l ea ka ge t h a n I n t h e K j e llin f urn ace s how n i n F i g 2 4 .

,

an d it i s n ot s urpr i s i n g t o fi n d th at a m uch h i gh er powe r factor

h as bee n obt ain ed alt ho u gh th i s m ay b e d u e i n p art to th e s m all
s i z e of th e C olby f urn ace M r C olby gi ve s t he powe r factor a s
“

. .

.
93
an
,
d s t ate s t h at t h e avera ge p ower factor afte r t h e ch arge of
‘ T an s A m
r er. E l e c tr o c h e m . So c .
, v ol . X L,

o c h e m i c al I n du s t y
.

El e c tr
’

l r ,
vo . v .
, p . 232 .

+ F ro m a s k t ch b y M
e C o lb yr . .
9 8 TH E E LE C T R I C F U R N A C E .

m et al is fu se d is n ever bel ow 90 Th e u s e of copp e r t u b e f or . .

th e p ri m ary i nvolve s h owever t h e e m ploy m e n t of rel at ively l ow

‘

, ,

volt a ge c u r re nt an d its p rox i m ity to th e cr ucibl e m u st c a u s e con

,

s id e r a b le l os s e s of h e at al th ou g h t h i s wil l b e g u arded ag ai n st ,

a s far a s p os s ibl e by a p ac k i ng of asbe stos or othe r h e at in s ula t

i n g s ubst a nc e b etwee n th e cr uc ibl e a nd t h e copp er p ip e s Th e
" '

c r ucibl e i tsel f is m ad e of gra p h it e a n d cl ay b ei n g s i m il ar i n co m ,

pos ition t o t h e graph ite cr ucibl e s u s u ally e mpl oy ed for cr u c ibl e

*
s teel m ak i n g S uch cr ucibl e s are m ode ratel y good con d uctors of
.

el ectri ci ty an d a p ortion of th e s econd ary c urre n t will n o do u bt

,

p as s t hrou gh th e c rucibl e it sel f t h u s p rod uci n g h e at i n th e wall s ,

of th e cr ucibl e a s well as i n th e s teel Th e cr u c ibl e re s t s u p on a .

sl ab of s oap sto ne N an d i s j ack eted by som e h e at i n s u l at in g

, ,

m ateri al J ,
.

Th e foll owi n g d at a i n re g ard to th i s fu rn ace are t ake n i n p art

from t h e acco u n t i s s ue d t o t h e A m eric an E l ectroch e m ic al S o
c ie ty + a n d i n p art from a privat e com m un ic ati on fro m M r
, C olby .

to th e a uth or

C ruc i b l e ca p ac i t y 2 00 lb s of stee l ,
. .

Wor k i n g cap ac i t y , 1 00 l bs o f cast stee l i n g ots p e r hour . .

K i l ow att hours p e r 1 00 l b s o f cast stee l i n g ots , 3 5 . .

P o w er factor ,

Max i m u m k i l ow atts w i t h 1 9 0 l b s stee l se l dom exceeds 4 3 . .

R ated s i ze o f furnace f or cruc i b l e stee l m a k i n g , 6 0 K W . .

P r i m ar y current i s s i n g l e p hase 2 4 0 v ol t , fre q uenc y 6 0 l ess than , ,

am p eres
2 00 .

S econ d ar y current ab out 9 v o l ts and ab out am p eres .

L en g th o f O p erat i on 1 hour ; ha l f o f w h i ch i s re q u i red f or fu s i on

,

and the other hal f f or re fi n i n g and k i l l i n g “

.
”

I n g ots o f ab out 9 0 lb s are p oured e v er y hou r the re m a i nder of the

.
,
stee l b e i n g l eft i n the cruc i b l e f o r start i n g the n ext o p erat i on .

P r i m ar y W i nd i n g 2 8 turn s o f cop p er tu b e o f ,
i nch i nterna l and -
,
i nch externa l d i ameter
-
.

I n d uct io n fu rn ace s u n der t h e p ate nt s of C olby a n d K j e ll in a r e

now con st r ucted i n th e U n ite d S t at e s by th e A m eric an E le c tric
F urn ace C o mp a ny wh o s upply fu rn ace s fro m 1 0 K W u pward s . .
,

a n d of th e s tation ary or t ilt i n g vari ety Th ey p ub lis h I t h e follo w .

in g l i st of fu rn ace s i n operat ion or i n cou rs e of c o n

s t r uction

*
F or c o n s tr u c t i o n o f th e C olb y cr u c i bl e see U . S p at n t s
. e and ’

8 40, 8 2 6 , de
s c ri b e d i a E l e c tr o c h e m . I n du s t ry , v ol . v .
, p.
55 .

+ T an s A m
r . er . E l e c tr o c h e m . So c .
, v ol . xi .
, an d E l e c tr o c h e m i c a l I n d u s try ,

v ol . v .
,
p . 232 .

I A m er ic a n El e c tr c i Fu na r ce Co .
, B ull e ti n No . 1 , J un e, 1 9 07 .
1 00 TH E E LEC T R I C F U R N AC E .

Th e i n d uctio n furn ace i s an e x tre m e ly con ve n ie n t a n d re ason

ably econom ic al appl i ance for m elt i n g cr uc ibl e steel an d othe r
m et al s an d alloy s an d t h ere c an h n o do ub t th at wh e n m e re mel t
,
e

i n g is req u ired a s i n t h e p r od uct ion of cr uc ibl e steel fro m p ur e

,

v a r ie t ie s o f iro n an d ste l i t i s t he be s t for m of electric fu rn ace ;

'

e
,

a n d t h at wh e n el ect ri c p we r c a n b e ob t ai ne d at re ason abl e r at e s

. ,

i t i s bot h bette r an d ch eap e r in ope r at io n t h a n t he cr ucibl e proce s s .

Th e l arger s ize s o f i nd uct io n f ur n ace s uch a s wo ul d b e u se d ,

i n t h e prod uct ion o f st r uct u r al s teel appe ar t o h ave a re ason abl y ,

good e ffi cien cy A fur n ace of 6 3 6 K W i s s t ate d to h av e a n o ut

.
. .

t of 0 t n s e r d ay i f c h arge d w it h col d m ateri al a nd 3 6 ton s

p u 3 o p ,

wh e n c h a r g e d wit h h ot m et al Th es e fi g u re s refer to th e p ro
.

”
d u
c ti o n o f steel fro m p i g an d scr ap t h at i s by a s i m pl e m el t in g
“
,

F ig . 26 .
—8 T - on I n d u cti on S te e l F u rnace .

ope rat ion a nd corre s pon d to e x pe nd it u re s of 5 9 0 an d 49 0 K W

,
. .

ho urs re spect ively per ton of steel I t s h oul d b e n o te d th a t th es e

'

fi g ure s are ap p are ntly th e re s ul t s of cal c ul at ion s by M r E n gel .

h ardt an d n ot t h e re s ul t o f act u al ope rat ion s

,
A bo ut t h e s am e .

E l t o h m i al I n d u s t y
‘
ec r c e c l iii p 95 r ,
vo . .
, . 2 .
 I R ON AN D S T EE L . I O I

a mo u n t of el ect rical e ner gy wo uld prob ably be n eeded for t h e

s i mple m elt i n g of p i g an d scrap i n t h e H eroul t fu rn ace b ut a s ,

th i s f urn ace is ge neral ly e m ployed for p u ri fy in g as wel l a s m erely

mel ti ng t he s teel i t i s not ea sy to m a ke an e x act com p ari son
, .

Th e Gr on w a ll F u rn a ce A n ew for m of i nd uction steel .

fu rn ace i nve nte d by Me s s rs A G ronwa l l A L i n dbl ad and O

,
. .
,
. .

S ta l h a n e is il l ust rated i n F i g 2 6 an d i s be i n g e rected i n

,
.
,

*
S wede n Th i s fu rn ace e mbodie s cert a i n n ew fe at u re s wh ich
.

e n able i t to be b u ilt on a l ar ge r scal e t h an w a s previo u s l y pos s ibl e ,

w ith o ut h avi n g a n ex ces s ive l y l ow powe r factor a nd witho u t r e ,

q uiri n g c u rre nt at u n u s u ally low fre q u e n cie s .

Th e fi rst poi n t to n ot ice i s th e t rou gh cont ain i n g th e steel .

I n stead of b ein g circ ul ar a s i n th e K je llin a nd C olby furn ace s th is ,

tro ug h h a s a se m ic irc ul ar port ion F pas si n g aro un d t h e core E , , , ,

an d a folde d port ion G ex te nd i n g to t h e ri gh t of t h e core Th i s

, ,
.

form of ch an nel h as th e advan ta g e of b ei n g m ore comp act th an a

Ci rc ul a r ch a nn el of t h e s am e le n gth an d of h avi n g a s m all er in ,

d uc ta n c e Th e grid i ron l ik e con st r uct ion of steel ch an n el h ad

.
-

bee n e mployed p r e v io u s lv by G G in F i g 2 8 b ut it s appl i cat ion .

, .
,

to a n i n d uct ion fu rn ace 15 n ew a n d appe ars to be a decided im

prove m en t .

A noth e r n ew fe at ure i n t h e fur n ace i s t h e pos i t i on of t h e

pri m ary coil wh ic h i s pl aced n ot at C as i n t he e arl ie r form s
, , , ,

b ut at A arou n d th e o uter l i mb D of th e t ran s form er core

,
B , ,
.

a nd C are compe n s ator coil s for red uci n g th e m a gn et ic le aka ge of

th e core .

I n t h e e arl ier form s of i n d uct i o n steel furn ace a se rio u s

d ifli c u lty wa s t h e ve ry l ow powe r factor wh i ch appe ared to l i m it ,

th e ut il ity of t h i s type of fur n ace L i ndbl ad gi v e s t h e foll o w i n g .

form u l a for th e powe r factor of a n i nd uct ion fu rn ace

cna(
Ta n Y
l s l vV P
‘

l
whe e r
,

Y = an g l e o f p hase d i s p l acement .

n = fr e q u e n cy .

a a r e a o f cross sect i on o f stee l i n

z
the channe l .

l l e n g t h o f channe l
z
.

s s p e c i fi c res i stance o f th e stee l

z
.

e z
a con stant .

W 5 =m a
res i stance arou nd secondary C i r c u I t
g n e ti c .

s res i stance around p r I m a r y C I rC U I t

m a g n e ti c .

Th e power factor cos Y is h i gh es t wh e n t an Y i s lowe s t , , ,

t h at i s wh e n t h e m a gn et ic re si st ance s are h i gh the fre q u en cy l ow ; ,

‘
D Hr .l 9 7 R po t
a ane p 4
'
s and pl a t s
1 0 x ii
e r , . 1 01 -
10 , e x .
-
.

8
1 02 T HE E L EC T R I C F U R N AC E .

a nd t h e el ectric al re s i s t an ce of t he s econ d ary i s h i gh Th e v e r y .

lo w p ower factors of t h e e arl ier f ur n ace s were c a u se d by t h e e x

ce s s i vely lo w electrical re si s t ance of th e secon d ary c irc u it an d ,

t he n eces s arily l arge sp a ce wi th i n t h e c irc ul ar s teel ch an n el wh ich ,

-

a fford ed a n e asy l ea k age for th e l i n e s of m ag n etic force I t be .

c a m e nece s s ary t here fore to u se c u rre nt s of very l o w fre q u e n cy

s uch as 1 2 or 1 5 for s m al l fu rn ace s w h il e eve n 3 or 5 al ter n at ion s
,

were p roposed for l ar ger fu rn ace s ; t h u s re q u iri n g sp eci al el ectrical

m ach i n e r y a n d m ak i n g i t i m pos sibl e to d r aw the c u rren t from
,

o rd i n ary power pl an t s .

I n th e new fu rn ac e t h e s teel ch a n n el t urn s as closely a s pos

s ibl e aro un d t h e t ra n s form e r core a n d yet h a s a c on s iderab ly ,

r e ate r le ng th t h u s obt ai n i n g a n i n cre ased el ectric al re s i st an ce

g ,

o f th e s econd ary c i rc u i t a nd a gre ater res i st ance to t h e m a gn e t ic

le ak a ge th ro u gh th at Circ u i t Th e pri m ary coil A i s pl aced on
.
, ,

t h e o ute r l i mb of th e core i n orde r to h av e i t f u rth er fro m th e

,

h ot m et a l a n d so to p rotec t th e i n s ul at ion of t h e coil fro m t h e

,

h eat o f th e furn ace Th i s arr an gem e n t allows of t h e u se of

.

h i gh er v ol t ag e c u rren t i n th e pri m ary th a n woul d b e pos s ibl e i n

t h e ol d pos ition .

Th e compen s ator coil s B an d C are two e q u al coil s con

, , ,

n e c te d toget h er i n s uch a w ay t h at i f t h e m a gn etic fl u x i n D an d

,

E were e q u a l n o c u rre n t woul d fl o w i n B or C

,
I f h ow e ver .
, .

le aka ge occ u rs an d th ere i s a gre ate r fl u x i n D th a n i n E a c ur

, ,

re nt will flow i n t h e coil s i n s uch a way as to oppose an d p ar tly

preve n t t h e l e ak a ge A n ex tern al so urce of el ectromot ive force
.

m ay al so be u sed to m ai nt a i n a c urre n t i n th e coil C wh i c h th en , ,

becom e s a n a u x ili ary of t h e m ai n p ri m ary coil A ,

.

Th e electrical de fi cie n cie s of th e tr a n s form e r or i n d uctio n

f urn ace m ay b e m ade cl eare r a s follow s — I n a n ord i n ary t ra n sf
form er th e elect ric c u rre n t fl owi n g in t h e p ri m ary coil set s up a
m agn et i c force i n th e core a nd t h i s fo r ce p as se s t h ro u gh bot h th e
,

p r i m ary a nd th e s econd ary c i rc u i ts Th e al te rn at in g c u rre n t in

“

.
"

th e pri m ary i s co n s tan tly ch a n g in g i n a m o u n t an d corre s pon d ing ,

ch a n ge s t ake pl ace i n th e m a gn et ic force i n t h e core Th e ch an g e s .

in th e m agn et ic force p rod uce a n electric c u rre n t aro u n d th e

second ary c i r c ui t I n t h e ordi n ary tr an s form er t h e pri m ary an d
.

s econ d ary wi nd i n gs are close togeth er a nd th e m agn e tic force s e t

up by t h e p ri m ary m u s t p as s th ro u gh th e secon d ary al so b u t in ,

th e i n d uct ion fu rn ace t h e second ary w in d i n g i s a rin g of m olten

steel an d c an n ot be pl aced cl ose to th e pri m ary w i n d in g wi tho ut
destroyi n g i t Th e m a gn etic force prod uced by th e p ri m ary h as
.

there fore a ch an ce of es capi n g it s work by d o ubl in g b ac k betwe e n

1 04 THE E L EC T R I C F U R N A C E .

S e ction at X Y
. .

F ig 28
. .
—Th e Gin S teel F u rn a ce .
 I R ON AND S T EEL . 10
5

con s tr ucted i n s om e m ore refractory m at eri al M s uc h a s , ,

m agn e si te Th e fu rn ace i s s upp orted o n two piers P P be tween

.
, ,

wh ich s pace i s l eft for th e t ra n s form er co re D E Th ree spou ts .

,

S S S are p rovided at di ffe re nt l evel s ; th e u pper spo ut s er v i n g to

,

rem ove t h e sl ag t he m iddl e spou t to t ap o ff t h e u s u al amo u n t of

,

s t eel l eavi n g a q u an t ity i n th e fur n ace for keep i n g t h e secon d ary

,

c i rc u i t u nbroke n and th e l ower spo ut for e m ptyi n g th e fu rn ace,

wh e n n ece s s ary .

F u rn a ce
Th e Gin S te e l Mr G G in i nven te d i n a .
*
. .

fu rn ace i n w hi ch th e h e at i s g e nerate d by th e p as s age of a l arg e

e lectri c c u rre n t t hrou gh a groove cont ai n i n g m olte n steel In .

th e G in fu rn ace t h e i n d uct ion m e th od i s not u sed b u t t h e c urren t ,

i s led i nto th e e n ds of th e c an al by w ate r cool ed steel el ectrode s -

,

wh ich e nte r fro m bel ow an d for m p art of th e f urn ac e l i n i n g In .

Fig .A i s th e groo v e or c an al cont ai n i n g th e m olt en steel a ,

portion of w h ich as i n th e K je llin fu rn ace m ay b e left i n th e , ,

f urn ace after e ach ope rat ion to s t art t h e c urre n t for the n ex t r u n ,

a n d B B are th e water cool ed s teel t e rm i n a l s O n acco u n t of the -

.

low re s i st ivi ty of m ol te n steel t h e t ro ug h or c an al con ta in in g i t ,

sh o ul d be of gre at l e n gt h a n d s m all cros s s ect ion i n order to ,

avoid t h e u se of ex ce s s i v ely l arge c u rre n t s Th is w as advi sabl e .

i n th e K j e llin fu rn ace b u t i t i s eve n m ore n ece s sary i n t h e G in ,

f u rn ace bec a u s e th e c u rre nt m us t be d eveloped i n a tran sform e r

,

a n d le d t o th e f ur n ace by cab l e s al l of wh ich are m ore e xpe n s ive , ,

for e q u al power a s th e c u rre n t i s l ar ge r i n am o u n t ; a nd th e tra n s

,

form er a n d cab l e l os se s are al so ve ry l arge w he n e nor m ou s c u r

re n t s are e m ployed at lo w v olt ages I n t h e G in furn ace t h e .

t ro u gh A i s the re fore m ade l on g a nd n arrow an d i n order to ,

s ec u re co m p act n es s with at te n da nt econo my of he at it i s fol ded , ,

bac k w ard s a nd fo r w ard s l i k e t h e fi l am en t i n a n i ncan de sce n t ,

l am p th e e n ds B B be i n g b ro u gh t to t h e s a m e end of t he
, , ,

f u rn ace .

F or con v e ni ence i n repa iri n g th e h earth i t i s m ou nted on a ,

c arri age w hich st and s i n a fu rn ace con s i st i n g of t hree w al l s an d

a n arch ed roof ; t h e fo u rt h sid e bei n g cl ose d d uri n g t h e work in g
of th e furn ace by a m ovabl e door H is on e of th e two spout s .

t h rou g h t he roof for i nt rod uc i n g m ol te n pi g i ron Th e p i g iron .

c a n be converted i n to s te el by d il ution wit h s teel scrap a s i n t h e ,

full a c c o un t b y th e i nv e n t o r i s g i v e n i n an a p p nd i x t D H a n l E u o p e a r
*
A e o r . a e
'
s r

R p o t p p 6 5 7 7 A l s o e t an sla t io n b y P M e N B nn i e E l e t o c h e m i al I ndu s try

e r , . 1 -
1 . s e r . . e ,
c r c ,

vol ii
. p .
, . 20 .

+ F e n c h p a te n t N o
r F b ot h 89 7 ;
, E u o p e an R e po r t p 6 6
. e .
,
1 see r , . 1 .

M o d ifi e d f o m fi g u e s i n abov e R p o t
I r r e r .
1 06 T H E E LEC T R I C F U R NAC E .

K j e l lin f urn ace or by ad d ition s of iro n ore a s i n th e H e ro ul t

, ,

fu rn ace W h e n m olte n p i g I ro n I s em pl oyed th ere i s n o ne ed

.
-

t o l e ave a ny s teel i n th e furn ace from t h e p re v iou s r u n Th e s t e e l .

i s t app ed fro m t h e f iI r n a c e by m e an s of th e sp ou t K ; th re e ,

ch an n el s o ne fro m e ach l oop of th e c an al l e adi n g th e steel to t h e

, ,

s p out .Th e c abl e s for l e ad in g i n th e c urre n t are con n ected

el ectric ally by th e b ars G G to t h e lower p art of t h e w ate r cool ed ,
-

te rm i n al s B B A 7 00 kilow att f urn ace wo ul d h ave a c an al n e arly

.

3 0 feet l on g 9% i nch es wi d e a,
nd 1
9 % i nch es deep an d it wo ul d
co nt ai n lb s of steel wh ich wo ul d abo u t h al f fi ll th e groove
.
, ,

a n d wo ul d re q u i re a c u rre n t of ab o u t amp ere s at 1 5 vol t s .

Th e con s t r uction an d m ai n te n anc e of th e f ur n ac e h eart h w ill

prob ably b e a m at ter of con s i der abl e d i ffi c ul ty ; t h e adj ace n t “

b ra nch e s of th e c an al bei n g n e ar toge th er any l e ak of m et al fro m

o n e to t h e ne x t wo ul d l e ad t o a s hortcirc u iti n g of t h e c urre n t an d

a r ap i d e n l ar ge m e n t of t h e l e ak wh il e t h e add it io n of iro n or e i n ,

t h e ch an nel s w i l l le ad to a corros io n of th e wall s Th e b e s t m a .

te r ia l for th e con s tr uction of th e h e ar th wo ul d p rob ab ly b e

c h rom ite a s t h i s is very refr actory an d only sl i gh tly affect e d by
,

e ith er s il ic io u s or i ron y sl a gs .

Th e G in pr oces s w a s n Ot i n spected by D r H a a n e l a s th e .
,

e x p eri me nt al f urn ace w a s t h e n di s m o u n te d M r Gin g ive s a . .

f u l l acco u n t of h is proces s i n D r H a a n e l s R epor t an d a m od i fi ed

-

.
’

fu rn ace i s de scr ibed i n t h e E lectroch e m ical an d Met all ur gical I n

d u s tr y V ol I I I ,
p 2 98 b u t no ex peri m e nt al re s ul ts a r e g ive n
. .
,
.
, ,

s o i t w ill be wel l to s u sp e n d j ud g m e nt M r G in h as al so d e . .

s cribed a n e n t irely n ew for m of f u rn ace i n wh ich vert ic al c arbon

el ectrode s are u s ed + Th e G in f urn ace h a s been i n st all ed at th e
.

Pl atte nb er g W ork s W e s tp h a lia ;t th e Kr upp W or k s at E s se n , , , ,

i n G erm a ny an d th e R o e c h lin g I ron W or k s at V ol kl i n ge n §

,
.

Th e Gi r od S tee l F u rn a ce rece ntly de scrib ed by D r R S ,

. . .

H u tto n ” re se mbl e s th e H e ro ul t ste el furn ace i n ge n er al con

,

st r uct i on an d opera tion b u t o nl y on e m ovabl e elect rod e i s e m ,

p l oy ed ; t h e ret u rn con n e ct io n from th e m olte n s teel b e i n g m ad e

.

by m e an s of w ate r cool ed s teel b ar s emb ed ded i n t h e h e art h of -

t h e fu rn ace F or a s m al l f urn ace th e s i n gl e el ect rod e m ay b e

.

S i m pl e r as re gard s con st r uct ion an d ope r at ion b ut th e water ,

cool ed s teel b ar s i n th e b as e of t h e fu rn ace i ntrod uce a n ad d ition al

*
E u o p an R po
r e e r t, p . 1 73 .

+ T r an s . Am er . E l e c tr o c h e m . Soc .
, v ol . v iii . p , . 1 05 .

I E l e c tr o c h e m i c a l I n du s t y o l p r ,
v . . 1 2 0, and v ol . iii p
.
, .
4 34 .

§ Dr . H a a n e l, 9 7 R e p ort
1 0 p 49 , . 1 .

“ Th e Gi o d r F e r o A llo y W o k s an d th e
r -
r N ew Gi od S t l F u n a
r ee r ce, E l e c tr o c h e rrl .

I nd u s tr y , v ol . v .
, p 9 S e e al s o v o l iii p
. . . .
, .
434 .
1 08 T H E E LE C T R I C F U R N A C E .

F ig . 29 .
—H er o u lt O r e =s me ltin g F u rn a ce .

Th e H er ou l tF u rn a ce Th e ex pe ri me nt al H ero ul t fu rn ac e
. ,
*

(F i g . as u se d at S a ul t S te M arie i n th e spri ng of 1 906 con .

,

s i sted of a n e arl y cyl i nd ric al s h aft in wh ich a c arbon el ectrode C , ,

was s u spe n ded Th e fu rn ace w a s b u il t i n sid e a n i ro n c as i n g N

.
, ,

4 feet i n d i am eter b ol ted t o a c ast iro n bottom pl at e H

,
Th e ,
.

lowe r p art of t h e furn ace w a s l in ed w ith c arbon p u t i n a s a p aste , ,

a n d t h i s c arbon l i n i n g form ed th e l ower el ectrode of t h e fu r n ace ,

th e c urre n t p as s in g betwe e n C a n d G t h ro u gh t h e m el ti n g ch a r ge .

O n e c able fro m t h e t ra n sform er w a s co n n ected t o H a n d a n u m ,

be r of i ron rod s I s erved to m ake better con t act b etwe en th e

, ,

‘
Dr . H a a n e l, R po
e rt o n E xp e i m e n t s a t S aul t
r S te . M ari e, 1 p p 3 an d
9 07 , .
4 6, and
pla t e v ii .
, P aul L T . . H e o ul t U S p a te n t
r , . . see E l e c tr o c h e m I n du s tr y
.
, v o l. v

P 33 5
 I R ON AND S T EE L . 1 09

'

bottom pl ate an d th e c a r b o n lin in g Th e upper p art of th e .

f u rn ace w a s l i ned wit h com m o n fi r e bric k s b u t t h e c arbon l i n in g ,

wa s con t i n ue d to a poin t a l ittl e abo v e t h e sl ag l evel as it re s ist s ,

t he sol ve n t s ec tion of th e sl a g m uch b ette r t h a n fi r e b r ic k T h e in .

t e r io r o f th e fu rn ace t apered a l ittl e u pw ard s an d downward s ,

fro m t h e poi n t at wh i ch t h e b ric k an d carbon l in i n g s me t Tw o .

t app in g hol e s were p rovided th e l owe r on e wh ich l e ad s t o t h e,

s po ut S for th e p i g i ron a nd t h e u ppe r one D for th e sl ag

, , , , ,
.

T h e upper elect rod e w a s s u pporte d by th e h ol de r A B wh ich h a s , ,

al ready bee n de scribed (C h ap a nd wh ich w a s s u spen de d b y

.

a ch ai n so t h at it co u l d b e r a i sed or l o w ered ; t he re g ul at ion of th e

i

el ect rode wo ul d n o r m a lly b e a utom at ic Th e el ectric c u rre nt .

w as l e d t o th e c arbon th ro u gh th e h ol de r A B .

A n i ro n c asi n g i s v ery co nve n i en t i n th e con str uct io n of any

k i n d of furn ace b ut for an electr i c fu rn ac e u s in g a n a l tern at i n g
,

c u rren t t h e com p l ete i ron r in g N t h ro u gh w h ich th e c urre n t h a s

, , ,

to p as s w o u l d b e v er y obj ect i on abl e as i t wo u l d i ncre ase t h e

, ,

i nd uct anc e of th e c 1r c u 1 t ; t h u s oppos i n g th e p as s age of th e c u r

re nt an d l oweri n g th e po w er factor
,
O n th i s acco u n t a v e rt ical .
,

s trip of th e i ron c a se 1 0 i nch e s w ide w a s repl ace d by a copper

, ,

p l at e .

I n operat i n g t h e f urn ace th e c u rren t i s s t arted betwee n th e

,

e lect rode C a nd t h e botto m of th e furn ace (a l i ttl e coke co uld

, ,

b e pl aced i n th e fu rn ace i f n ece s s ary to p reven t too l arg e a r u sh

, ,

o f c urre nt on m ak i n g con t act ) a nd t h e ore m ix ed wi th ch arcoal

, ,

a nd fluxes i s fed i n aro u n d th e el ectrode

,
Th e h eat ge n erated .

by th e el ectri c c u r re n t w il l b e a t th e ch ar ge a rou n d th e e n d of
t he el ectrode an d a s th e ch ar ge becom e s p art l y red uced an d
,

m el te d i t wi l l carr y th e c u rre n t m ore re adily a n d t h e electrod e ,

c a n be g rad u al ly ra is ed u nt i l i t reach e s it s norm al p os i t ion Th e .

pa rt of t h e fu rn ace bet w ee n C and G m ay b e con s i dere d t h e zon e

O f fu s ion and con t ai n s m o l te n p i g iron F m olte n sl a g E a n d
, , , , ,

a m i x t u re D of ch arcoa l an d mel t in g sl a g an d m et al
, ,
.

The o r e c h a r g e d i n to th e fu r n ace con t a in s iro n i n a n ox id ized

'

c on d i t i on a nd t h i s ox i de of i ron i s red uced by th e ch arcoal form

, ,

i n g m etal l ic i ron an d c arbon m on ox id e T h i s d irect red uct i on .

by ch arcoal p rob ab ly t ake s p l ace m ain l y i n t h e l ower a n d h ott e r

pa rt of th e fu r nace b u t t h e c arbo n m onox id e so form ed i s i t sel f
, , ,

a good red uci n g re a gen t an d re act s w it h t h e ox ide s i n th e uppe r

p art of t h e fur n ace p artly red uci n g th e s e an d l iberat i n g c arbon
,

d iox i d e w h ic h i s ag a i n red uced i n p art to carbon m on ox id e b v

, , ,

t he ch arco al i n th e ch arge Th e re action s m a y be repre sen ted

.

a s fo l l ow s
1 10 TH E E LEC T R I C F U R N A C E .

F e 2 03 CO zFeO CO2 .

F eO + C z Fe + CO .

COZ C : zC O .

I t will b e s ee n th at th e g as e sc ap i n g fro m th e f ur n ace m u st

b e rich i n c arbon m onox ide an d i s th erefore m ore val u abl e th a n ,

th e g a s fro m a n ord in ary b l a st f ur n ac e wh ich i s l ar gely d il ut ed

wi th n itroge n from t h e bl as t I n t h e ill u str at ion t h i s g as is .

repre se nted a s b u rn i n g aro u n d t h e el ectrode above t h e ch ar ge , ,

b u t i n re g ul ar p r act ice it wo ul d b e e m pl oyed t o p reh eat th e ch ar ge

-
.

Th e c arb on m on ox id e will n ot re d uce th e iron ore u nt il t h e l att e r

h a s b ecom e s om e w h at h e at ed an d i n elect ri c s m el t i n g t h e h ea t ,

will not pe net rat e s o far u p t h e desce n d in g col u m n of ore a s i t

doe s i n t h e b l as t f urn ace as th ere is a m uch s m all er fl ow of g a s
,

to c arry t he h e at Th e s h aft s of electric s m elt i n g f u rn ace s w ill

.

t h erefore n ot nee d to b e s o h i gh i n proportion a s t h e sh aft s of , ,

“

bl ast fu rn aces I n fi g u re s 2 9 an d 3 0 t h e arr an ge men t of th e

.

el ectrode s wo ul d al so preven t a h i gh fu rn ace from be in g u s ed ,

b ut th i s h as b ee n m od i fi ed i n l ater form s of th e f ur n ace a n d t h e ,

v ol u m e of th e u pper p art of th e fu rn ace m ay b e e ffect ively in

creased if t h e ore c h ar ge i s p reh e ated by t h e comb u st ion of t h e

c arbon m onox ide .

T urn i ng n ow to t h e re s ul t s obt ai ne d i n th i s fu r n ace D r ,

.

Ha a n e l reports th at i n t h e ex per i m e n t al r u n s wh ich were b e g u n

*
, ,

abo u t t h e m id dl e of J an u ary 1 9 0 6 a nd con ti n ued u nt il t h e 5 t h of, ,

March s o me 5 5 ton s of p i g i r on were ele ctric al l y s m elted fro m

,

h e m at ite m agn et ite ro asted pyrrh ot ite an d t it an i fero u s ore s

, , .
, ,

Th e fu rn ace wor ked s at i s factor i l y w it h all th e s e ore s an d p i g ,

fron l ow i n s ul p h u r w a s obt ain ed fro m th e roasted pyrrh ot i te

, , ,

a n d ot h er ore s of h i gh s ul ph u r con t e n t C h arcoal for m s a p er .

fe c tly s at i sfactory red uc i n g age nt a nd t h i s i s i m port an t S i n ce i n , ,

O nt ario a n d ! uebec ch arco al c a n ofte n b e p rod u ced ch e aply fro m

m ill refus e wood or eve n pe at Wh il e coke s u itable for b l a st
, , ,

fu rn ace s m u s t b e i m ported
,
I n t h i s con n ect i on i t s ho ul d b e r e
.
,

m emb ere d t h at th e cok e or ch a rco al u sed i n a bl as t fu rn ace sho u l d

’

b e o f good q u al i ty an d abl e to s t an d th e wei gh t of t h e h e a v y

,

col u m n of o re with o u t cr u s h i n g ; wh il e i n t h e el ectr i c fu rn ace t h e

q u al ity of t h e red uci n g reage n t i s l e s s i m porta n t an d broke n ,

c h arcoal an d p artly c h arred wood w a s fou n d to s erve th e p urp ose ;

Th e el ectric f urn ace d i ffers fro m th e bl as t furn ace i n th e ab sen c e

o f a bl as t of air an d i n th e pos s ib il ity of att ai n i n g a h i gh e r
,

te mp er at ure Both of t h e s e d i ffere nce s are i n favor of th e

.

*P li m i n a
re ry R po
e r t, 1 906 , p . 8 .
1 12 THE E LE C T R I C F U R N A C E .

F ig 3 0
.
— Th e
. Ke l l er F u rn a ce .

K corresp on d i n g to th e fore h eart h or set tl er of a copper fu r n ace

,
-
,

recei ves th e m ol te n p rod uct s of two or eve n fo u r s h a fts t h u s

‘

, ,

r e d uci n g t h e l abor of t app in g ; an d th e u se of two s h aft s con ,

n e c te d el ectric ally i n s e ri e s e n abl es th e c urre n t to b e e m ploye d at

,

4 h i gh er v o lta g e t h a n i n t h e c ase of a s i n gl e sh aft furn ace

'
Th e .

work i n g l i n i n g of t h e f u rn ac e is m ade by r am m in g a m ix t ure of

b u rn t dolom ite an d t ar aro u n d a m o ul d an d h as b ee n fo u n d to,

s t a n d very well . A s th e h e at i s p rod uced i n t h e ce n tre of th e

s h aft i t s h o ul d b e pos s ibl e by s u it ably proport ion i n g t h e
’

, ,

f u rn a ce to keep t h e wall s at s o m od er ate a te mp erat u re t h at th ey

m i gh t b e b u il t of ord i n ary fi r e bri c k as i n th e bl as t f urn ace F ire
,
.

b ric k s are , h oweve r rap i dly corroded eve n a t m oderat e

, ,

t e mperat ures by sl ag s con ta i n i n g ox ide of i ron an d w oul d only

, ,

s t an d i f t h e co nd i t ion s were s o st ro n gl y red uci n g a s t o con vert

t h e wh ol e of th i s ox i de to m etal I t wil l b e re m e mb ered th at th e
.

work i n g l i n i n g of th e H e ro ul t fu rn ace wa s carbon wh ich is in ,

 - I R ON AND S T EE L . 1 1
3

fu s ible an d does not corrod e u nl e s s ex posed to oxy gen or m et all i c

ox ides s uch a s i ron ox id e
,
S uch a l i n in g w i l l l as t i f t he fu rn ace . .

con dition s are st ron gly red uc i n g an d ca st i ron i s be i n g m ade , ,

b u t wo ul d not l as t i f i t were atte m pt ed to p rod uce s teel i n th e

fu rn ace a s th ere wou l d be a con s ider abl e am ou n t of i ron ox id e
,

i n t h e sl a g A b as i c l i n i n g s uc h as dolo m ite w oul d t he n h ave

.
, ,
.

to b e u sed .

’
Th e ore e nt ers t he furn ace th rou gh i ron h oppers M M wh i ch , ,

are provide d wit h an an n ul a r sp ace L i n to w h ich t h e gase s fro m , ,

N c a n e as ily e sc ape i n ste ad of p a s s i n g up t h ro u gh th e o r e i n M .

F rom L th e gase s are w i thd r a w n i n p i pe s an d ut i l ize d i n a n y

s u it abl e m an ne r s uch as r u n n i n g a gas e n gi n e or p r eh e at i n g t h e
,

ore Th e i ron cas in g ro u n d th e fu rn ace i n spected by D r H a a n e l

’

.
.
,

was th e ca u s e of a very l ow po w er factor b ei n g obt ain ed an d i t ,

will b e om itte d or m odi fi e d i n th e fut u re .

Th e H a a n e l C o m m is s ion v i s ited th e wor ks of Me s s rs Kelle r .

,

L ele u x Co at L ivet F ran ce i n M arch 1 90 4 an d d uri n g t h ei r

.
, , , , ,

vi s it s om e 3 0 ton s of ore were s m el t ed e le c tr ic a lly fi “

Th e o r e
was h e m at it e a nd con t ai ned of iron an d 1 0 % of m oi st ure .

C oke con t ai n i n g
,
of a sh an d of fi x ed c arbon wa s ,

us ed for red uc i n g t h e ore an d th e am ou n t re q u i red var i e d fro m ,

a bo u t 1 8 % t o 2 0 % of t h e ore from 1 7 % t o 1 9 % of th e ore a n d , !

fl ux e s or fro m 8 00 to 9 00 lb s per to n of p i g iron Th e e ne r gy

,
.
,
.

u sed per ton of p i g w a s 5 3 2 E H F ye ars i n t h e fi r st e x p e r i

, ,
. . . .

m e nt an d 2 5 3 E H P ye ars i n t h e s econ d e xperim en t

,
. . I n th e
. . .

fi rs t ex peri m e n t th e fur n ace wa s wor k i n g bad ly an d t h e e x p e r i ,

m e n t s at S a ul t S te M ar i e ten d t o s h ow t h at t h e s m all er of th es e
.

fi g ures m ay be con s i dere d re l i abl e .

Th e H a r met F u r n a ce (F i g 3 1 ) t d i ffer s fro m th e H e ro ul t an d .

,

Kelle r fu rn ace s i n h a v i n g t h e el ectrode s i n serted l ate ral l y i nto th e

lowe r p art of th e sh aft i n st ead of p as s i n g v ert ically down th e
fu rn ace Th e s h aft S i s e nl arged be l o w to allow of t he in s e r
.
, ,

tion of th e elect rodes E E an d th e c u rre n t p as se s betwee n t h es e , ,

th ro ug h t h e m elti n g ch ar ge t h e sl ag C a n d t h e m ol te n m et al , , , ,

B . Th e i ncl i ne d l ater al elect rode s wil l p rob abl y be l es s s at i s

factory in act u al u s e t h a n a cen t ral el ectrod e beca u s e it wil l n ot ,

be e asy to re g ul at e t h e c u rren t by r ai s i n g or l oweri n g th e m as i s

don e i n th e oth e r fu rn aces ; s upport i n g th e el ectrode s i n th i s pos i
tion w ill al s o be l es s e asy an d t h e wal l s w il l be apt t o m el t aro un d ,

th e el ect rode s O n th e oth er h an d th e h e i gh t o f th e sh aft S i s

.
, ,

E u o p an R po t p p 9 9
*
r e e r , . 0- 1 0 .

+ T a t i s
re o n E l t o M t allu g y o f I o n b y H n i H a m
e ec r e r r , e r r e t, E u o p an R p o
r e e r t. 1 904 ,

pp.
4 64
12 -
E l t o h m i al I n du s t y
1 . l i
ec r p 4
c e c r , vo . .
, . 2 2.
1 14 T H E E L EC T R I C F UR NAC E .

1 3
0 4 0 5 6 f §2

F ig 3 1
. .
-
Th e H ar me t F u rn a ce .

n ot l i m ite d a s i n t h e H ero ul t fur n ace by th e l e n gth of th e

.
,

el ectrode ; a n d be tter pro v is ion c an b e m ad e for t h e p r e

he at i n g an d red ucti o n of t h e ore H arm e t ut il ize s th e co in
.

b u s t ib le g ase s esc api n g from t h e top of t h e sh aft for b u rn i n g in , ,

a sep arate fu rn ace or c al c i n e r i n wh ich t h e ore is cal ci ne d an d

,

p reh e ated b efore ch arg i n g i nt o th e m ai n furn ace S o me of th e .

gas i s ret u rn ed to th e foot of t h e sh aft be i n g blo w n i n at th i s ,

poi n t to s upply a red uci n g g a s for convert i n g th e iron ox id e to

.

m et al an d to c arry som e of th e h e at from t h e cr ucibl e u p t h e

,

sh aft s o as to prehe at an d red uce th e d e scen d i n g ore

,
Th e .

u se of th e g as to p reh e at th e ore before c h a r f in g i nto th e fu rn ace T

i s very d e s i rabl e b u t th ere wil l b e no n eed to bl ow g ase s th ro u gh

,

th e s m el t i n g sh aft beca u ,
red ucin g g ase s are alway s form ed
s e

h ere i n l ar ge am o u n t a n d b ec a u se th e co mb u st ion of t h e ga s in
, ,

t he c al ci ne r wou l d h ea t th e ore to a te mp erat u re at wh ich i t

,
1 6 THE E L E C T R I C F U R NACE .

F ig 3 2
. .
—H a a n e l =H e r ou lt F u rn a ce .
 I R ON AND S T EE L . 1 1 7

w h il e th e oth e r two are for Sl a g Th e S h aft s an d oth er part s .

of t h e furn ac e are l i ned wit h fi r e bric k s b u t th e p art N w h ich -

, , ,

is e xposed to t he act i on of m e l t i n g ore S l ag an d m et al i s com , ,

posed of speci ally re fractory m ate ri al s uch as m ag ne s ite Th e ,

.

arch acros s th e m iddl e of th e fu rn ac e w il l al so b e p art ic ul arl y

l i abl e to corros ion a nd we ar b ut w i l l b e somewh at p rotected by ,

th e coo l in g e ffect of th e s t u ffi n g box -

.

Th e lowe r elect rode E con si s t s a s i n th e e arl ier fur n ace o f

, , , ,

a ra m m ed c arbon pl u g m ak in g con t act wit h th e ai d of iron sp ike s

,

t o th e h e avy c as t i ron bottom pl at e an d s o to t h e con t act piece J ,

.

Th e uppe r electrode i s m ad e cyl in drical t o a l low of its p as s ag e ,

th ro u gh th e s t u ffi n g box A ddit ion al l e n gth s D are attach e d

-
.
, ,

by th re ade d j oi n t s as s h ow n i n s ect io n i n t h e fi g u re th u s avo i d ,

i n g a ny i nterr up t ion i n operation or w as t e of elect rode Th e .

p i ece R cl am ped o n th e electrode se r v e s t o h ol d it w h i le a n e w

, ,

p i ece i s be i n g screwe d on a n d al s o for ra i si n g or lo w er in g th e ,

el ect rode .

N O sc al e is g ive n i n t h e ori gi n al d r awi n g wh ich i s m e rel y ,

i n te nde d to S h ow th e p ri n cipl e s on wh ic h t h e fu rn ac e woul d b e

c o n s tr ucte d .

Th e Tu r n b u ll=H e r ou lt F u rn a ce F i g is a m od i fi c ation o f , .

H e r o u l t s or i gi n al f urn ac e w h ich h a s bee n devi s ed by h i s C an

’

adi a n repre s e nt at ive M r R T urnb u l l A S s how n i n t h e fi gu r e

,
. . .

th ere are s ix m ovabl e electrode s d e sc end in g i n to a s melt i n g ,

groove or c an al wh ic h form s a cl osed rect an gl e

,
Th e ore de .

scen d s i n a ce n t ral s h aft and i s d i str ib uted to th e s m elt in g groove

,

by s ix i ncl i ne d shoot s , on e d esce n d i n g b etwee n e ach adj acen t p a i r

of el ectrode s Th e n u mbe r of el ectrode s i s p re fe rably som e
.

m ultipl e of th ree s o a s to p erm it th e u s e of th ree ph as e

,
-

c urre nt .

Th e th ree electrical con n ect ion s a b a nd c on th e bottom , , , ,

of th e fu rn ace app ea r to i n dic ate th at th e s econ d ary w i n d in g s

,

of t he th re e t ran s form er s are n ot co n n ected togethe r b u t th at ,

th e c abl es fro m on e e n d of e ach are co n n ected to A A B B a n d , _ ,

C C re spect ively wh ile t h e ret urn cabl e s are all con n ected to th e
, ,

com m on term in al a b c on th e bottom pl ate of t he fu rn ac e Th e , .

wiri n g for t h i s arran ge m en t i s S h ow n i n F i g 3 4 i n wh i ch X d .

, ,

Yd , a n d Z d are t h e s eco nd ary w i nd in gs of th e t ran s form er s ,

e ach of wh ic h i s con n ected to th e fu rn ace by two c ab l e s on e le ad ,

i n g to a p air of m o v able el ectrode s a n d th e oth e r to th e botto m

of th e furn ace I t wil l b e e vide n t t h at by con nect in g th e secon d a ry
‘

wi n di n gs i n Y form a s i n F i g 3 5 t h e re t u r n c able s fro m a b c t o .

,

‘
Dr . Ha anel
’
s S aul t S te . Ma r e i R po e r t, 1 907 , pla t e xv iii .
,
and p . 1 47 .

9
F ig . 3 3 —Th
. e T urn b ull=H e roult F u rn a ce .
 1 2 03 TH E E LEC T R I C F U R NA CE .

oth er an d are not r aise d very h i gh above th e m et al in

,

t h e fu rn ace .

Th e upp er p art of th e furn ace F i g 3 3 i s des i g ned to ut il iz e

"

.
.
, ,

t h e comb u st ibl e fu rn ace g ase s for p reh e ati n g th e ore an d l im e

s ton e . Th i s ca n not b e don e i n th e m ai n s h aft of t h e fu rn ace fo r ,

if air were i ntrod uce d th e re to b u r n th e ga s it wo ul d al so b ur n ,

.

th e ch arcoal or oth er fuel i n th e o r e m ix t ure A l ateral rot at in g .

t ube T T is therefore p rov i ded down wh ich t he ore gr ad u all y

, , ,

p as s es .Th e comb u st ibl e g as e s fro m th e fu rn ace b ur n i n th i s

t ube a i r bei n g i ntr od uce d t h ro u gh t h e be n t p ip e P ; an d t h e p ro
,

d uct s of comb u st ion e sc ap e by t h e fl u e F Th e ch arcoal or oth e r .

fuel i s i ntrod uced th ro u g h th e h oppe r H , an d i s th u s p rotecte d

fro m th e b urn i n g g a s an d air .

Th e p rehe at i n g of th e ore a n d l i m e s to n e i n th e t ub e T T h a s ,

sever al adva nt age s I t c alci ne s th e l i m e s ton e re m ov i n g th e c ar

.
,

bo n d iox ide wh ich wo ul d oth erw is e rob c arbo n from th e f uel ; it

r oast s th e ore rem ovi n g a p ar t of a ny s ulp h u r i t m ay con t a i n a n d
,

le avi n g i t i n a b etter co nd itio n for t h e s m elt in g ope r at ion ; a n d

t h e ore by b e i ng h e at ed i s fi tte d for i m m ed i at e red uct io n to th e
, ,

m et all i c s t a te wh e n i t e n ter s th e red uc i n g at m osp h er e of th e

fu rn ace a s wel l as g ai n i n g a n am o u n t of h e at wh ich wo ul d oth er
,

wi s e h ave to be fu r n i s he d by th e el ectr ic c u rre n t Th is p re .

h e ati n g of t h e ore i s not of gre at i m port an ce i n a bl as t fu rn ace

'

, ,

wh e re a n ampl e s upply of h e at i s c arri ed up by th e bl as t a n d

serve s to pr e h e at a n i m m e n s e vol u m e of ore to an i ncre as in gly
h i gh te m per at u re a s it desce n d s i n th e furn ace ; b u t i n th e el ectri c ‘

fu rn ace only a s m all a mo u n t of h e ate d g a s ri s e s from th e s m el t

i n g zon e to h e at t he de scen d i n g ore a n d t h e p reh e at i n g of th e ,

ore i s th erefore very des ir abl e .

I n t h e fi g ure th e elect rod e s are s how n h an g i n g freely i n th e

,

f u rn ace b ut i t is i nte n de d t o h ave s om e for m of s tu ffi n g box to

'

-
,

preve n t t h e esc ap e of g a s E ach el ect rod e wo ul d al s o n eed to

.

be i n s ul ated fro m t h e m etal c as i n g of th e fur n ace Th e meces .

s ary s upport s a n d g e ari n g for th e t ub e T T are om itted i n th e ’

, ,

d r awi n g Th e m et al an d sl a g are dr aw n o ff t h ro u gh s u itabl e

.

s po u t s wh ich are S h ow n .

*
A hors e power furn ace of t h i s typ e is i n co urs e o f
-

e rection at W ell and O nt ario o n a p iece of gro u n d fa c in g t h e

, ,

W ell an d C an al I t i s e xpected to p rod uc e 3 5 ton s of p i g iro n per d ay

.

whe n th e ore i s ch ar ge d col d or 40 ton s wh e n th e preh e at i n g ar ,

ran ge m e n t i s u sed Th ree 7 5 0 K W t r a n s for m ers will b e e m p loye d

. . . .

R po pp
1

‘
Ha a nel e r t, 1 9 07 , . 1 4 7 - 1 4 8.
 I R ON AND S T EE L . I

to ch an ge t h e c urren t from th e volt s of th e s upply to th e

3 0 or 4 0 vol t s re q u ired by t h e f urn ace R eg ul at ion w ith i n t he s e .

l i m it s c a n be e ff ected by t aps o n th e s econd ary w i nd i n g s .

Th e fu rn ac e i s i n te nded to d e m on strate t h e com m erc i al p o s

s ib il ity of th e electric s m elt i n g of C an ad ia n iro n ore s eve n at a ,

pl ace w h ere th e co st of power i s n ot very low an d whe re th e ,

o r e h as to b e carr ied at l e as t 1 5 0 m ile s O re s fro m P ort A rt h u r .

c ont ai n in g of s ulph ur an d ot h er re fractory C an adi a n ore s ,

w ill be u se d i n order to de m on strat e t h e p os s ibil ity of el ect ri c

s m elt i n g u n de r th e se con dit ion s A secon d l arger furn ac e a n d .
, ,

a H erou l t fu rn ace for th e m an u fact u re of h i gh gr ad e s teel cast

in gs are al s o c o n te m p la fe d
,
.

*
A h ors e power fur n ac e of s im il ar type h as bee n
-

e rected at Bai rd C al i for n i a for s m el t i n g a rich m a gn et it e ore

, ,

wit h ch arcoal Th e fu rn ace h a s a g u aran teed o utp u t of 2 0 ton s

.

a d ay a n d i f s ucces s fu l t h e p l an t i s to b e enl arged to a c ap ac i ty

,

of 6 00 800 ton s pe r d ay
-
Th e l oc at io n i s f a vor abl e for e lectric
.

s me l t i n g on acco u n t of th e ab u n d an t w ater power an d t h e h i gh

p r i ce of p i g i ron an d of fu el s
,
u it abl e for u se i n t h e b l ast furn ace -
.

T h e f u rn ace w as for m all y s t arte d o n th e 4 th of J uly b efore t h e

e l e c t ric al e q u ip m en t w as t horou gh ly com pl eted I t h as m ad e .

L
iron se v e n ton s b ei n g dr aw n on th e 1 7 th Ju ly 1 b ut for ste ady
, ,

w or k m ore el ectric powe r i s re q u ired an d will soon b e s up p l ied .

I nform at ion with re gard to th e f urn ace i s g ive n i n t h e M i n in g

a n d S c ie n ti fi c P re s s of J uly 2 0 t h an d i n th e E l ectroche m ical I n ,

d u s t r y vol v,
p 3 1 8 from wh ic h th e foll ow i n g p art ic ul ar s are
. .
,
.
,

t ak e n — Th e ore i s a m a gn et it e con t ai n in g abo u t Fe .

,

S .
,
P S iO z a n d i n sol ubl e
.
,
G ood l im e ,
.

s ton e for fl u x i s al so ava i l abl e Th e ore i s ex p ected to cos t .

pe r ton d el ivered to t h e s m el te r a nd th e electric p owe r w ill ,

c ost 8 1 2 pe r h or s e power ye ar T h e b es t p i g i ron s ell s at $ 3 0

- -
. .

or $ 3 2 p er ton i n S a n F r anci sco an d i t i s ex pected t h at t h e ,

e l ectric p i g i ron c a n b e m ade an d del ive red t here at a cos t of

from $ 1 5 to $ 1 8 p e r ton I n t h i s furn ace t h ere are th ree .

e l e c trodes wh ich are s u ppl ied wi th t h re e ph ase 6 o cycl e c u rre n t - -

,

a t 5 0 vol t s ; th e a mo u n t of c u rren t u se d b e i n d a s '

g s t a t e

a mpe re s .

P os s ibi l iti e s in e l e ctri c s meltin g M any ex pe ri m en t s on t h e .

e l e c tri c s m elt in g of i ron ore s h ave bee n m ad e at S a ul t S te M ar i e .

a n d el s ewh ere b u t th ey h ave al l bee n h am pere d b y i n ade q u ate

,

e l e c tri c al eq uip m e nt b y th e s m al l sc al e of th e fu rn ace an d by

, ,

"‘
Dr . H a an el , R po
p 48
e r t, 1 90 7 , . 1 .

+ E n g i n e e r i n g an d M i n i n g J o u n al r , Au gu s t 1 0 th , 1 90 7 , p . 2 78 .
1 22 TH E E LEC T R I C F U R NAC E .

Es ca p i n g

CaO

CO + O

F ig . 36 .
—I d e al F u rn a ce .
 1 2
4 T HE E L EC T R I C F U R NA C E .

m ore electrical e nergy obt ai n i n g i n b oth c ase s perfect c o m b u s

,

t ion a nd economy an d t h e rel at i ve p rice of th e two com m od iti e s

,

wo ul d dec id e wh ich t o e m pl oy .

A s i mpl e ex am pl e w il l de m on s tr at e th e action of th e fu rn ac e .

S uppos e t h at p u r e h e m at it e ore F e 2 O 3 i s ch arge d i n at t h e top

,

of th e furn ace a n d th at p ure c arbon e q u al to 1 5 % of th e w e i gh t

of th e ore (two atom s of c arbon to e ach m ol ec ul e of ferr ic ox i de)
, ,

is c h a r g e d a t a a to geth er wit h as m uc h addit ion al c arbon as i s

,

needed to c arb u r i z e th e iron Th e ore p reh e ate d i n C w il l b e

.
, ,

r ed uced to F e O i n B an d i n A t h e F e O will b e red uce d to

, ,

m et all ic i ron T h e e q u at io n s s h ow how th i s work s o u t an d

.
,

th at o n e nteri n g C h al f of th e c arbon w il l h ave bee n fully b urn t

, ,

. a n d h al f will be i n th e for m of c arbon m on ox id e

. .

In A ,

In B ,

In C ,
CO + O : CO2 .

Th e h e at v al u e of th e c arbon m onox ide b u rn i n g i n C i s 3 5 % ,

of th e or i g i n al h e at v a l ue of t h e carbon an d t h i s w ith t h e h e at , ,

c arried up by th e furn ace g as e s wou l d h e at th e ore to abo u t

wh ich wo ul d b e n eedle s sly h i gh I f on th e oth e r h an d .

th e c arbon were re d uce d to ab o ut 1 1 % of t h e ore (th re e atom s

of c arbon to two m olec ul e s of ferr ic ox i de ) t h e wh ol e of th e
c arbon wo ul d b e re q u ired for re d uction l e avi n g noth in g for p re ,

h e ati n g . D ec id i n g o n s om e prop ort io n of c arbo n b etwe e n 1 1 %

a n d 1 5 % of t h e ore i t wo ul d be p os s ibl e t o c a lc ul ate h ow m u ch
,

e l ectric al e n er gy wo ul d be n eeded to s u pply t h e re m ai n d e r of th e

h e at for s m el ti n g .

I n th e e x peri m e n ts th at h av e bee n m ad e i n ele ctri c s m e l t

i n g n on vol at il e fu el s uch a s cok e or ch arcoal h a s b ee n e m
,
-

pl oyed b ec a u s e th e vol at il e m atter ari s i n g fro m a f uel l i k e s oft

,

coal wo ul d not o nly b e w aste d b u t wo ul d h ave m a d e th e opera

t io n of th e f ur n ace decide dly u npl e as ant I n t h e i deal fu rn ac e
'

.
,

a mpl e p rovi s io n is m ade for th e u s e of c a r b o n a c io u s g ase s i n t he

z one s B a nd C an d any k i n d of f uel eve n oil or n at u ral ga s
, , ,

co ul d b e u se d e ffect ively i f i n trod uce d at th e p oi n t a a .

Th e fuel e nteri n g t h e i de al f urn ace i s compl etely b ur n t b e .

fore i t l ea ves t h e fu rn ace a n d th e wh ol e v al ue of i t an d of th e

,

e l ectri cal e ne rgy m ay be co m m u n ic ated t o th e ch ar ge T he .

fuel is u sed i n p art for t h e ch e m ical wor k of red uci n g th e ox id e s

to m et al a nd c arb u rizi n g t h e re s ul t i n g iron a nd t h e h e at fr om ,

t h e re m ai n der of t h e fuel a n d from th e el ect rical e n er gy is u s ed

i n p art t o fu rn is h h eat for th e ch e m ical ch an ge s t h at m u st b e
 I R ON A ND S T E EL . 1 25

e ff ected i n the ore an d i n p art l e a v e s t he furn ace i n th e mol te n

,

met al a nd sl ag i n th e gase s e sc ap in g from t h e top of t h e fu rn ace

, ,

a n d by cond uction th ro u gh t h e w all s of t h e fur n ace Th e he at .

c on s u m ed i n ch e m ical re action s is a n e s se n t i al p art of t h e opera

tion t he h e at carrie d o u t by th e m ol te n Sl a g an d m et al i s u s u ally
,

c on s i dered to b e a n u n avoid abl e l os s t ho u gh som e of t h i s m i gh t ,

be recovered i f i t we re wort h w h ile t h e h e at e s c a p in g in th e

‘

gase s at th e fu r n ace top m ay be red uced to a very s m al l p ro

p ort ion of t h e w h ole a n d t h e l os s by con d uct ion th ro ug h th e
,

wall s c a n be red uced to a m oderate proport ion i n well b u i l t

f u rn ace s of l arge d i me n s ion s .

A few ex ample s w il l n ow b e g i v e n to s h ow wh at w il l b e t h e
m in i m u m a m o u n t of fuel a n d elec trical e ner gy needed for s m el t
i ng a n iro n ore i n s uc h a f urn ac e .

*
Th e fi rs t ex am p l e is on e g ive n by P rof R ich ard s an d .

S how s h ow m uch e l ectric al e n ergy an d good ch arcoal wo ul d b e

’

n eede d to s m el t a m ag net it e ore obt ai n in g a gray p i g i ron ,

.

T he m a gne t ite ore con t ain s

Pe r C e n t
MgO
P2 5
S
CO2
H2 O

_
I t isto b e m ix e d w it h a good v ar ie ty of c h arcoal as s u m e d ,

9 0 % carbo n an d 1 0 % m oist ure an d wit h e nou gh p ure s i l ica s an d ,

to m a k e a sl a g w ith 3 3 % s i l ica Th e p i g i ro n i s to con t ai n 4 % .

c arbon s i l icon a nd
,
of iron O n e ton of p i g iron
,
.

w i l l req u ire ton s of iro n ore for it s prod uction T ak in g .

fi rs t th e ca se i n wh ic h t he g as e s e n teri n g zon e C con t ai n tw o

"

vol u m e s of C O 2 to o ne vol u m e of C O Th e c arbon n eede d for .

o n e m etri c ton of p i g w il l b e 2 2 k ilo gr am s t h at i s 2 k il o

4 ; 49
gram s or 5 5 0 l b s of ch arcoal
,
T he el ect ric al e ner gy re q u ire d
. .

w ill dep e n d upon h ow m uch h e at i s l os t by con d uct ion an d rad i a

t i on fro m t h e f ur n ace an d i n th e e sc api n g g ase s ,
S u ppos in g .

fi rs t t h at t h e g ase s are q u i t e c ol d an d t h at no h e at i s l os t b y ,

r adi ation etc th e electric al e ner gy n ee ded wo ul d b e abou t

,
.
,

h ors e powe r ye ars per m etric ton of p i g wh il e i f t h e m ore

- -
,

re ason ab l e a s s u m pt ion were m ade t h at th e g ase s e scape d at

°
3 00 C and th at th e l os s e s by cond uction a n d rad i ation from th e
.
,

‘
R i h a d s M t allu g i al C al ula t i on s
c r e r c c , v ol . P obl m
r e 76, p .
4 04 .
1 26 T H E E LE C T R I C F UR N A C E .

f urn ace wer e 2 0 96 of t he h e at ge ner ated (th at is of th e el ectric al ,

h eat a nd of t h e h e at p rod uced by t h e gas e s b urn i n g i n th e zon e

C) hors e powe r ye ars of el ectr i c al e ne r gy wo ul d b e n eed e d '
- - .
,

I n th is c ase t h e h eat p rod uced i n C by b u rn i n g g as e s w as a bou t

3 %
0 of th e h e at prod uced el ectric ally I t wo ul d be pos s ibl e to .

u s e rath er l es s ch arcoal an d m ore e l ectr ic al en er gy or l e ss ,

el ectric al e n ergy an d m ore ch arcoal th an i n dicated in th is e x .

am ple b ut t ak i n g t h e se fi g ure s as fairl y typ i c al of th e am ou n t of

,
.

good Ch arcoal an d of el ectr ical e ne r gy act u ally e m pl oye d in th e

f urn ace it wil l b e n ece s s ary to m ak e ce rt ai n add it ion s if t h e r e
,

s u lts are to repre sen t work i n g con dit ion s T h U S tO th e el ectrical

'

e ne rg y m u s t b e add ed th e l os s e s i n tr an sfor m ers c abl e s an d ,

con nection s s a y r a is i n g t he fi g ure t o

,
h orse power y e ars - -
,

a n d a fu rth er addit io n m u s t be m ade to al low for th e fac t t h at

th e f u rn ace will not b e Operated con t i n uo u sly d urin g t h e ye ar ,

an d t h at eve n wh e n i t i s r u n n i n g i t wil l n ot alway s dr aw t h e ful l

power for wh ich p ay m e n t i s m ad e I n t h i s con n ect ion it will .

'

n ot b e n e c e s s a r y t o co n sid er th e t i m e wh en th e f urn ace m ay

b e o u t of wor k for l on g period s for rep airs as p ro v i s i on wo ul d ,

b e m ade by h avi n g a sp are f urn ace t o e m ploy th e p owe r a s ,

re g ul arly as poss ibl e A cert ai n l os s of ch arcoal w ill occ u r

.

t h ro u gh m ech an ic al l os s es a n d i t wil l prob abl y be s afe to all o w ,

6 0 0 lb s of ch arcoal an d
. B H P ye ars per to n of p i g i ron . . .

as th e fi n al sol u tion of th e above p robl e m

A s a n oth er ex am pl e m ay b e t ake n e x p eri m e nt al th e 1
3 t h
r u n with th e H ero ul t fu r n ac e at S aul t S te M arie i n F ebr u ary .
,

Th e r u n l asted 6 1 56 h o u rs th e m e a n c urren t wa s ,

a m pere s at vol t s with a po w er factor of g I vm

g 1 64,

as t h e m e an k ilowatt s d u ri n g t h e r u n l b s o f p i g I ro n . .
-
’
.

were o b ta in e d w ith a con s um p tio n of lb s of ch arcoal a nd

'

o 26 8 E H F
. ye ars p e r ton of p i g
. . . .

Th e ore w a s m agn etite from W ilb u r m i ne Con t ai n i n g ,

S iO z A l 2 03 “

P2 O s —o . 023 %
Pe z O 3 C ao (P
FeO M g O— 6 84% r
. S —o . os %
( e
F M n O —o 2 6 % . CO2 , e tc —
3 6 I
%. .

Th e ch arcoal con t ai n ed ,
m oi st ure ,
vol at il e
m atter fi x ed c arbon
, ,
ash an d ,
s ulph u r .

*
Dr . H a a n el p 4 6 T h f gu e s i n th e R e p o r t e f e r t o th e
,
1 907 R po e r t, . . lb e i r ~
r .

to n o f p i g i on I n th i s b o o k th e au th o h a s ad o p te d th l o n g to o f p i g I o n a d
r . r e n r , n

o c c a s io n all y th e m e t i t n wh i c h i s alm o s t i d e n ti c al a s ag e i n g m o e g n e r al ly
r c o
, r e r e

w i th c o m m e i al p a c ti e
rc r c .
 ‘
1 28 T H E E LE C T R I C F U R N A C E .

zon e A of th e ide al furn ace an d th e p re h e at i n g t ub e tO z o n e C .

-
.

T h ere i s t h u s n oth i n g corre spon d i n g to zon e B i n wh ich t h e , ,

g as e s from th e l ower p art of th e furn ace c a n e xe rci se th ei r r e d u c

i n g act ion o n th e p reh e ate d ore I t r e m ain s to b e s ee n wh eth er
’

t h i s zon e will b e re q u ir e d i n pract ice .

A fte r d evi s i n g th e i de al fu r n ace of F i g 3 6 i n wh ich th e .

,

g re at es t adva nt a ge i s t ak e n of t h e f uel an d of t h e el ectri cal

p ower t h e a uth or fo u n d t h at i t h ad al re ady bee n I nve nte d an d
,

*
p aten te d by P a ul H eroul t wh o i n trod uce s t h e air by t uyere s ,

a t bb an d s uppl ie s t h e fu el by a v ertic al t ub e d own t h e ce n tre

,

o f th e f urn ace to t he l e v el a a .

C oll ecti n g th e re s ul t s t h at h av e b ee n ob t ai n e d i n t h e el ectrical

p rod uct io n of pig i ron from th e ore i t m ay b e s tate d th at th e ,

p roces s is t ech n ic ally s ucce s sf ul a n d g ive s b etter re s ult s t h an

"

t h e bl as t fu rn ac e i n re gard to t h e u s e of s ul p h u ro u s ore s t itan i ,

fe ro u s a n d s i m il ar refr actory ore s an d ore s i n a s t ate of p owder ,

s uch a s iro n s an d or ores wh ich h av e bee n conce n tr ated by .

m agn etic or s i m il ar p roces se s T h e p roce s s al so al low s of th e .

u s e of i nferior an d t h erefore ch e ape r fuel ] ,

Th e pow e r r e ,

q u ired i s abo u t Af of a h orse p ower ye ar d epen d in g o n th e -

,

ri ch ne s s of th e ore Th e f ue l u s ed for re d uci n g an d c a r b ur iz f

.

i n g th e I ro n I S 6 00 or 8 00 lb s of coke or ch arcoal wh ich ne ed .

,

n ot be of good q u al ity .

C omp ari n g t h e co s t of s m elt i n g by th e two proces se s ap art ,

fro m co n s i der ation s of sc al e work i n g w h ich w il l at fi r s t gre atl y ,

h amp er any elect ric s m el t i n g p roj ect t h e m ai n i tem s of cos t to ,

com p ar e a r e t h e f u el a n d t h e el ectri c p ow e r Th u s I n t h e .

e l ectri c f urn ace t h e ton of p i g i ron wo ul d re q u ire at pre se n t , ,

h ors e powe r y e ar an d 6 00 o r 8 00 l b s of coke o r ch arcoal

-
,
'
.
,

wh il e th e bl ast fu rn ace wo ul d re q u ire s om e or lb s .

of cok e for p u re a n d e as ily red ucibl e ore s an d a s m uch a s ,

lb s or . lb s wh e n poor ore s a n d cok e are u s ed

. Ba la n c m g .

t h e cos t of 74 h orse po w e r ye ar a ga i n s t th e cos t Of th e cok e th at

- .

i s s aved w ill gi v e a ge ne ral i de a of th e p r ice s of cok e an d pow e r

,

w h ich wo ul d p erm it of el ectri c s m el ti n g O f th e oth er ex pen se s .

o f t h e two m eth od s t h e electri c fur n ace rece ivi n g h ig h vol t ag e

, ,

c u r re n t at a cert ai n p rice wo ul d re q u ire t r a n s form er s a n d h e a vy

,

c abl es fro m t h es e t o t h e fu rn ace Th e c arbon el ectrode s m u st .

al s o b e s uppl ied Th e bl as t f urn ace o n t h e oth er h an d h as

.
, ,

t h e e x pe n s e of th e blowi n g e n gi n e s w ith th e ir att e n d an t boil ers ,

an d of th e e norm ou s h ot bl as t s tove s for preh e ati n g t h e bl a st .

‘
Pf L . T . H oul t A p p a a tu s
er . r for s m e l ti n g i r o n o re . U . S p at nt
. e M a r ch ,

1 9 06 . El e c tr o h m i al I n du s t y
c e c r , v ol iv 19 6 p 5
.
, 0 , . 1 2 .
 I R ON AND S T E EL . 12
9

Th e fu rn ace s con str ucted by H ero ul t an d by Kell er are s o

ve ry s m al l i n c omp ar i son w it h a m od er n bl as t fu rn ace th at t h e
ge ne r al ex p en s es wo ul d tel l ve ry m uch m ore he avil y o n t h e
electric proce s s Th es e furn ace s m oreove r nee d a n u mb er of im
.

p ro v e m e n ts before th ey re ac h t h ei r m os t s ati s factory and

eco nom ic al de s i gn Th e se i m prove m en t s w i l l n o d oubt a c
.
, ,

com p a ny a grad u al i ncre as e i n s ize and th e el ectric s m el ti n g of ,

iro n ore s w il l p rob ably becom e a c o m m e r c ia l fact i n local it ie s '

favorabl e to i t s op erat ion .

[ 11 .
—Th e D i re ct P r o d u cti on of Ste e l from I r on O re .

I t i s q u ite pos s i bl e to p rod uce m all eabl e i ron or s tee l d irectl y

from th e ore by heat i n g th e ore wit h a l i m ited am o un t of c arbon ;
,

e no u gh c arbon be in g pro v ided t o red uce th e ox ide of iron t o th e

m et al l i c st ate b u t n o t e nou g h to l e ave a ny e xce s s of c arbon

,
'

wh ic h wo ul d u n i te with th e red uce d m et al t o m a ke pi g i ron .

Th e p ri m itiv e m et al l u rgi s t s obt a i ne d wro u gh t i ro n an d steel i n

th i s m an n er by red uc in g th e ore i n s m al l furn ace s i n ste ad of
, ,

fi rs t m ak in g p i g iron an d th e n t u rn i n g th e pi g iro n i nto wrou gh t

i ron or s teel as i s th e p re se n t pract ice I ron n e arly fre e fro m .
,

c arbon i s h o w e ver very d i ffi c ul t to m el t an d i n th e l i ttl e forg e

, , , ,

or fur n ace of th e s avage th e i ron w a s n ot m el ted b ut obt ain ed ,

i n th e for m of a sol id l u m p wh ich w a s t h e n c u t up an d h am ,

m ered i n to s h ap e ; i t b ein g ofte n n ece s s ary to p ul l t h e fu rn ac e

dow n i n orde r t o e x t ract th e bloom of red uced iro n or steel .

W ith l ar ger bl as t furn ace s i t i s p os sibl e to m el t eve n p ure iron ,

b ut th e m elted i ro n wil l rapid ly ab sorb c arbon fro m th e fuel

e mpl oye d , a n d s o wil l becom e p i g i ron . I t follow s fro m th i s
a n d oth er re ason s t h at wro u gh t i ron a n d ste el c an not b e m ad e
,

i n a bl ast fur n ace I n th e el ectric s m elt i n g fu rn ace h oweve r

.
, ,

t h e con d it ion s ar e di ffere n t bec a u se as t h e h eat i s s uppl ie d , ,

e l ectric al ly a nd is n ot de pe n de n t u pon th e b urn i n g of fuel th e ,

amo u n t of c arbo n s upp l ied ca n b e adj u sted e xactly t o s u it th e

c he m ical n eed s o f th e ore s o as to m a k e a c arbon — fre e iron , ,

or any de s ired gr ad e of s teel .

C apt ai n S t a s s a n o h as e ffecte d t h is i n h is el ectric a r t

*
furn ace (F ig wh ich re se mbl es a n open h e arth s te el fu r n ace
.
-
,

in wh ich th e fl a me of b urn in g gas h as be e n repl aced by t he fl am e

of th e el ect ric arc Th e fu rn ace con s i s t s of a n iron cas i n g l in e d
.

with fi r e bric k E a nd w ith a n i n n e r l in i n g of m a gn es i te b rick s

-
, , ,

‘
E l e c tr o c h e m I n du s t y o l i p p 4 7 3 6 3 an d 4 6
. r , v . .
, . 2 , , 1 ; v ol . iii p
.
, .
39 1 .

Engi n eer i n g an d M i n i n g J o u n al J un e 1 sth 9 7 p r , , 1 0 , . 1 1 35 .

1
3 0 THE E LE C T R I C F U R NA CE .

D . A n arc i s m ai n t ai ned b etween th e e nd s G an d H of two ,

n early horizont al c arbo n el ect rodes th e h ol ders of wh ich wor k ,

t h ro u gh air t igh t s t u ffi n g box e s i n wate r cool ed c as i n gs J an d

- -
,

K . Th i s arr an ge m e nt p reve n t s t h e e sc ape of t h e fur n ac e g ase s ,

c ool s th e el ectrode h ol de rs an d p r e ve n t s t h e ox id at ion of th e e x

t ern al portio ns of th e el ectro des Th e n ece s s ary a mo u n t of
.

F ig . 37 .
—St a s san o F u rn a c e .

c arbon for m ak i n g i ro n or s tee l i s i ncorpor at e d wi t h t h e o r e i n

t h e form of bri q uettes wh ich are i n trod uc e d i nto t h e fu rn ac e
, ,

a n d h e ate d u n til t h e ch em ical re action s h ave t ak e n pl ac e an d th e

r e d uced m et al h a s m elte d Th e m et al an d sl a g are t he n t apped

.

o u t a n d th e oper at ion i s repe ated Th e c arbon m onox id e r e .

,

s u l ti n g from th e re a c tion of th e c arb on an d th e ore e sc ap e s ,

from th e fu rn ace by t h e h ol e F Th i s w as te g as m i gh t b e e m '

ployed for d ry i n g an d preh e at in g t h e ore .

D r H a a n e l w as u n abl e to s e e S ta Ss a n o s f urn ace at T u ri n

’
.
,

i n op erat ion as i t wa s o ut of rep air at t h e t i m e of h i s vi sit b ut

, ,

h e give s a de script ion of t h e furn ace an d p ri n t s a n accou n t of

*
t h e p roce s s wr i tte n by th e i nven tor Th e n ewe r for m s o f .

0
f urn ace are i ncl i n ed abo u t 7 fro m th e v e rt ical an d rot at e slowly
r o u nd th i s i n cl i ned ax i s wi th a vi ew to s t irri n g up t h e ch arg e
,

a n d all owi n g t h e h e at of th e arc to act m ore freely o n t h e ore .

I n som e fu rn ace s t h re e el ectrode s are u sed w ith t h ree p h as e ,

-

c u rre nt wh il e i n oth er fu rn ace s fo u r el ectrode s a r e e m ployed

,
.

S ta s s a n o g ives th e followi n g p artic ul ars with r egard t o a fu rn ac e

*
H a a n e l, E u o p an R p o
r e e r t, 1 904 , pp . 1 —4
78 21 .
 1
32 T H E E L E C T R I C F U R NAC E .

W i th re g ard to th e p rod uci n g p ure steel i n a

p o s s ib il i ty o f
s in gl e op erat ion fro m i mp ur e ore s th e co n dit ion s u n der wh ich ,

th e h urtful el e m e nt s s ulp h u r an d ph os ph or u s are remove d from

i ro n a n d s tee l m ay be co n s idered I n th e b l as t fu rn ace s ulp h u r
.
,
‘

i s rem oved fro m th e i ro n a n d p ass e s i nto t h e sl a g a s c al ci u m

s ulp h ide its re m oval i n th i s w ay be i n g m or e com plete as th e
,

f urn ace i s m ore s t ron gly re d ucin g a n d th e sl a g i s r ich er i n ,

l i m e ; th at i s wh e n th e con d iti on s are favor abl e for th e for m a

t ion of cal ci u m to comb i n e w it h th e s ulph u r Th e electri c .

f urn ac e m ak i n g p i g i ro n h a s m or e s t ron gl y r ed uc in g con d it ion s ,

an d c an c arry m or e l i m e i n t h e sl a g t h an i s p os s ibl e i n t h e bl a st
fu rn ace ; th i s e xpl ai n s its s uperior ab il i ty to el i m in ate s ul ph u r .

\V h en however t h e ore is s m elted d irectl y to s teel i n t h e el e ctri c

, ,

fu rn ace t h e con di tion s are far l es s re d uc i n g a n d th ere i s n o

, ,

re ason for ex pecti n g th e re m oval of s ulp h u r as c alc i u m s ul ph id e ,

eve n i n t h e p rese nce of a l i m ey S l a g I n th e op e n h e arth fu rn ac e

.
-

s u lph u r c a n b e re moved fro m s teel by th e actio n of a b as ic o r

“

li m ey sl a g b u t n ot very e as ily
,
Th e con d it ion s i n th e op e n
.

h e art h fur n ace are ox id i zin g i n ste ad of red u ci n g an d th e s ul p h ur ,

will b e re m oved as cal c i u m s u lph at e I n t h e el ectric s teel .

f u rn ace t h e s am e d ifli c u lty m ay b e e x p ecte d i n th e rem oval o f

t h e s ulp h u r .

W it h re gard to t h e el i m i n at ion of p h osphor u s th e con d it ion s

are q u it e th e revers e a s t h i s el e m e n t c an o nly b e re move d by
,

ox i d at ion I n t h e bl as t f ur n ace a ny p h osp h or u s i n t h e ch arg e

.

fi nd s its way i nto th e p i g i ron an d th e Sam e t ake s pl ace i n th e

-
,

e l ectric fu rn ace m ak i n g p i g iro n ; b u t i n th e o p e n h e art h fu rn ac e -

with a stron gl y b asic sl a g t h e re m oval of ph osph or u s ca n

,

be s ati s factor ily accom pl i sh ed an d t h e s am e w il l h ol d good i n

,

th e prod uct io n of s teel d i rectly fro m t h e ore in th e el ectri c

f u rn ace i f th e sl a g i s l i m ey an d s u ffi cie ntly ox id i z i n g
,
.

I n t h i s co n nect io n s om e l aboratory e x peri m e nt s by M r J . .

W E va n s o n t h e d irect p rod uct ion o f steel fro m s ul ph uro u s an d

.

an d t it an iferou s ore s p os se s s m ore i ntere s t th a n wo ul d oth er

w i s e at t ac h to s m el ti n g ex peri m e nt s on s o s m al l a scal e F ro m .

o re cont ai n i n g 1 % of s ul ph u r Mr E van s obt ain e d s ampl e s of

,
.

s teel cont ai n i n g o 17
% an d . of s ulph u r
,
Th es e .

s teel s wh il e not s uffi c ie n tly fre e fro m s ul ph u r for com m erci al

,

use , s how a con s ide rabl e re m oval of th at el em e n t b ut as th e ,

res u l ts wer e obt ai n e d i n a s m all el ectr ic cr ucibl e h ol di n g only

”

a n o u nce of ore i t s eem ed do ubt fu l wh et her th ey co ul d b e de

,

p en de d o n to b e rep e ated on a l arge r s c al e The re c a n b e .

'
l ittl e d oub t th at i n a n el e ct ric s teel m ak i n g f u rn ace s uch a s t h e-
 I R O N A ND S T EE L .
33

He ro u l t or t h e S t a s s a n o i n W t h t h e m ol te n s teel ca n be w as hed
'
by th e re pe at e d add it io n a n d re moval of l i mey sl ag s any s ulph ur ,

a n d ph osphor u s c an ult i m atel y be re mov e d ; b u t a s t h e prod u c

t io n of stee l d irectly fro m th e ore c an b e accom pl ish e d m ost

ec o nom ic al ly i n s om e for m of sh aft f urn ace t h at i s a fu rn ace r e ,

s embl i n g t he H e ro ul t ore s m elt i n g f urn ace wh ich i s operate d

-
,

cont i n uo u sly i n ste ad of i nte rm itte n tly l i ke t h e ste el furn aces

,
.

I t w as th erefore a q ue st ion of t h e gre ate s t i mport ance i n r e ~

g ard t o th e pos s ibl e p rod uct ion of s teel d irectly fro m th e ore to ,

dete rm i n e wh eth er i n a con t i n uo u s s m e l ti n g f urn ace steel free ,

from s ulph u r an d p hosphor u s co ul d b e p rod uced from ore s

c arry i n g t he u s u al p roport i on s of t h es e el e ment s Th e e x p e r i .

m e n t s of M r E van s coul d not be t ake n a s a n an swer to th i s

.

q u es tion a s h i s furn ace d id n ot ope rat e cont i n uou sly an d t h e ,

co ndit ion s were dec idedly di ffere n t fro m t h ose i n a cont i n uou s
furn ace . Th e a ut hor accord i n gly p roposed th e probl e m t o two
of h i s s t ude nt s Me s s rs W G B row n an d F E L ath e an d
,
. . . . .
,

e mbod ie d t h e re s ul t s of t h e i r wor k i n a p ap e r re ad b efore th e

C an adi a n M i n i n g I n st it ute i n M arch 1 07
9 T h e exp eri m en t,
s .

we re m ad e i n a s m al l sh aft fur n ace rese mbl in g th e f urn ace u sed

at S a ul t S te M ari e b u t l i ne d wit h b ur n t m agn es ite
.
,
As no .

c arbon co ul d b e u se d a s a l i n i n g for th e cr ucibl e of th e fu rn ace ,

el ectrical con nectio n wa s m ad e b y m e an s of an i ron rod p as s in g

t h ro u gh th e botto m of t h e fur n ace Th e power avail abl e w a s
.

rath er s m all b ut i t w a s fo u n d p os s ibl e to r u n t h e furn ace re g u

,

l a r ly for a few h ou rs at a t i m e p rod uci n g low c arbo n s tee l of

,
-

w h ich s om e two or t h ree po u n d s w ere t app e d at i nterv al s of abo u t

h a l f a n h ou r .

Th e ore u s ed w a s a p u re h e m at ite fro m L ak e S uper i or '

,

con t a i ni n g 9 7 % F e 2 O 3 of s il ica an d 0 6 8 % of al u m i n a
, ,
. .

C l ay s an d an d l i m e were add ed t o m ake a sl ag e q u al t o abo ut

, ,

h al f th e wei g h t of t h e res ul ti n g m et al a n d 1 % e ach of s ul ph u r

-
,

an d p h osphor u s w as add ed i n t h e form of m on os ulph i de of iron

a n d c al ci u m p h osph ate .

A n al ys es of th e steel a n d S l a g from a n u mber of t h e t ap s

are give n i n t abl e x i i i a n d S how ve ry cl early th e e ffec t o f
.
,

lowe ri n g th e c arbo n i n th e ch arge a n d s o p rod uci n g ste el in ,

stea d of p i g i ron I f s uffi c i e n t carbon h ad bee n added i n t h e

.

c h arge a pi g iron woul d h ave bee n prod uced rich i n c arbon an d

,

s il icon low i n s ulph u r an d wit h m ore t h an I % of phosph or u s

, , .

XV ith t h e s m aller a mo u n t of carbo n wh ich was ch arged i n t h ese

experi m e n ts t h e re s ul ti n g i ron con t ai n ed l es s carb on an d s il icon
,

an d m ore s ul ph u r (s e e N o 1 i n t h e t abl e )
, A S th e carbo n i n
. .
134 T HE ,
E LE C T R I C F U R NAC E .

th e ch arg e wa s d i m i n i sh ed th e re s ult i n g m e ta l c on t a in ed st il l
,

l e s s c arbo n an d s il icon an d at th e s a me t i me th e ph osphor u s i n

,

th e s teel was p rogre s s ivel y red uced u nt il i n th e lowe st c arbon ,

st eel s t h e ph osph or u s beca m e l ow en o ug h for str uct u ral p u r

p oses . Th e s ulp h ur o n th e oth er h an d wh ic h wo ul d h av e
, ,

b ee n n e arly el i mi n ate d i n th e pr od uct ion of p i g i ron i ncr e as e d ,

wit h t h e decre ase of carbon n o doub t b ec a u s e th e re w a s l es s

,

opport u n ity for its re m oval a s c alc i u m s ulph ide ; b ut fu rth er d e

cre as e o f carbo n re s ult i n g i n a h i gh ly ox i dis ed sl ag s erved t o
, ,

re move a port ion of t h e s ulph u r p rob ably a c al ci u m s ul ph ate i n

, ,

t h e s am e w ay t h at i t is re m ove d i n th e b asic op e n h e arth fu rn ace -

.

TAB L E XI I I .

Ste e l an d S la g A n alys e s .

I 2
3 4 5 6 7
6 088 0 88 0 88 09 1
1 1 .
54 .

. 1
5 . 24

9 1 .
54 65 68

S l ag 3 4 5 6 7
FeO
S iO z
CaO
MgO
Al 3

Th e fi rs t th ree a n aly s e s are t a ke n fro m o n e r u n of th e

fu rn ace w h il e th e l as t fo u r are fro m a n oth e r r u n i n wh ich l e s s
, ,

c arbon w as ch ar ged Th e s eco n d r u n appe ars to S h ow t h at th e

.

c arbon I n t h e steel co ul d b e lowered to ab o u t p er cen t b u t .

,

th at any fu rth er red uct ion i n th e a mo u n t of c arb o n ch ar ged ,

m erely i n cre ase d t h e al re ady l ar g e p erce n t a g e of iron ox id e in

t h e S l a g w ith o ut l owe ri n g a ny furth e r th e c arbo n i n t h e steel
,
.

Mr . E v an s appe ar s to h ave h ad s t ill m ore ox i di s i n g con d it ion s ,

red uci n g t h e c arbon i n h i s s teel t o p er ce n t wit h a cor .
,

re spon d i n g red uct ion i n th e s ul ph ur wh ich h e s uccee ded in ,

loweri n g t o p er ce nt i n on e e xp eri m en t
. Th e l owes t .

s ulph u r i n th e p rese n t s e rie s of ex p eri m e n t s w as p er ce n t .

W h il e t h es e a n aly se s only repres e n t t h e res u l t of s m el ti n g

a n i ron ore i n a n el ect ric fu rn ace wit h p art ic ul ar con d ition s o f
ch arge sh ape of f u rn ace c u rre n t d e n s ity e tc an d ch an ge s in
“

, , .
, ,
 36 TH E E L EC T R I C F U R NA C E .

C H APT E R VI

O th er U s es of th e E le ctric F u rn ace .

Th e p rod uct ion of iro n an d st eel i n t h e el ectric fu rn ace i s s t il l

i n i t s i n fa ncy ; an d w il l b e l i m ited by th e pr ice of el ectr ical en er g y .

Bu t th er e are m a ny oth e r u se s t o wh ich th i s so u rc e of h e at h a s

lon g bee n pro fi t ably appl ied a s h a s b ee n i n d icated i n t h e fi rs t
,

two ch apters . I n som e of t h es e p roces s es el ectrical h e at i s ,

alon e a bl e to p rod uce th e re q u i re d re s ul t wh il e i n other s th e ,

val ue of th e p rod uct an d t h e gre ater econ om y of t h e el e c tric a l

.

m e th od h as e n able d i t to s uppl an t t h e older p roces s e s eve n ,

t ho u gh th e l atter e m pl oye d ch e ap f uel a s th e s o urce of h eat

'

'
S o m e o f th e se u s es of th e el ectric fu r n ac e w ill now b e con s idered ,

an d th ey h ave been pl ace d for co nve n ie nce u n der t h e foll owi n g

he ad s
1 . Th e F erro Al l oys-
.

2 . G raph ite an d th e C arb id es .

3 . E l ect rot h erm i c P rod uct io n of Z i nc .

4 . M i scell a n eo u s u se s of t h e E l ect ric F u rn ace .

5 . E lectrolyt ic F u rn ace O per at ion s .

I .
—Th e F err o=A lloys .

Th e —
F e rr o=A lloys Th e al l oy s of iron w i th c ert ai n m et al s
.
,

s uch a s m a n g an ese ch rom i u m t u n gste n a n d t it an i u m or w i th

, , ,

th e m et alloi d s i l icon are ofte n k now n a s th e ferro s a n d a re

, ,

u s u ally e q u ival e n t to c a s t iron t h at is i ro n w it h a l ar ge perce n t

'

age of c arbon i n wh ich p art of t h e iro n h as bee n r e pl ace d by

,

o ne of t h e above m et al s or m et alloid s I n som e c as e s h o w .

,

ever carbo n is p re s en t only i n s m al l a m o u nt s or not at all a n d

, , ,

o n th e ot h er h an d m ore th an on e of th e al loyi n g m et al s m a y
,

b e p re s en t i n t h e s am e ferro Th e fe rro s are u sed i n t h e pro

.

d uct io n of steel a s conve n ie n t m e an s for i n trod uci n g i nto th e

s te e l th e m a n ga n es e or oth er m et al wh ich t h ey co nt ai n ; i t b e
i n g u s u ally l e s s cos tly to ob t ai n th e s e m e t al s a s ferro all oy s
th a n i n th e p u re s t ate an d t h e pre s e nce of t h e i ro n i s n ot o b
,
.
.

j e c t io n a b le i n add it ion s m ad e t o steel ; al th o u gh t h e c arbon ,

wh ich i s al so u s u ally p re s e nt i s som et i m e s u n de s i rabl e

, .

Th e m et al m a n gan es e re se mbl e s i ron i n m an y p art ic ul ars ,

b ut i s m ore di ffi c ul t t o red uce from it s ore s an d wh e n t h i s i s , ‘

e ffected i n t h e bl as t f u rn ace with i ron ore t o fu rn i s h en ou g h

,
 F E R R O A L L OY S .
37

'

i ron to col lect a nd all oy w it h t h e m an g ane se som e 2 2 or 3 ,

1

ton s of co ke a re re q ui red to p rod uce on e ton of th e 80 per

c e nt ferro m an ga nes e an d abo ut 2 0 per cen t of th e m a n g ane s e
.
-
,
.

i s los t i n th e sl ag owi n g to th e i mperfect re d uct ion of th e ore .

S uch a n operat ion i s very wasteful both i n fu el a n d i n th e ,

v al u abl e m an ga ne s e ore an d t h e elect ric fur n ace i s s o m uc h ,

m ore econom ica l i n bot h t h ese p art i c ul ars t h at i t c a n be u se d

i n com pet it i on w ith th e bl as t fu rn ace m et h od S i licon e ise n .
-
,

t h at i s l ow grade fe rro S il icon con t ain i n g som e 1 0 or 1 5 pe r

- -

cent of s il i co n c a n be m ade i n th e bl a st f urn ace by u si n g

.
,

s il icio u s ch arge s an d a gr eat ex ces s of fue l th e s il i co n be in g de ,

rive d fro m th e S il ic a i n t he ch arge I n t h e electric fu rn ace .

,

h owev er u s i n g q u ar tz a s th e sou rce of S il i con w i th coke t o

, ,

red uce th e q uart z t o t h e m et al l ic s t ate an d som e iron ore or ,

scrap iro n to a l l oy w it h t h e s i l i con a n alloy co nt ain i n g a s m uch ,

a s 80 pe r ce nt of s i l ico n m ay b e obt ai ne d ; an d t he electric

.

fu rn ace ferro s il i co n h a s l argely d i sp l aced th e bl as t furn ace p ro

-

d uct as th e cost of t he form er p e r u n i t of sil icon i s so m uch

, , ,

les s S om e othe r fe rro all oy s a re al so m ade m or e ch eap l y i n

.
-

t he el ectric furn ace .

Th e ferro al l oy s m a y be p rod uced i n el ect ric cr uc ibl e

-

f urn ace s s uch a s th e S i e m e n s vert ic al arc furn ace F i g 2 p 4

, ,
.
,
.
,

or th e H ero ul t ore s m el t i n g f u rn ace F i g 2 9 p 1 0 8 i n w h ich -

,
.
,
.
,

a c arbo n el ect rod e d i ps i nto a c arbon l in ed r ecept acl e w h ic h -

,

form s th e ot her e l ect rode I n s uc h a furn ace th e a l loy W I II .

u s ually ab sorb a con s iderabl e am o u n t of c arbon fro m the l i n i n g ,

a n d i f a c arbon les s al l o y i s re q u i red a fur n ace l i ke t h e H ero u l t ,

s t eel f urn ace

. F ig 2 3 p 8 7 s ho ul d be u sed i n wh ich tw o
,
.
,
.
, ,

c arbon el ectrode s are em pl oyed wh i ch nee d not tou ch th e ,

m olt e n m et al an d th e l i n in g of th e f u rn ace is n ot m ad e of
,

c arbon .

Th e elect ro m et al l ur gy of S i l icon i s de scribed b v Al bert -

Kell er w h o state s th at at L ivet wit h

*
,
H P he w a s abl e ,
. .
,

to t u rn ou t 2 0 ton s of 3 o per ce nt ferro s i l icon per d ay an d t h at ~

.
-
,

one to n of th e al loy req u ire s k i lowat t h ou rs for it s prod uc

tion fro m q u art z scrap i ron a nd coke th e furn ace s be in g e ach , ,

of 6 5 0 H P . .

Th e p rod uct ion an d prob abl e u se s of ferro t it an i u m a r e d is -

c u s s ed by A u g u st e J R os s i + wh o red uce s t in t a n ife r o u s i ron .

,

ores i n t h e el ectric fu rn ace e ith e r w it h carbo n or w ith t h e as ,

~

‘
ll e J o u n I o n and S t e e l I n s t
Ke r, r . r .
, 1 90 3 , v ol . i .
,
p . 1 66 .

+ R o s s i M i n e al I n du s t y
, ol i x 9 r r , v . .
, 1 03 , p .
7 15, a nd T an s
r . Am In s Min Eng s
. t . . .
,

v ol . xxx iii 9 3 p 9 .
,
1 11 , . 1 1 ,
1
3 8 THE E LECTRI C F U R NAC E .

s is t a n c e of m ol te n al u m i n i u m wh ic h Serve s to re d uce th e m et al ,

from it s ore H e h a s obt a i n ed alloy s w i t h fro m 1 0 to 7 5 p er

.

ce n t of t it a n i u m w h ich wh e n al u m i n i u m w as u s ed a s th e r e
.
, ,

d u c in g re a ge n t onl y con t ain e d a few t e n th s of on e p er cen t of

,
.

c arbon R os s i s t ates th at t itan i u m is n ot re al ly s uch a b u gb e ar

.

to th e iron m etall u rgi s t a s i s u s u ally s upposed b u t th at o n th e ,

cont rary fe rro t it an i u m a dded t o eith er pi g i ron or s teel

-
, ,

m arke dly i mp rove s th e m ech an ic al p ropert ie s of th e m et al In .

t h e c as e of steel h e s u g ge st s th at th e well k n ow n p roperty of -

t it an i u m of comb i n i n g w it h n it roge n m ay e n abl e i t to re m ove

t h i s g as fro m th e m ol te n m et al a n d i n t h i s way to i m prove it s ,

q u al ity A com p any h a s rece ntly be e n form ed t o m an ufact u re

.

fe rro t ita n i u m i n th e electric fu r n ace an d i s b u il d i n g a pl an t a t

-
,

*
N i agara F all s .

Th e m a n u fact u r e of ferro n ic kel ferro ch ro m e an d oth er -

,
-

all oy s of i ron t h at are u se d i n t h e p rod uct io n of steel a r e de

s cribed by O J S te in h a r t f r . F erro —ch rom e co n t ai n i n g from
.
,

5 0 to 6 0 pe r cen t of ch rom i u m w a s m ad e at o.n e t i m e by h eat ,

i n g ch rom i t e wi th ch arco al i n cr ucibl es a n d l at er i n s m all bl ast ,

fu r n ace s b u t i s n ow m a de al m os t e n ti rely i n th e el ectric

, , ,
‘

f urn ace T he W ill so n A l u m i n i u m C om p a ny e m ployed

.

a n d t urn e d o u t 2 00 t o 2 5 0 to n s p er m on t h of fe rro
ch rom e h avi n g 5 to 6 per cen t c arbon an d over 7 0 p er ce n t -

. .

ch rom i u m Th e i r wor k s at K an awh a F al l s W V a an d t h eir

.
,
. .
,

b u s i nes s an d p ate n t s rel at i ng to th e m an ufact ure of t he ferro

all oys h ave b ee n ac q u ire d by th e E l ectric al Met all u r gical C o m
p a n y I who
,
al so h ave work s at N i agara F all s § .

Th e G i rod F erro A ll oy W ork s h ave b ee n de scr ibed by D r -

.

R S H utton ” wh o d r aw s atte nti on to th e won d e rful develop

. .
,

m e nt of th e h yd ro elect ric al i n st all at ion s i n t h e F re nch A l p s

-

a n d t h e appl ication of t h i s power to electro m et all ur gy Th e -

.
~

t h ree wor ks of t h e S ociet e a nonym e E l e c tr o m e ta ll u r g iq u e P ro .

o

c e de s P a ul G irod h ave th e foll ow i n g a n n u al o utp u t ,

t on s of 5 0 % ferro S il icon -
.

ton s of 3 0 % ferro S il icon -

.

ton s of ferro ch rom i u m -

.

8 00 t o 9 00 ton s of fe rro t u n gsten -

.

A bo u t 5 0 ton s of ferro m olyb den u m -

.

5 t o 1 0 ton s of ferro van ad i u m -

.

E l t o h m i al I n d u s t y
*
ec r c l e c p 69 r , vo . v .
, . .

+ S t i nh a t T an s I n s t M i n a nd M t
e r , r l xv 9 6 p
. 8 . . e .
, vo . .
, 1 0 , . 22 .

I I
E l e c tr o c h e m i c a lndu s tr y ol v p 4 8 , v . .
, . 2 .

E l e c tr o c h e m i c al I n d u s v ol p
§ tr y v 69 , . .
, . .

R S H u t t o n E l e c tr o c h e m i c al I n d u s t r y v o l p
” . .
, , . v .
, .
9 .
1 40 THE ,
E LE CT R I C F U R NAC E .

F erro ch rom i u m -
.

C rucibl e furn ace . E lect ri c f urn ace .

I

3 8 5 1
3 2 -
47 2 7 0 5
4 -2
5

F erro t u n gst e n -
F erro va n ad i u m -
,

(E lectr ic f ) (E l ectric f )
I I
u r n ace . ur n ace .

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

O O

F erro —
m olyb de n u m ,

(E lectr ic fu r n ace ) .
I

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O O O O

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

I n d eal i n g with th es e a nd oth er p rod uct s of th e el ectric

fu rn ace i t sh o ul d b e re m e mbered t h at th ey w ill s o m eti m e s evol v e
,

ex plos ive g ase s if all owe d t o com e i n con t act wit h wat er Th is
' ‘

.
_

m ay b e d ue i n som e c as e s t o s m all q u ant it ie s of calci u m c a rb ide

form ed at t h e h i gh t e mp er at u re of th e el ect ri c fu rn ace b ut ih , ,

on e c ase t h at of s om e ferro s il i c o n wh ich p rod u ce d a n u mbe r

,
-
,

1 . R . S H u tto n E l
.
, e c tr o c h e m i c al I n d u s t ry , v ol . v .
,
p . 10 .
 FER R O A L L OY S . 1 4 1

of ex plos ion s i n L ive rpool a ye ars ago t h e ex pl os i v e ga s

fe w ,
*

w a s fo u nd to be p hosphoretted h ydrogen Th e alloy was ver y .

p ure cont a i n in g
,
n e arly 6 0 per ce n t o f s il icon with per c ent .
,
.

o f al u m i n i u m ,
p er ce nt of c arbo n . pe r cen t of c alc i um , ,

pe r ce nt . of m ag ne s i u m an d p e r ce n t of
,
p h os
p h o r us .

M an g ane se n ic kel ch ro m i u m t u n gs te n an d ot he r m et al s c a n
, , ,

al so be obt ai n ed i n a carbon free an d ne arl y p ure st ate s u it abl e -

,

for u s e i n th e m an ufact u re of spec i al variet ie s of s teel by t h e ,

G ol d sch m i dt p roce s s of m i x i n g th e ox i d e of th e m etal w i t h

powdere d al um i n i u m an d i gn it in g t h e ch arge by m e an s of a s m a l l

p ri m e r wh ic h st art s t h e re act i on betwee n t h e ox ide a nd th e

,

a luminium Th e re act ion once s t arte d cont i n ue s th rou gh ou t th e

.

m a s s p rod uci n g a n i nte n s e h e at wh ich i s s u fli c ie n t to m el t t h e

, ,

r ed uce d m et al a n d th e re s ul t i n g al u m i n a .

Th e m et al loid S il icon o n acco u n t of it s stron g affi n ity for ,

o xy ge n c a n be u sed i n ste ad of al u m i n i u m for th e red uct ion o f

,

s uch m et al s a s ch rom i u m t u n g ste n a nd m olyb de n u m from t h eir ,

o x ides a n d for obt ai n i n g a l loy s of t hes e m et al s w it h iro n o r

,

n ic kel M r F M Be c k e ti h as p ate nted t h is p roces s a n d d e

. . . .
L
,

scribe s t h e prod uct ion of ferro ch rom e low i n c arbon an d s il icon -

, ,

by feed i n g a m i x t u re of ch rom i t e an d m et all ic s il ico n in to a n

el ect r ic f ur n ace Th e ox i de s of iron a n d ch rom i u m cont ai n ed
.
,

i n t h e ch rom ite are red uce d t o t h e m e tal l ic st ate by react in g

,

with th e S il ico n accord i n g t o th e followi n g e q u at ion s :

2 C r2 O3 3 S i 4 C r
3 S iO 2 .

2 FeO Si : 2 Fe S iO 2 .

Th e s il ic a re s ult i n g fro m t h e re actio n i s sl ag ged off by th e b a s i c

i mp uri t ie s p r e se n t i n th e ch rom ite A n e xce s s of t h e ch rom it e .

i s u sed to p reve n t any of t h e s il icon re m ai n in g u nox idize d a n d

al loyi n g w ith t h e ferro ch rom e -
.

M r B ec ket t al so p ate n t s t h e u s e of s il icon or ferro s il icon for

.
-

red uci n g m et al s p art ic ul arl y t h e m et al s molybde n u m an d ,

va n adi u m fro m t h e ir s ulph ide ore s

,
Th e followi n g eq u at ion .

s hows th e act ion wh e n s il icon a nd m olyb den ite are u se d

M OS2 Si : Mo S iS 2 .

"
A D up
. a nd M B Llo y d J ou n I o n a nd S t l I n s t 9 4 N o
re . .
, r . r ee .
, 1 0 , . 1 ,
p .
30 .

+F M B k . U S p at nt . E l o h m i al I nd u s t y v l
ec e t, . . e e c tr c e c r , o . v .
,
p . 2 37 .

IF M B
. k t U S pa nt . E l o
ec h m ieal I
, ndu s y l . . te e c tr c e c tr , vo . v .
,
p . 237 .
1
4 2 TH E E L EC T R I C F U RNA C E .

*
M r E F P r ic e h a s al so s ec ured a p ate n t for th e prod uct ion
. . .

of l ow c arbon f erro ch rom i u m etc by th e u s e of ferro s il i con

- -
,
.
,
-
.

H e ob t ai n s ferro s il icon i n a n el ectric f urn ac e a n d th e n t ap s it

-

i nto a s econ d el ectric f u rn ace whe re i t is m ad e to r e ,

act wi th th e ch rom i te for th e pro d uct ion of ferro ,

ch rom e .

II .
—Gr aph ite an d th e C arb i d e s .

Gra phi te —Th e el e m e n t ary s ub st anc e c ar b on ex is t s i n n at ur e

i n th ree d i sti nct form s A m orph o u s C arb on G raph ite an d t h e -

D i a m on d A m orph ou s c arb on ex i st s i n a n e arly p u r e s t at e in

.

s uch s ub s t anc e s as Ch arco al l am pbl ack p etrol e u m coke an d th e , ,

-
,

ord i n ary electric l i gh t c arbon s G r ap h it e der ives it s n am e fro m .

it s property of wri t in g o n p ap er an d is l ar g ely u se d for t h i s ,

p urpose s i n th e com m o n l e ad p e ncil P l u mb ago an d bl ac k “

.

l e ad are oth er n am e s for gr ap h ite wh ich d at e fro m a t i m e befor e , '

t h e t r u e n at u re of g rap h i te h ad b ee n d iscovere d a n d w h e n i t ,

w a s s uppos e d to b e closely rel ated to l e ad an d cert ai n of it s ore s + .

N at u ral grap h ite i s clas s i fi ed a s cry s t all i ne a n d am orpho u s th e ,

"

form er occ urs i n fl ake s or fl akey m as se s an d ca n e as ily b e freed

from as s oci ate d e art hy m atter wh il e th e l at ter w h ich m u s t n o t , ,

be con fus e d wi th a m orp h o u s c arb on m e n t ion ed above doe s not , ,

occ ur i n fl a kes an d is t h erefore not s o e as ily s ep ar ated fro m th e

,

cl ayey an d oth er i mp uri t ies w ith wh ich it is fre q u e ntly i nt im ately

a s s o c ia te d i C ry st all i n e gr aph it e is l ar gely u sed i n the m an u
fact ure of p encil s cr ucible s a n d l ub ric an t s , w hil e th e l e s s v al u
,

abl e a m orpho u s gr aph i te is ut ili zed for p ai n t s an d fo u ndry faci n gs .

Th e gr ap h it e from th e Borrowd al e m i ne s i n C u mb erl a n d alth ou g h ,

am orph o us w as fam o u s for m a ny y e ars as t h e be s t for m ak in g

,

pe ncil s ; bei n g of gre at p u rity .

Th e d i a mo n d t h e re m ain i n g for m of c arbon is r em ark abl e

, ,

for its gre at h ard ne s s i ts crys t all in e for m an d its tr an sp are n c y , ,

wh e n p ure I t h as b ee n p rod uced art i fi c i al ly by cry st al l izat io n

.

u nde r p res s ure from a sol u tio n of c arbon i n m ol ten i ron b ut th e” , ,

proces s h as not att ai ne d a ny co m m erci al s ucce s s § .

G raph ite d i ffers fro m a m orph ou s carbon i n t h e f o llo w m g

‘

art ic ul ar s — I t h as a som ewh at h i gh er speci fi c gravity it is a

p ,

*
E . F P r i c e U S p a te n t
.
, E l e c tr o c h e m i c al I n d u s tr y v o l v p 7 8
. .
, , . .
, . 2 .

+ G r ap h i t e :i t s fo r m a t i o n a n d m a nufa c t u e b y E G A c h e s o n J ou r n F r a nkl i n r , . .
, .

I n s t i t u t e 89 9, 1 .

G a p h it b y E K J ud d M i n e r al I n d u s t y v o l x i v p
I r e, . .
, 3 9 r , . .
, . 0 .

A t ifi c i a l d i am o nd s E l e c t o h e m i c al I n d u s t y v ol i v p
§ r ,
r c 3 4 3 r , . .
, . .
1 44 TH E E L E C T R I C F UR NAC E .

*
Th electric fur n ace p rod uct ion of gr ap h ite i s ill us tr ate d in
e -

F i gs 3 8 a n d 3 9
. Th e form er s h owi n g a f u rn ace for t h e con .

ve rs ion o f a nth racite i nto b ul k graph ite wh il e t h e l atter ,

ill us tr ates th e g r a p h it izatio n of electrode s or ot h er art icl e s of

a morpho u s c arbon .

A nth r ac it e h as b e e n s el e c ted a s t h e m os t s u it abl e m ateri al

for t h e p rod uction o f g r a p h ite i n b ul k Th e i mp u ritie s wh ich
’

.
.

a r e d i s s em i n ated th ro u gh i t servi n g a s c arb ide form i n g m ateri al s -

wh ich re nder p os s ibl e i ts co nve rs io n i n to gr aph ite Th e g r a p h ite .

fu rn ace con s ist s as is sh ow n i n F i g 3 8 of a lon g tro u gh wh ich ,

.
,

c ont a i n s t h e an th r acite an d of two el ectrod es wh ich a r e s it u at ed ,

at the e n ds of th e f urn ac e A s th e col d an t h rac it e i s a v e ry poor .

con d uctor of el ectr icity a core C of c arbo n rod s i s n eede d to , , ,

c arry t h e c urre n t u nt il th e ch ar ge becom es h e ated T h e fu rn ace

,
.

c on s i st s of a p er m ane n t b ase B a n d e n d w all s A A wh ich s u p , , , ,

port th e el ectrodes Th e s ide w all s D D are not p er m anen t b ut .

, ,

c a n b e p ull e d down afte r a r u n Th e b as e of t h e furn ac e is .

s how n s upported on b rick s so as to all ow of ai r cool i n g b ut th is -

,

p rec a ution i s n ot alway s t ake n Th e el ect rode s a r e m ad e of a .

'

n u mb er of gr ap h ite rods E wh ich are s e t i n a bl oc k o f c a r b o n , ,

as s how n i n th e s k etch ; electri c cont act b e i n g m ad e by a term i n al

p l ate L wh ich m ay b e w ater cool ed
, ,
A bove th e C h arg e of -
.

a nth racite H i s pl ace d a cover K of som e good h e at i n s ul at in g

, , , ,
-

m ateri al wh ic h s h o ul d al so b e a very p oor co nd uctor of el ectricity

,
.

I n an acco u n t of th i s fu rn ace wri tte n i n 1 9 0 2 by P rof J W . . .

R ic h a r d s n i t i s s ai d t o b e 3 0 f e et l o n g an d for m e d of a t ro u gh
L

'

2 feet s q u are l i ne d o n b otto m an d s id es wi th bloc k s o f c o m p a c t

,

c arbor u n d u m 6 i nch e s t h ick S uch a f ur n ace h el d a ch ar ge of .

ab ou t 6 ton s of an th raci te coal g ro u n d to th e S ize of r ice a n d , ,

t h i s wa s graph it ized i n twe nty h o u rs Th e a ut hor i s i nfor m ed by .

t he A ch eson G raph ite C om p any t h at n o refr actory l i n i n g i s n o w

e m ployed A s th e t e mp erat u r e o f form at ion o f g r aph i t e i n th is
.

f urn ace i s al mos t cert ai nly over i t m u s t b e wel l above

t h e m elt i n g poi n t of ord i n ary fi r e cl ay b ric k s an d a fur n ace s u ch -
,

*
E .G A h s o n U S p at nt
. c e Ma h 3 P o du i n g g aph i t b y h t
, . . e rc 1 , 1 9 00 , r c r e ea

i n g a n h a i t t E l o h m i al I n du s t y l i v p 4
t r c e , e c .
, e c tr c e c r , vo . .
, . 2 .

M an ufa t u i n g g aph i
c B i ti s h p a t n t
r of 9 b y O I m a y o f th
r Int te , r e 1 01 , . r , e er

a t io n al A h s o n G a ph i t C o m p an y E l t o h m i s t an d M t allu g i s t
.

n c e r l i p 3 e , ec r c e e r , vo . .
, . 1 1 .

M an ufa tu i n g o f a t i f i al g aph i t f o m h a o al J W kb k
c r i ll s a t d
r ic r e r c rc , . ec ec er, u tr e ac

c o u n E l t o h m i al I n du s y l ii p 44
t, ec r c e c tr , vo . .
, . 2 .

P o s s o f M ak i n g G aph i t E G A h s o n U S Pa t n t
r ce E l t o h mi al r e, . . c e , . . e , ec r c e c

I ndu s t ry, v ol . i .
, p 3 . 1 0 .

+Th e El e c tr o h e m i al I nd u s t
c c r e i s o f N i a g a a F alls J r , . “7 . Ri ha ds
c r , E l e c tr o c h e m .

I n du s t ry , v ol . i .
, p .
52 .
G RA P H I T E A ND CAR B I D E S . 1 45
 1
4 6 T H E E LEC T R I C F U R NAC E .

is sh o wn i n F ig
co ul d only be o perated i f th e botto m a n d
'

as .
3 8
wall s were compose d of or l i ne d with som e S p eci al l y refr actory
m ate ri al or i f i t were pos s ibl e t o l e ave a l ayer of u nconv erted
,

a n th r acite b etw e e n t h e fu rn ac e w all s a n d th e re m ai n der of t h e

ch arge .

B y i ncre as in g t h e cros s s ect io n of t h e ch ar ge t h ere wo ul d b e

les s d an ge r of th e wall s b eco m i n g overh e ated a n d th e g r a p h it iz a
tion of th e ce nt ral por tio n of th e a n th r ac ite m i ght s till b e e ff e c t e d
provi ded t h e el ect ri c c u rre n t co ul d b e conce ntr ated on t h i s p or
tion i n ste ad of spre adi n g over th e wh ol e of t h e Cros s sect i on A t .

t he be gi n n i n g of th e r un t h e c urre n t w ill p as s al m os t en t irel y

t h ro u gh th e core of c arbo n rod s a n d wh e n th i s con d uct in g core
”

1 5 a u g m e nted by th e convers i o n of t h e s urro u n d in g an th rac i t e in to

g ra p h ite i t s electr ical re s i st ance

,
will becom e s o l ow th at t h e re
w ill b e l i ttl e te n de ncy for t h e c urre n t to p as s t h ro u g h t h e Oute r
*
port ion s of th e ch arge .

Th e el ect rod e f u r n a c e t F ig 3 9 re se mbl e s th e graph it e _

,
.
,

fu rn ace i n c on str uct ion Th e el ectro de s or oth e r art icl e s to b e .

grap h it ized are pl aced i n p il e s w i th th ei r l e n gt h acros s t h e l e n gth

of t h e fu rn ace i n order to k eep t he el ect ri c al res i st an c e as h i gh ,

a s pos s ibl e Th ey are s u rro u n ded by b rok e n coke wh ich h a s

.
,

a m oder at ely h i gh resi st a n ce s o th at m os t of t h e h e at iS d e '

v e lo e d i n t h e p arti n g l ay e rs of coke
p an d t h e c urr e n t w i l l t e n d ,

t o p as s t h ro u gh th e electrode s i n th e m iddl e of th e fu rn ac e ra t her ,

'

t h an t h ro u gh t h e o ute r p art s of th e f u r n a c e wh i c h are fi lle d wi th

th e b roke n cok e T h e cok e will con s eq u e ntl y s e rv e as a j ac k e t .

to ret ai n th e h e at a n d preve n t t h e ove rh e at i n g of t h e w all s of th e

f urn ace Th e di m en s ion s of t h e fu rn ace de pe n d u pon t h e S l ze
.

of t h e electrod e s wh ich c an b e as m uc h a s 4 feet i n l en g th A ,

.

cove r of som e h e at i n s ul at i n g s ub st an ce i s e m pl oyed b ut t her e i s -

,
.
‘

no refractory l i n i n g of c arbor u n d u m etc s uch a s wa s d e scr ib e d ,

.
,

i n t h e p ate n t s an d e arl ier ac cou n t s .

I n th e pl an t of t h e I n te rn at ion al A ch eso n G raph it e C om

p any at N i a gar a F all s th e re are 6 fur n a ce s of 7 5 0 or 8 0 0 K W . .
,

a n d 1 0 furn ace s of K W T h e tot al power e mploy e d is . .

Co m p a
*
a c c o un t o f th e m a nufa t u e o f s o f t g aph i te wh e r e an Ou te
re th e c r r ,
r

p o r tio n r j a k e t o f p o o rl y on du c t i n g m a t e i al i s p ov i d d
o c c r r e .

+ G r aph i t iz i n g ele c t o d e s and o th e r ca bona eou s a ti l e s P a t e n t a p p li c a t o n

r r c r c . I ,

N ov e mb e r 3 r d 9 w i th i llu s t a t i o n o f e l e c t o d e fu n a e
2 ,
1 00 , E l tr o h e m i s t an d r r r c . ec c

M e t allu g i s t v o l i 9
r p 54 , . .
,
1 01 , . .

T h e R u th e b u g and A c h e s o n F u n a c e s F A J F i t z G e r a l d E l e c tr o c h e m i c al I
n r r , . . .
,
n

d u t r y v o l iii
s , p 4 7 . .
, . 1 .

E G A c h e s o n U S p a te n t
. . J anu a y 7 th 899 an d . J un e 7 th
. r 1 , 1 , 1 ,

M e n t i o n s c u r e n t an d s iz e o f fu n a c e E l e c tr o c h e m i cal
'

19 G a p h i te
02 , rl e tr o d e s e t c e c , r r
p
.
,

I ndu s tr y l iv , 4 vo . .
,
“

. 2 .
 1 48 TH E E L E CT RI C F U R NA C E .

A c h e s o n G ra p h it e i n ot he r p u bl i sh e d p a p e r s t and ,

fro m wh i c h th e followi n g p o i n t s m ay be s u m m ari z e d Th e r e al .

d e n s ity of n at u ral gr aph ite an d of th e A che son graph it e ,

el e c trod e s i s wh il e th e r e al d e n s ity of am or p ho u s ca r bon

vari e s from to Th e graph ite e l ect rod es a r e v e r y p u r e
c ont ai n i n g c ert ai nly l e s s t h an a n d ofte n only of im
p u r i ty I Th e el ectrical
. con d ucti vity of th e gr a p h it e e l ect rode s
is abo u t fo ur t i m e s th at of a m orph o u s c arbo n el ect rode s an d t h e ,

cros s s ection of a n el ect rod e c a n b e p roport ion at ely d e cre ase d

wh e n th e gr aph ite vari ety is e m ploye d G r aph it e el ectrode s a r e .

fo u n d t o h ave a far lo n ge r l ife th a n t hos e of am or p h o u s c a rb on

w h e n u s ed i n a vari ety of el ectrolytic p roce s s e s ; the r at e of cor

r o s io n a nd d i s i nte gr at io n b ei n g very m uch l e s s § Th e gr aph it e .

el ect rod e s h ave a noth er v al u abl e p roperty n a m e ly th at of e asy , ,

c u tt i n g or m ach i n i n g I E l ectrode s of a m orph ou s c arbo n are v ery .

di ffi c ul t t o c u t an d m u s t u s u ally b e m o ul ded i n to a ny re q u ir e d
,

s h ap e wh il e th e A ch e son gr aph it e el ect rodes c an b e c u t wi th a

,

s aw drill ed th re aded etc s o th at all k i n d s of s h ap e s ca n

, , ,
.
,

re ad ily b e p rep ar e d from rod s or sl ab s of t h e graph ite In .

p art ic ul ar it i s poss ibl e t o avoid w ast i n g t h e e n d s of elect rod e s

, ,

by th e u s e of th re ade d con n ect ion s a s i n F i g 3 2 s o t h at wh e n ,

.
,

a n electrod e becom e s too S hort for f urt h er u s e an o th er i s att ac h ,

e d to i ts o uter e nd a n d t h e l e n gth e n e d el ectrod e c an b e fe d ,

s te ad ily forwa rd i nto th e f urn ace or elect rolyt i c t an k w ith ou t in .

te r r u p tio n of t h e proce s s or w ast e of el ectrod e I n el e ctrolyt ic .

wor k com pos ite el ectrode s a r e ofte n u sed ; a sl ab of gr aph it e

,

s erve s as th e work i n g el ectrode be i n g i m m erse d i n th e e lc tr o ly te , ,

a nd on e or m ore grap h ite rod s wh ich are th re ad e d i nto th e S l ab ,

se rve to s upp ort i t a n d l e ad i n t h e el ect rod e c u rre n t .

*A h s o n G aph i t E l
c e r e e c tr ode s . P am phl et by Th e I n t e r n a t i o n al A h s o n G aph i t
c e r e

C o m p an y .

+ G aph i t Erl e e c tr ode s i n El e c tr o m e t allu r g i c al P o ss s

r ce e . C L C oll i n s A m
. .
, er,

E l e c tr o c h e m . p 53 So c .
,
v ol . i .
, . .

U s e s of A c h e s o n G aph i te i n M t allu g i c al R e s e a r c h W M e A J oh n s on E l e c tr o
- r e r , . .
,
~

C h e m i c al I n d u s t r y v o l ii p 345 , . .
, . .

G aph i te e l e t o d e s f o r e l e c tr i c fu r n a c e w o k E l e c t o c h e m i c al I ndu s tr y v ol i v
r c r r ,
r , . .
,

p 5 3
. 1 T h e A c h e s o n G a ph i t e C o m p an y s up pl i e d
.
p ound s o f g r aph i ti z e d
r

e l e c t o d e s d u i n g th e Y a
r n d i n g J uly t 9 6
r e r e I s , 1 0 .

T h e p am phl e t o n A h e s o n G aph i t e E l e c t o d e s d a ted 9 s t a t e s t h a t th e

I
c r r ,
1 02 ,

p e n t a g e of i m pu i t i s av e r a g e s ab ou t p a t i n
rce r e an d q uo t e s an e xp e r i m e n t i 1 r n

wh i h th e i r e l e tr o d e s y i ld d
c c pe ent o f a sh A l a te r l e afl e t o n A ch e s o
e e r c . . n

G r a ph i t e s t a t e s t h a t th e l c t o d e s c o n t a i n pe cent o f p u e g r aph i t i c c a rb o n
e e r r . r .

§ G aph i t e E l e c t r od e s i n E l e c t r ol y t i
r W o k b y C L C oll i n s E l e c tr o c h e m i c al I n c r , . .
,
‘

d u s t y v ol i
r ,
p 6 . .
, . 2 .

” A d ap t ab i l i ty o f A ch e s o n G r aph i t e A r ti c l e s or E a s e o f M a h i n i n g A che s on , c .

G r aph i te C o m p an y 9 4 an d p ap e r b y C L C oll i n s E l e c tr o c h e m i c al I ndu s tr y v o l LL

, 1 0 , . .
, , .
,

p 77. 2 .
 G R A P H I T E AND CA R B I DE S .
1
49

Mr A ch e son h a s rece n tl y s ucceeded i n p rod uci n g a specially

.

soft v ariety of g raph i te wh ic h i s fo u n d t o be a very e ffi c ient

*
l ubric ant .

I t i s m ade i n t he electric furn ace from an th rac ite or othe r

form of a morp ho u s c arbon to wh ich a l arger amo u nt th an u s ual of
carb id e for m i n g m at er i al h a s bee n ad ded S il ica i s preferred a s .

a n ad dit ion bec a u s e i t doe s n ot for m a fus ibl e c arb i de

,
The .

a m ou nt adde d bei n g far gre ater th a n i s adde d i n th e m an u

fact ur e of gr aph ite el ect rod es or is prese n t i n th e conversion of ,

a nth raci te i nto b ul k graph ite b u t it is l es s t h an wo ul d be r e ,

q ui red for m ak i n g a c arb id e w ith t h e whol e of th e carbo n The .

fol l owi n g s peci fi c c ase i s c o rit a in e d I n t h e p aten t app li cat i on .

e l ectr i c furnace ha v i n g a l en g th o f 1 8 feet bet w een term i na l

An ,

e l ectrodes w a s p ro v i ded wi th a start i n g core Con s i st i n g o f a g ra p h i te

,

r o d / é i nch i n d i ameter T h e act i v e zone 1 8 i nches i n d i ameter sur ,

roun d i n g t h i s core w a s fi l l ed w i th a m i xttir e o f carbonaceou s mater i a l

.
,

and carb i de form i n g ox i de T h e mater i a l s u sed i n th i s s p ec i fi c i n

-
.

stance were anthrac i te coa l g round to p ass throu g h a i nch mesh ,

-
,

m i xed w i th sand i n the p ro p ort i on o f 6 5 p e r cent coa l and 3 5 p e r cent

,
. .

sand the a s h conta i ned i n the coa l be i n g ca l cu l ated as a p art o f th e

,

sand content o f the m i xture C om p l ete l y surrou n d i n g the act i v e zone .

abo v e referred to w a s d i s p osed a m i xture o f anthrac i te coa l a n d sand i n

the p ro p ort i on o f I p art coa l to 2 p arts o f sand th i s m i xture ha v i n g a ,

much h i g her res i stance than that i n the act i v e zone a n d ser v i n g as an ,

e ff ect i v e h eat reta i ner T h e furnace be i n g char g e d i n th i s manne r the .

e l ectr i c current w a s turned o n a n d at the be g i nn i n g re g i stered 7 9 ,

v o l ts and 7 5 k i l o w atts A fter 2 hours the re g i ster s h o w ed 2 03 v o l ts .

,

and 2 00 k i l o w att s and after 9 / hours sho w e d 1 3 5 v o l ts a n d 800 k i l o

,

watts T h e re g i ster at the end o f 1 5 hours st i l l sho w e d 800 k i l o

.

watts wh i l e the v o l ts had dro p p ed to 7 0 as the resu l t o f decrease d

, ,

i nterna l re s i stance due t o the format i on o f g ra p h i te “ hen co l d the

,
.

furnace w a s o p ened and 9 6 2 p ounds o f soft u nctuou s and n o n ,

coa l esc i n g g ra p h i te w ere remo v e d from the act i v e zone .

”

Kr yp tol 1 a S peci ally prepare d m ateri al for u se a s a re s i stor

,

in el ect ric h eater s a nd furn ace s app ear s to con s i st of a m i xt ure ,

of graph i te an d a morph o u s c arbon in gr ai n s of n e ar l y un i form ,

o

size Th i s m ateri al c a n b e give n a h i gh e r or lower e l ectr i cal

.

c o nd u ct i v ity by varyi n g th e p roport ion of gr aph ite an d a morpho u s

carbon an d by ch an g in g th e s ize of th e grai n s of wh ich th e m a

,

t e r i a l i s form ed .

C a rb or u n d u m Th e d i sco v er y of t h i s carb id e b y E G . . .

A ch e so n i n w a s t h e fi rs t step l e adin g t o t h e con sid erabl e

in d u st r i e s at N i a gara F a l l s w i t h w h ich he i s n o w as soci ated ,

.

*
S o f t G aph i t E l t o h m i al I nd u s t
r l iv pp
e , ec r c e c ry , vo . .
, .
3 43 , and 5 02 .

+ S o f t G aph i t E G A h s on U S P a t n t
r e . . . c e , . . e El e c tr o c h e m i c al I nd u s t ry ,

v ol . iv p .
, .
502 .

I K r y p t o l' , El e c tr o c h e m i c al I nd u s t ry , v ol . ii p p
.
, .
333 , an d 463 , v ol . iii p p
.
, .
5, 1 2 7,

and 1 5 7, and vo l . iv p p 48
.
, 5
. 1 , 2 1 0, 2 0, 2 96 , an d 3 44 .

§ Se e p ag e 10 .
 I SO THE
. E L EC T R I C F U R N A C E .

Th e m et al s il ico n i s p erh ap s th e m os t ab u n d a nt m et al i n th e
worl d form i n g n e arly 5 0 % of th e wi dely sp re ad s ub st an c e s il ica
, ,

w h ich i s th e ox i de of s il icon I t s a ffi n i ty for oxy ge n i s s o gr e at .

,

h owever t h a t u nt il th e adve n t of th e el ectric f urn ace i t co ul d on ly

,

be i sol ated w it h t h e gre at e st di ffi c ul ty I n t h e h i gh er r an ge s of .

t em p erat u re afforde d by t he elec t ric c urre nt th e m et al is n ot on l y .

r e a d il d d fro m i t s ox id e by m e an s of c arbon b u t th e r e
‘

y r e u c e .

d u ce d m et al c o m b i n e s w ith carbon t o for m a carb ide h avin g th e

form ul a S i C Th i s c arb id e i s a m orp h o u s wh e n i t is fi r s t form ed
.
~ ~

b ut on be in g m ore stro ngly h e ate d i t cry st all ize s an d is th e n

know n as carbor u n d u m Th e for m at ion of the carb ide m ay b e .

r ep re se nted by th e fol l owi n g e q u ation

'

S iO z 3 C S iC 2CO .

C ar b or u n d u m
i s p rod uce d by h e ati n g a m i x t ur e of cok e ,

s il icio u s s an d s awd u s t an d s al t i n a n el ectric fu rn ac e s uch a s i s

,

s hown i n oper at ion i n F i g 4 0 a n d d ia g r a m a tic a lly i n F ig 8 .

,
.
,

p 11 . Th e c h ar ge 15 m ad e a p p rox i m at el y i n t h e follow i n g p r o
.

port io n s — C oke s a nd s awd u st

,
a n d s al t , ,
,

t h e s a n d a n d t h e c arbon i n th e cok e an d s aw d u s t b e i n g
ne arly i n th e p rop ort io n i n d ic ated by th e e q u at io n Th e s a w .

d us t co nt ai n ed in t h e Ch arg e h a s th e e ffect of r e n d e r I n g i t m or e
p oro u s a nd o f allow i n g t h e gas es t
-
o e sc ap e m or e freely w h il e .

th e s al t i s fo u n d to facil it ate th e r u n n i n g of th e fu rn a c e -
.

L ater acco u nt s S h ow a l arge r proport ion of s al t an d a s m all e r

a mo u n t of s awd u s t i n t h e ch arg e J W R i c h ard s *
writ i n g i n . . .
,

1 02
9 a n d d e s cribi
,
n g a f u r n ace of 75 0 K W s ay s Th e tot al . .
, ,
“

c onte n t s of t h e f ur n ac e a r e abo u t p o u n ds of carbo n c or e ,

a nd th e m ix t u re red u c e d re p res e n t s ton s of c arbon m i x e d

with 6 ton s of s il ic a s an d an d ton s of s al t p rod uci n g i n a ,

th irty s ix h o u r r u n be twee n 3 a n d 4 ton s of com m e rci al

- -

c arbor u n d u m in c ry st al s o u ts ide of wh ich i s a q u ant ity of l i gh t

, _
,

gre e n a m orph o u s c arbor u n d u m f ul ly red u c ed b u t u n c ry s t al l i z e d , ,

a n d o ut s id e of t h i s th e u nch an g ed m ix t ure E G A ch e so n s . . .
’

U n it ed S t ate s p ate n t N o 5 6 0 2 9 1 M ay 1 9 th 1 89 6 t for a c a r

’

.
, , , ,

b o r u n d u m f u rn ac e of K W speci fi e s a m i x t u r e of . .

20 p art s (by w e i gh t ) of fi nely d ivi ded coal or c o ke ,

29
p art s of s an d 5 p art s of co m m on s al t a n d
,
2 p art s of s a w ,

d u st .

“'
Th e E l e c tr o c h e m i c a l I n d u s tr i e s o f Nia g a r a F all s J W R i c h a r d s E l e c tr o , . . ,

c h e m i c al I n d u s tr y v o l i p 5 0 , . .
, . .

-E G A c h e s o n U S p a te n t
. .
, .E l e c tr o c h e m i c a l I nd u s tr y v ol v p 7 9
.
, . .
, .

An e a rl i e r p a te n t F e b r u a r y 2sth 1 893 i s a b s tr a c te d in v ol v p 3 6
, , , . .
, . .
I
S Z T HE E LEC T R I C F U R NAC E .

Th e electrode s con s i s t of a n u mber of s q u are rod s of c arb on or

graph ite Wh ich are h el d by h e avy b ron ze h ol d ers F and G :
“ “

"

,
'

E l e c tr ic a l c o n ta c t w ith th e Carbon rod s be i n g re n dere d m ore

.
"

perfect by m e an s o f a s erie s of copper s trip s i nd icate d by bl ac k ,

' '
lin e s in F i g 8 w h ic h a r e l a i d b etwe e n t h e rows Of c arbon rod s
’

-
.
,
i

and are con nected to th e bron ze h ol d ers or d ir e c tly to t h e c able s

fro m th e b u s b ars Th e ge n eral con st r uct ion of th e f urn ace i s
.

S i m i l ar to th at of th e gr aph it e f u rn ace s t h e e n d wall s an d bottom ,

of th e fu rn ace b ei n g p erm a ne n t wh i l e t h e s id e w all s are l oosely ,

b u il t allowi n g t he c a r b o n a c o u s g as e s to e sc ap e an d b ur n as sh own
, ,

i n F i g 40 a n d are t ak e n d o wn betwee n th e oper at i on s to all ow of

.
,

e mp ty i n g a nd re fi ll i n g t h e fur n ace Th e el ectric al e q u ipm e n t i s .

s i m il ar to th at of t h e grap h ite fu rn ace s b ut th ere are m ore ,

el ectric al u n it s p ro v id ed as 3 7 5 0 K W fu r n aces an d 1 , ,
. .
,

K WV furn ace can b e op e r at ed at on ce

. .

Th e C arbor u n d u m fu r n ace h a s b een de scr ib ed by F A J . . .

F1tz G e r a ld wh o g ive s a sc al e drawi n g of a 7 5 0 K W fu rn ace

*
. . .

Th e fu rn ace w a s 1 6 % feet l on g 6 feet w i de an d 5 % feet h i gh , ,

'
i

i n s ide an d h as a core of cok e 1 6 fe e t l on g a n d 2 0 i nch e s i n

, ,

di am eter I I I th e p ate n t j u s t referred to a f ur n ace of

. K WV .

w a s s t at ed to h av e a co r e 8 feet lon g an d 1 0 i nch e s i n d i am ete r ,

com posed o f gra i n s -

of a n i nch i n d i am eter of c ok ed ,

b i t u m i n o u s coal .

A t t h e e n d of t h e ope rat ion th e c arbor u n d u m i s fou n d i n a

cyl i n dric al cry stal l i zed m as s s u I r o u n d in g th e cor e an d arou n d ,

th e c arbor u n d u m i s a l ay er of u ncry st all ize d c arb ide wh ich h a s

bee n c a l led c ar bor u n du m fi re s an d I n th e fu rn ac e fi g ured by .

F itz G e r a l d t he c arb or u n d u m cyl i n der i s 5 0 i nch e s i n d i a m ete r Th e .

l ayer of fi r e s an d i s o fteii 1 i nch or I % i n c h e s in t h i c kn e s s Th e

’

-
.

grai n s of coke com pos i n g th e core h a v e b ecom e partly graph itized .

They c a n be us ed a g a in a n d t h eir u s e w il l be bette r i n gen eral ,

.

th a n th at of fre sh coke a s th e res i s t ance of t h e core wi ll be l e s s

vari able wh en th ey are u sed Th e te mp erat u re of th e fu rn ace i s .

h i gh est i n th e m i ddl e t h at i s j u s t aro un d th e core a nd th e i n n er

, ,

p art of th e carbor u n d u m m ay be h e ated abo v e it s d i s sociat ion

t e m p e r a t u r e a n d b e co nverted i n to gr aph ite
_
t h e s il ico n be i n g ,
'

vo l at ilized an d d rive n i nto th e c o o le r p a r t s of th e fu rn ace Th e .

acci de n t al form at ion of graph ite i n th i s way l ed t o it s r e g ul ar

m a n ufact u re i n the A ch e so n fu rn ace Th e te mp e rat u re of th e .

c arbor u nd u m fu rn ace h as n ever bee n m ea s ured an d h as bee n s u p

°
pos ed to b e as h i gh a s 3 000 C Me as ure m e n t s by Me s s rs ,
. .

”
Th e
“
C a b o u n d u mF u n a
r r r ce, F . AJ . . F i t z G e r a ld , El e c tr o c h e m i al I ndu s t
c ry , v ol . iyf ,
 G RA P H IT E AND CAR BI D E S .
1
53

T u c ker a nd L am pe n p ut t h e d i ssoci ation t e m perat ure of car

boru n d u m an d th ere fore th e h otte s t p art of t h e fu rn ace a s
,
0
2 ,
2 20 C .

Th e con s u mpt ion of e nergy per po un d of c arbor u n d u m w a s

g ive n by J \ V R i ch ard s a s K A Y h ou rs
. Th e o ut pu t in
. . .

9 5 wa s
1 0 lb s I t s m a i n u se i s a s an abra s i ve bei n g .
,

used i n s tead of e mery i t i s m ade i nto w h eel s st i ck s hon e s etc , , , ,

.
,

th e m as ses of carbor u nd u m b e i n g cr u s hed w ashed and graded ,

in to powd ers of v ary i n g de gr e es of fi ne ne s s Th e se pow d ers are .

us u a l l y ce m e nted togeth er to form t h e carbor u n d u m art i cle s b y

m o uld i n g w it h k ao l i n a n d feld sp ar an d fi ri n g i n a k il n b ut a ,

*
m et hod h a s been d e v i sed for m ak i n g so l id bl oc k s of carbor u n d u m
by c e m e nt i n g t he gra i n s togeth er w it h th i n gl ue an d th en h e at i n g ,

i n th e e l ect r i c furn ace t o t h e t e m pe rat ure of the form at i on of

carbor u n d u m Th e gra i n s beco m e fi rml y ce m en ted to geth e r
.
.

The u se s of carbor un d u m a n d ca rbor u n d um fi r e s an d a s refractor y -

m ater i a l s h a v e bee n re fe rred t o i n C h apte r I V Th e C arbor u nd u m .

C omp an y are now e recti n g a pl an t at D u e s s e ld o r f i n G e r m a n v for

th e m an u fact ure of carb or u n d u m for t h e E u ropea m a r ke t f r n .

S il oxicon
Th i s t er m co v ers a se rie s of compo un d s of s il i con
.
,

c arbon a n d oxy gen h a v in g th e ge n eral form u l a S i C O w h i ch , x x ,

are p rod uced i n th e e l ect ric fu rn ace b y h eat i n g a m i x t u re of car

bon a n d s i l i ca i n wh i ch t here i s not en ou gh carbon to form car ,

b i de of s il i con with t h e w h o l e of t h e s i l i ca T h i s m ater i al w a s .

pate nt ed b y Mr A ch e son i n Th e p roport i on s i n d i cated

.

I n th e p ate nt are on e p art of p o w d e red c arbon to two part s of

p owdered s i l i c a Th e m ix t u re m u st n ot be h e at ed to the t e mpera
.

t ure of th e form at i on of carbor u n d u m b eca u se at t h at t e m perat u re ,

s il i xic o n d i s soc iat e s i n to c arbor u n d um s il icon a nd carbon m on ,

ox i de O n acco u n t o f th e d a n ger of overh eat in g it is de sir ab l e

.
,

to e m p lo v a f u rn a ce w i th a n u mb er of core s m od eratel y h eated ,

t h is a r ra n gem en t e n abl in g a l a rge vol u m e of th e ch ar ge to b e

h e ated to a near l y u n i form te mperat u re an d t h u s gi v in g a better ,

y i el d of th e s ilo x I c o n S uch a furn ac e i s s h o w n d ia g r a m a t ic a lly .

i n F i g 4 1 th e core con s i st i n g of a l arge n u mbe r of rod s of

.
,

g raph iti ze d carbon con n ected togeth er b y bein g fi tte d i nto bl ock s
c

(bf g r a p h ite I n th e furn ace s h own th e rod s are arran ged pa rt l y

’

r
i n ser i es a n d partl y i n pa rall e l X:of t h e enti re c u rre n t p as s i n g ,

th ro u gh each rod Th e graph i te b l ock s are s ho w n s upported on .

*F . A J . . F it z G e r a ld ,
U S . . p a te n t El e c tr o h e m i al I n du s t
c c ry , vo l . v .
, p .
70 .

+ E l e c t r o c h e m i c al I n du s t y o l i v p r , v . .
, .
3 48 .

i R e f r a c to r y M a t i al E G A h s on
er , . . c e , U S. . pat nt e 7 El e c tr o h e m i al
c c In
d u s try ,
vo l . i .
, p . 287 .
1
54 TH E E LEC T R I C F U R NAC E .

a l ayer of som e refractory m ate ri al on th e bottom of th e furn ace .

S ilo x ic o n t h e m os t u s u al form ul a for wh ich i s S i 2 C 2 O i s a loos e

, ,

po w dery gr ay gree n a morph o u s m ateri al an d c an re ad ily b e r e

-
,

m oved fro m t h e fu rn ace after t ak i n g dow n th e S id e w al l s by rak ,

i n g i t ou t from betwee n th e core s S uch a furn ace m i gh t b e e m

.

pl oye d for th e m an u fac tu re of am orph o u s s il icon c arb ide b ut ,

c o ul d n ot b e u s ed for t h e p rod uction of t h e crys t all ize d c a r b o r u n

d u m as th e sy ste m of core s w o ul d b e de stroyed after e ach op era

,

F ig 4 l
. .
—M u l tip l e C ore F u r n a ce

t ion . S il o x ic o n form s a val u abl e refr actory m ateri al an d it s ,

'

p rop ert ie s an d u s es h ave bee n de scrib ed i n C h a p te r I V .

C a l ci u m C arb i d e Th i s c arb i de i s u n ive rs ally k nown on a c

.

co u n t o f th e e as e wit h wh ich i t re act s with w ater l iber at in g th e ,

v al u abl e ill u m i n ant acetyl e ne Th e pos s ib il it ies s u g ge sted by th e

.

dis covery of th is p ort abl e g a s prod uci n g s ub st ance n at u rally le d

.
-

to a very r ap i d devel op m e n t of i t s m an u fact u re V ery m any d if .

fe r e n t form s of electr ic fu rn ace s h ave bee n devis ed for it s p rod uc

t ion a n d wh ol e book s h ave b een d evoted to a d e script io n of its
,
.

m a n u fact ure an d u s e s .
 THE E LEC T R I C F U R NAC E .

tem perat u re above t h e bo i l i n g p oi n t Of th e zi nc wh ich i s c o n s e ,

q uen tly g i ve n o ff as v apor p as si n g i n th at form o ut of th e retort , ,

a nd i s con de n sed to t h e l i q u i d m et al i n a co nde n se r fro m wh ich ,

i ! ca n be re m o v ed an d po ured i nt o m oul d s .

Th e res i d ue i s t h e n re m oved from t h e retort and th e opera

“

t ion repe ate d Th e retort s are h e at ed ex tern ally by coal or ga s

.

fi ri n g an d as th e ore m u st b e h e at ed to abo u t
,
or
0
,
2 00 F th e retort s c a n not u s u a l ly b e m ad e ve ry l arge an d
.
, ,

fre q ue n t l y onl y h ol d abo ut 1 0 0 po u nd s of t h e ore m ix t u r e from ,

wh ich i t wi l l be see n th at t h e cos t of l abor i n zi nc s m e l t i n g I S ‘

l i kely to be h i gh Th e u t il iz at io n of h e at i n t h e se fu rn ace s i s al so
.

very p oor o n accou n t of it s sl ow t r an s m i s s ion th ro u gh t h e wall s

of th e retort s th e h e at e ffi cie n cy of s uch a fu rn ac e be i n g g i ven
,

*
by P rof R ich ard s a s u nde r 7 pe r ce n t
. A t t h e h i gh t e m p e rat ure .

of z in c d i st ill at ion t h e retort s only l as t ab ou t a m ont h an d t h e ir ,

ren ew al form s a co n s i d erabl e ite m of e xp en se O th er d i ffi c ul ti e s .

are m et i n t he con de n s at ion of th e zi nc vapor as th i s doe s n ot all ,

col l ect i n th e l i q u i d st at e b u t i n p art a s a powd er wh i ch can n ot

, ,

be m elted to geth er wh il e a part of th e v apor e scape s al to get he r

, .

Most of the d i ffi c ul t i e s th at h av e bee n referre d to a r e c au s e d

by t h e nec e s s i ty of h e at i n g t h e ore i n a n u mb er of s m al l ret ort s ,

h e ate d e x ter n al ly i n s t e ad of i n a l ar ge fu rn ac e I n wh ich t h e h eat

,

cou l d be prod uce d i n cl ose co nt act w i t h th e ore A tt e m pt s h av e .

bee n m ad e to red uce t h e ore i n s om e form of bl ast f urn ace b u t ,

th e zi nc w a s t oo e as i l y ox id iz e d by th e f urn ace ga se s a nd i t w a s ,

not pos s ibl e t o con de n se t h e zi nc t o t h e l i q u i d s t at e a s th e vapor ,

iz e d m et al w a s i n a v ery d il uted con d it ion i n t h e ga s e s

l e a v i n g t h e f urn ace Z i n c ox ide s uit abl e for m ak i n g p ai n t i s
.
,

however p rod uced by m e an s of s m all bl as t fu rn ace s an d i s

, ,

fi l tered o ut of t h e g ase s by p as s in g t he m t h ro u g h woole n ba gs .

I n t h e el ectr ic fu rn ace h eat c a n b e p rod uced with ou t t he ,

n ece s s ity of bl owi n g a i r i nto t h e ch ar g e ; th e at m osph er e i n th e

fu rn ace c an b e m ad e th oro u gh l y red uc i n g s o t h at n o zi n c will b e ,

ox idized a nd th e gases l e a v i n g t h e fu rn ac e are n o mor e t h an

,

l e a v e th e z i nc re tort i n t he u s ual proces s s o t h at th e con de n s a ,

t ion of th e zi nc sh o ul d b e s at i s factory Th e prod uct ion of h e at .

electrically i n th e m id s t of th e ore m ix t u re e n abl e s th e fu rn ace to

, ,

b e m ade of an y co n v e n ie n t s i ze a n d th u s red uce s gre at ly th e ex ,

;

pe n se of l abor wh ile a s th e h e at h as not t o b e t ran sm itted t h rou g h

, ,

t h e furn ace w al l s t h e s e w ill b e far m ore perm an en t an d a gr e at

'

so u rce of ex pe n se w ill th u s b e re m oved .

J W
*
. . R i h a d s M t allu g i al C al ul a t io n s P a
c r
'
e r c c , rt I .
,
p . 80
 Z I NC S M EL T I N G . 1
57

A lt ho ug h th e
advant a ge s th at co ul d be g ained by s m elt in g
zi nc ores electr i c al l y were very obv i o u s th e p ract i cal appl icat ion ,

of el ectr i c al he at i n g to th i s p roce s s h as not bee n e asy Th e fi rs t .

elect rical fu rn ace for d istill i n g z inc ore s w a s p ate nted b y th e

C owle s broth ers i n 1 8 8 5 an d con s isted F i g 4 2 of a fi r e cl ay , ,
.
,
-

t ube A cl osed at on e e n d by a c arbon pl u g B an d at t h e othe r

, , , ,

e n d by a c arbon c r uc i ble C a n d l id D The ch arge of roasted , , ,

.

ore an d coal w a s cont a i ned i n t h e t ube a nd e l ectrical con n ection s ,

were m ade to th e c arbon pl at e an d cr uc i bl e so t h at an el ectric

c ur ren t flowed th rou g h and h e ated t he ore i n th e t ube The t ub e .

was s urro u nded w ith s om e s u i t able m ater i a l to red uce th e los s of

i
h e at Th e vaporized z i n c an d oth er g aseo u s prod uct s of th e pro
.

ce ss e sc ape d th ro ugh a ho l e i n to th e cr ucibl e where th e z i nc con ,

d e n s e d to a l i q uid at Z wh i l e th e re m a i n i n g gase s p as sed away ,

by t he p i pe E The fu rn ace w a s p ract i c ally an e l ectric al l y h eate d

.

z i nc retort a n d as S ho w n i n t h e fi g u re t h e proce s s was inten ded

, , ,

to be i nt erm i tten t i n act ion on e ch arge b ei n g e x h a u sted an d th e n ,

F ig . 42 .
—C ow e s l ’
E l e ctr i c Z in c F u r n a ce .

d i sch arged be fore anoth er co uld be i ntrod uced P rovi s ion could .
,

howe v er h ave bee n m ade for th e con t i n uou s ch ar gin g an d d is

,

ch ar g i n g of s u ch a fu rn ace b u t t h e p roce s s was n e v e r com ,

p l e t e d .

'

A f urn ace rece ntl y p ate n ted b y \ V M c A Jo h n s o n fi of t he . .

f

L a n y on Z i nc C o F i g 4 3 i s p r a c t I c a llv th e s am e a s t h e C o w le s
’

.
,
.
,

f u rn ace b u t i t i s de s i gn ed on a l arge r sc al e and care h a s bee n

, ,

t a ke n to p reven t t he o v erhe at i n g of th e w all s of t he furn ace It .

,

con s i t s of an a rched ch am be r A wi th e n d w a l l s B an d C an d a
s
, , , ,

fi ne D th rou gh w h ich th e z i nc an d ot h er g aseo u s prod u ct s of t h e

, ,

Operat i on c an p a s s Th e w hol e furn ace i s s upported u pon I .

be am s th u s en abl i n g the a i r to p as s u n dern ea th an d pre v en t o v e r

,

he at i n g T h e fu rn ace i s con s t ruct e d o f fi r e c la v b rick s b ut a s

.
-
,

a dd it i on a l p rot ect i on a l a v e r M of refractor y m ate rial s,

uch as
, , ,

sil ic a h i gh grade fi r e c l ay or b a ux i te i s pl aced on th e he arth

,
- -
,
.

Th e ore m i x t u re con si st s of roast ed o r e m i x ed w i t h e nou gh coke to

*
W M cA .
J o h n s on E l , e c tr c i Z in c Fu na r ce , U S . . pa t e n t f le d
i May 2 4 th .

o c h m i al I ndu s iv p
.

1 904 , El e c tr e c t ry ,
vo l . .
,
. 1 52 .
1
5 8 T H E E LE C T R I C F U R NAC E .

red uce th e zi nc a nd to c arry th e electr i c c urre n t S om e of t h e .

ore to b e tre ated con t ain s con s iderabl e am ou nt s of iron l i m e , ,

le ad an d coppe r an d wo ul d b e l i kely t o fl u x th e w all s of th e

,

fu rn ace Th i s low gr ad e ore is th erefore pl aced i n t h e m id dl e

.
-
, ,

an d upper p art of th e fu rn ace at K b ei n g s ep arate d from th e ,

fl oor an d w all s by a l ayer of p u rer ore J A l l t h e ore i s m ix e d

,
.

'

w ith e n o u g h coke to red uce t h e zi n c i t co n t ai n s b u t i n order to ,

p reve n t th e overh e at i n g of t h e w all s c are i s t ake n t h at th e m ix t u re

K s h all b e a better electric al co nd uctor t h an th e m ix t u re J s o ,

th at th e c u rre n t w ill p as s m ainly th ro u gh t h e m i ddl e of t h e

fu r n ace E a n d F a r e h e ap s of coke servi n g a s el ect rode s th e
.
,

F ig 4 3
. .
—Joh n s on s E le ctric Zin c F u rn a ce .

c urren t flowi n g betwee n E a n d F t h ro u gh t h e ore m i x t u re E l e c .

tr ic a l co nt act i s m ade wit h t h e cok e by m e an s of graph ite or

carbo n bl oc k s a n d rod s p as s i n g th ro u gh t he fron t an d b ac k of

th e f u rn ace G an d H are co n n ected to on e c able b r in gi n g th e
.

c urre nt a n d m ak e cont act w ith th e coke F wh il e two s i m il ar

, ,

term i n al s co n nect th e oth er c abl e t o t h e cok e E Th i s fu rn ace i s .

th e s am e i n p ri ncipl e a s a n ord i n ary zi n c retort b ut t h e prod uc ,

tion of t h e n eces s ary h e at wi th i n th e retort wh ich c a n o n ly b e ,

e ffected electric ally e n able s t h e d i m e n s ion s of th e retort t o b e in

,

cre ased to a ny de s irabl e e x te n t an d th e wal l s i n ste ad of be in g

, ,

t h i n as w a s n eces s ary wh e n th e h e at h ad to p as s t h rou gh t h e m

, ,

c a n b e m ad e of any s u it abl e th ic k nes s Th e f urn ac e is mece s .

s a r ily i nterm itte n t i n act io n an d wo ul d b e all owe d to cool som e

,

wh at to al low of th e sp e n t ore b e in g re m oved t h rou gh som e con

v e n ie n t ope ni n g an d a fres h ch arge bei n g c areful ly arr an ge d i n

th e f urn ace b efor e i t co ul d b e a gai n h e a ted Th e zi nc vapo r s .

p as s i n g th ro u gh th e fl ue D wo u l d e nte r a sys te m of con de n s i n g

ch ambers th e fi rs t s ectio n of wh ich wou l d b e kept at a tem pera
,

t u re abov e th e m el t i n g p oi n t of z i n c i n ord e r to ob t ai n th at me t al
i n t h e m ol te n c ond it ion .

Th e el ectric zi nc furn a c e of C P G d e L av al F i g 44 w a s . . .
,
.
,

p ate nt ed s om e ye ars ago an d h a s th i s adva nt age ove r t h e J oh n

,
1 60 T H E E LEC T R I C F U R NA C E .

to s ay e x actly h ow m uch powe r i s n ee ded to red u ce t h e z inc h ow ,

perfectl y t h e z i nc i s ex tracted from th e ores or h ow com pl et ely -

,

t he di st illed zi nc con de n s e s t o t h e l i q u i d st ate Th e proce s s h a s .

bee n i n ope ration com m erc ially for s everal ye ar s i n E u rope wh ere ,
.

th ree pl an t s are now i n op er at ion T hr ee th o u s an d h ors e power .

-

e m p l oyed a t Trol lh att an (S w ede n ) i n t h e red uct ion of ore a n d

zi nc ash es (gal va nizers was te ) h orse powe r at S arp sborg
’

,
-

F ig . 45 .
— S a l g u e s E l e ctr i c ’
Z in c F u rn a ce .

(N orway ) i n red uct i on o f z i nc ash e s a nd 1 8 00 h orse pow er

th e , ,
.
-

a t H all stah a m m ar i n t h e s m e l t in g of ore

*
.

M A S a l g u e s r wrote an acco u n t o f th e el ectro m e t a

. .
‘
-

zi nc a nd fi g ured two or t h r ee furn a c e s on e of w h i ch

,
te n ded , ,
c

for u s e w i t h 1 00 k i l ow at t s i s ill u st rat ed i n F i g 4 5 l t o n S I S tS,

. .

of a ch a mbe r b u i l t i n tw o p art s A a n d B to fac i l it a t e cl ean i ng

, , ,

R po o f h C o m m i s s io n z in s ou i ti s h C o lu m b i
w

*
e rt t e to im e s t ig a te th e c re rc e s of B r a

an d th e c o n d i io n s aff i n g h i
t e c t t e r e xplo i t a t io n O t t a w a , , 1 90 6 . a

+ Sa ig ue s, B ull S ,
I ng Ci
oc .
'
. v .
,
1 90 3 , p .
~
 Z I NC S M EL T I N G .
61

a nd r e p a I r I n g an o ff t ake C for th e p as sa ge of t h e z i n c and

,
-
, ,

other g ase s a t ap hol e D an d two ch argin g and pok i n g h o l es

,
-
, , ,

o ne of wh ich i s sh o w n at E H eat i s p rod uced i n th e ch arge of .

ore by th e p a s s age of a c urre n t bet wee n th e c arbon el ectrod es ,

F a n d G F be i n g movabl e an d s upported by a s u it able c arbon

,

holder wh il e G i s s e t i n t h e b ase of t h e furn ace and e l ectrical

, ,

con t act i s m ad e w ith i t by th e b ar of m e tal H Th e furn ace i s ,

.

b u il t of fi r e b r ic k s i ns ide a n i ron j acke t wh i c h i s coo l ed by spri n k ,

lers S how n at K th e l owe r c arbon hol der h a v in g a s pec i al w ater

,

cooli n g device sh ow n at L Th e h earth of t he fur n ace i s how

,
.
,

ever l i n e d with s an d J as i s com m on i n m an y s me l t i n g furn ace s

, , , .

'
S al g ue s draws spec ia l atte nt ion to th e m e an s b y wh ich h e
ke e p s t h e f urn ace air t i gh t aro u nd t he upper c arbon a nd at t he
-

p oki n g a nd c h a r g I n g h ole s F or th i s p urpose h e prov i de s a .

he avy c as t i ro n p l ate M i n w h i c h are h ol e s for th e e l ectrode and

, ,

for ch arg i n g t he l att er be i n g closed by l id s O Th e gase s i n th e

, ,
.

f urn ace be i n g u nde r a s l i gh t p re s s ure r u s h o ut throu g h a ny

, ,

ope n i n g s uc h a s th e cr ac k aro u nd t he e l ectrod e b u t a ri n g of

, ,

asbe s tos N d e l ay s th e g ase s a l i ttl e a nd the z i nc v apor w il l

, , ,

the n con de n se on t he i ron pl ate (wh i ch i s cooled by a j et of w ater ) ,

a n d i m me d i a t ely c l ose s t h e cr ac k I n th e s am e w a y after .

,

c h argi n g or p ok i n g th e crac k bet w ee n the l i d O an d i t s se at i s

, , ,

i m m edi ately s e al ed b y the z i n c w h i ch con de n s e s th ere ,

.

T h e c h ar ge con s i st i n g of roa sted ore an d t he n eces s ary car

,

bo n for i ts red uct i on be i n g in trod uced at E from t i m e to t i m e

, , ,

lie s aro u n d t h e c arbon F a nd a s it become s h e ated th e z i nc is , ,

red uce d an d vol at il i zed p as s i n g th ro u gh C to conden s in g ch am ,

be rs ; wh il e t h e re s id u e of t h e ore w h ich w o u l d n eed to be fu s i bl e , ,

c oll ect s i n th e mo l te n st ate at R and i s t apped o ut at i nterva l s ,

.

Th i s fu rn ace is con t i n uo u s i n oper at i on a nd i nc i de nta l l y a l l ows ,

of th e s m e l ti n g of as soci ated m etal s s u ch a s le ad wh ich w i ll , ,

coll ect i n t he f urn ace and b e tapp ed o ut w i th t h e sl ag The h e at .

m ay be p rod uced i n t h i s furn ace by th e p as s ag e of t he c u rre nt

th ro u gh t he m ol te n sl ag R b u t i f t h e el ectrode F w ere ra i sed , , , ,

hi g her a n arc w o uld be p rod uced S al g u es e xpe ri m en ted at .

C h am p a gne (A rie ge ) F r ance w ith a m odi fi e d carbide fu rn ace of

, ,

1 00 k il owatt s an d u s i n g ore s c arry i n g 40 t o 4 5 per cent of z i nc

,
.
,

fed col d i n to t h e furn ace h e obt ai ned a y iel d of 5 k g of zinc ,

.

( p robably zi nc d u st ) per k i low at t d ay .

A not able defect i n th e el ectr i c s melt i n g of zin c ore s i s the

d i ffi c ul ty ex perie n ced i n atte m p t i n g to ob t a i n t he d is til l ed zinc
i n th e l iq ui d st ate I n t h e o ld e r p ro ce s ses a l arge proport ion of
.
‘

th e z i nc cond en se s as a l i q u id in t h e cl ay conde n s ers wh ich are _ ,

 1 62 TH E E L EC T R I C F UR N A C E .

fi tte d to t h e e n d of e ach retort a nd are hot e n o u g h to keep th e

, ‘

“ ”
m et al l i q u i d a s m all port ion p as s i n g o n to th e cool er prol on g
,

an d con de n s i n g i n t h i s a s a m e tall ic powde r ; b u t th e el ectric

furn ac e m a ke s very l ittl e l i q u id z in c n e a r ly all b ei n g i n th e s t at e
,
.

of powde r .Th e ex pl an at ion of t h i s is p rob ably t h at i n th e old e r

p roce s s t h e ore wa s h e ated very gr ad u ally i n t h e retort an d t h e ,

red uct ion of ox i de to m et al wa s p artly co m p leted b efore th e z i n c

b e gan to d i st il from t h e retort I n t h i s w ay t h e c arbon m on
.

ox ide m oi st ure a n d oth er p rod uct s of th e o r e an d th e coal h ad

,

bee n p artly drive n off b efore t h e d i s t ill at ion b eg an an d t h e z 1n c ,

v apors were i n con s e q u e nce m ore conce ntr ate d an d con de n s ed ,

mor e re ad il y to th e l i q u id s t at e .

Th e con d it ion s for th e p rod uct ion of l i q ui d or p owd ery z in c

will b e s ee n at o nce whe n it i s re m e mb ered t h at th e form er cor
respond s to r ai n a n d th e l att er to h o ar frost or s now A h ot -
.
,

m oi s t wi n d be in g cool ed t o som e te mp er at u re above t h e freezi n g

poi nt will form rai n wh il e i f th e a ir is s o d ry th at i s t h e water
, , , ,

vapor i s s o d il ut e t h at th e air m u st b e coole d b el ow t h e freezi n g

,

p oi nt b efore s at ur ation occ u rs h oar fros t or s now w ill re s ul t Be

,
-
.

s ide s th i s ge n eral con s i der atio n t h ere is th e n e e d of t i m e an d ,

p oi nt s on wh ich th e p recip it at ion m ay occ u r ; th e sl ow d i s til l at ion

i n th e ol der retort s wo ul d t h e r efore b e m ore favor a bl e to t h e
, ,

con de n s at ion of zi nc th an t h e r ap id wor k of a n el ect ric fur n ace ,

wit h a r u sh of g a s c arryi n g t h e zi n c vapor i nto th e cold er p art s

of t h e con de n s e r before th e m et al h as h ad t i m e t o con den se i nto
d rop s . S al g u e s d escribe s a n arr an ge m e n t for con den s i n g t h e
z i nc i n t h e pow dery for m i n a serie s of t ub es th e z i n c b e in g p r o ,

t e c te d from ox i d at io n a n d r e di s t illed in an a ux il iary fur n ace

-
in ,

wh ich a s th e vapor i s q ui te conce n tr at ed l i q u id zi nc c an b e o b

, ,

t a in e d .

I t i s i n th e s m elt i n g of m i x ed ore s cont ai n i n g both zin c and

l ead u s u ally as s oci ated with s ilver t h at th e gr e at est ad van t a ge of
, ,

e l ect rical s m elti n g m ay b e exp ect ed S u ch ore s are very d iffi c ul t

.

to t reat by ord i n ary f ur n ace m et h od s bec a u s e i f s m el te d a s a , ,

l e ad ore i n th e bl ast fur n ace the z i nc m ak es i nf us ibl e sl a g s an d

,

t h o k e s u p t h e fur n ace w ith depos it s of f u m e an d n on e of th e z m e ,

i s r e covered I f t re ated a s a z i nc ore t h e l e ad m ak e s th e ore

.
,

f u sibl e s o th at i t corrode s th e retort s be s id e s y iel d i n g an i m p u r e

,

z i n c c on t a i n i n g som e l e ad W h e n t re ate d as a zi nc ore th e l e ad

.
,

an d s il ve r c a n b e recovere d by s m el ti n g t h e res i d u e s from th e

z i n c r e tort s .

Th e Bro k e n H il l or e s a r e n ot abl e e x am pl e s of a m i x e d
s u l p h ide of le ad a n d z i n c wh ich c an not b e s eparate d at al l com
 1 64 T H E E LE C T R I C F U R NAC E .

p le t e l yby m ech an ical m e an s an d m u st be t reated a s a who le by

s m el ti n g or ch e m i c al m ethod s I t occ urred to th e writer s eve ral .

ye ars ago th at s uch ore s co ul d b e s m el ted electrically s o a s t o r e

cover a t on e op eration th e zi nc l ead an d s il ver from t h e ore ; th e ,

zi nc b ei n g d i s till ed an d con d en s ed wh i l e th e l e ad c arry i n g th e ,

s ilver fro m th e ore wo ul d collect i n t h e m olt e n cond ition a s i n ,

ordi n ary bl a st furn ace p ractice N u m ero u s ex peri m e n t s o n a .

l aboratory s c al e s h owed t h at th i s co ul d b e accompl i s h ed an d th at ,

th e e x tract io n of th e l e ad w as p artic ul arl y good onl y trace s of ,

th at m et al re m ai n i n g i n th e S l a g .

Th e fur n ace i n wh ich th ese e x peri m ent s w ere m ade i s s how n

ir: Fig I t con s i st ed of a rect a n g ul ar ch amber A B I n wh ich
.

, ,

t he ore w a s s m el ted a ch arg i n g s h aft C for i nt rod ucin g t h e ore , , , ,

a n d ch ambers F to K for con de n s i n g a n d collect i n g th e z m c

, ,
.

Th e el ectric c u r re n t w as i nt rod uced by m e an s of th e c arbon

el ect rode s D an d E wh i ch d ipped i nto t h e m ol te n sl ag i n t h e
, ,

fu rn ace I n s tarti n g a q u an t ity of sl a g w as mel te d an d pou red

.
,

i nto t h e fu rn ace wh i ch h ad p re viou sly b ee n h e ated Th e el ec .

t rodes were th e n i nt rod uced a nd th e c u rr e n t switch ed on Th e ,

.

m i x t ure of roas ted ore c arbon an d fl ux es w as po ure d i n to th e ,

s h aft C wh ich w as kep t n e arly f ul l d uri n g t h e oper at i o n of th e

, ,

fu rn ace Th e f u rn ace w a s e s se nti ally a r e s is t a n c e f u r n a c e t h e

.

, ,

h e at i n g b ei n g accom pl i s h ed by th e p as s a g e of th e c urren t th ro u gh
‘

t he m ol te n sl a g an d t h e f urn ace w a s m ade l on g an d n arrow in

,
.

order th at t h e elect ric al res i st a nce m i gh t n ot b e too low .

O cc as ion ally h oweve r t h e electrode s wo ul d b ecom e too S h ort

, ,

to re ach t h e sl a g an d a n arc wa s th e n form e d Th e prod u ct s of

,
.

t he ope rat ion were l e ad w h ich co l l ecte d at L an d wa s t apped o ut , ,

by t h e spo ut R S l a g wh ic h i s s h ow n at S an d wa s t ap p e d ou t by
, , ,

t h e spo ut T an d zi nc vapor a n d oth e r g ase s wh ich l eft th e

, ,

fu r n ace by th e op en i n g s F F Th e con den s i n g sy s te m con s i sted

'

of t h e ch a mber F i n wh i ch a s m al l a m o u nt of m olte n z 1n c co l
, ,

le c te d an d an e x te n s ive sy ste m of i ron p ipes

,
G H an d J K in , , ,

w h i ch th e g re ate r part of th e zi nc coll ected i n th e for m of zi n c

powder Th e g ase s e sc api n g w i t h t h e z i n c vapor were m o s tl y

.

c arbo n m onox id e wh ich b u rn e d at th e e nd of th e con den s ing

sy ste m .

Th e cos t of s m el t i n g s ul ph id e or e s of z in c is m ateri all y I n

'

cre as ed by th e n ece s s ity of a very compl ete roast i n g op e ra tion

.

* T h i s fu n a wa s d v i s d b y th e u thb an d M
r ce e e a r r . L B R n o ld s
. . ey ,
w h o d id
‘

m o st
o f th e xp i m n t al w o k
e er T h e y h av e o b t a i n e d
e r th e f o ll o w i n g p a t n t s o n t h e e

s m e l t i n g o f l e ad zi n o r e s —C an ad i a n
.

e le c tr i c al A u s t al i an G m n
‘
-
e t r er a

M xican e ,
 Z I NC S M EL T I N G .

b e fore th e d i st il l at ion o f th e zi nc A n y s ul ph u r l eft i n th e ore .

to b e t re ated by t h e ord i n ary proces s hol ds a s a r u l e abo ut tw ice , ,

it s wei gh t of z i n c i n th e re s id ue s a nd i t is t herefore th e practice , , ,

to le ave no m ore t h an abou t on e per ce n t of s ulph ur i n the .

r oasted ore S o co m p l ete a re m oval of s ulph u r i nvol v e s a pro

.

l on ged roas t i n g at a v ery h igh t e m pe rat ure t h u s l arg ely in c r e a s ,

in g th e cos t as well as th e l os s by vol at il izat ion of t h e le ad and

si l ve r i n th e ore S om e i nven tor s h ave tried to avoid th i s by
.

s m elt in g t he ore u nroas ted i n t he e l ect r i c fu rn ace w i t h th e , , ,

add it ion of som e re ag e n t for absorb in g t h e s u l p h ur ; iron ,

iron ore al k al i n e s al t s an d l i m e be i n g s u it abl e for t h i s

,

p u rpos e .

F T S nyde r of t h e A m er i ca n Z i nc E x tract i on C o
. .
,
has .
,

*
p ate nted a p roces s for obtai n i n g zi nc from a s ulph ide ore of th i s
m et al w itho u t roas t in g Th e ore i s m i x ed w i t h carbon an d fl ux es .

(i ron a n d l i m e ) an d s m e l te d upo n a b a t h of m
,
o l te n S l a g in an
e l ect ric furn ace from wh ich th e ai r i s ex cl uded Th e i n v en tor .

cl a i m s th at t h e c arb on re act s w i t h t h e s ulph u r of th e ore an d

for m s c arbon b i s ulph ide w h ich is vol at i l ized l iberat i n g th e zin c , ,
.

I t i s n ot s tated w heth er th e iron and li m e u s ed a s fl uxe s p l ayed

a ny p art i n ab sorb i n g th e s ul ph u r an d l iber at i n g t h e z i n c D irect .

c urre n t i s u se d a n d som e elect rol y t ic e ffect t ake s pl ace as th e

, ,

zi n c is l i berate d a t on e el ectrod e a nd t he c arbon b i s u l ph i d e at th e

o th er el ectrode Th e tw o v ap ors c an the refore b e kept apart
.
, ,

a n d t h e zi n c v apor be i n g u n dil u ted sho ul d b e e as ily con den sed , ,

.

E ve n i f t h e tw o vapors c ou l d n ot b e kept s eparat e the amo u n t of ,

c arbo n b i s ul ph id e form ed wo ul d o nly b e abo ut h a l f a s m uch as th e

ca rbo n m onox ide t h at woul d h a v e bee n form ed i f th e ore h ad fi rst
bee n roasted a nd t he refore , th e zi nc vapor wo ul d b e m ore con
, ,
-

c e n t r a t e d a n d l i kely to con de n se b etter .

I n an exp er i m e n t ore con ta in i n g 2 0 p e r ce n t zi nc 2 0 per ,

.
,

cen t i ron 5 pe r ce n t l e ad 3 5 p er ce nt s ulph u r an d 2 0 p e r cen t

.
,
.
,
.
,
.

of s il ica a nd al u m i n a w a s m ix ed with i ron an d l i me (an d c arbon )

a n d fed i nto an el ectric fu rn ace pro v i ded w it h c arbon elect rode s ,

be t w ee n wh ich scr ap l e ad h ad b ee n pl aced for st arti n g th e fu rn ace .

A d i rect c u rre n t of to a mperes at 7 to 1 5 vol ts wa s

°
e mpl oyed h e at in g t h e fur n ace t o about 1 2 00 C Th e ore m elted
, ,
.

an d w as re d uced z i n c be i n g l iber ate d i n th e form of v apor n ea r ,

o n e e lectrode wh il e c arbo n b is ul ph id e w as form ed ne ar th e othe r

,

el ect rode I t i s cl ai m ed t h at at l e ast 9 4 pe r ce n t o f

.
.

th e zi nc i n t h e ch arge c an b e recovered by t h i s pro

ces s .

*
F T S ny d e
. . r, U S . . p a te n t fil d J u n
e e 2 3r d, 1 90 5 , El e c tr o c h e m i c al I ndu s t ry ,

v ol . iv p 5 .
, . 1 2 .
1 66 T HE E L E C TR I C F U RN AC E .

F ig . 47
.
—S
’
ny d er s I n d u ction F u rn a ce .
1 68 T H E E L E CT R I C F U R NA C E
. .

F ig 48
. .
—S ’
n yd e r s F u rn a ce for O b ta in in g L iqu id Zin c .
 Z I NC S M E LT I NC .
16
9

of th e s h aft is l es s d il uted by pe rm ane n t gase s th a n it woul d be if

,

th e zi nc a n d th e g ase s were al l l i berated i n a com mon ch amber

a s wo ul d be t h e case i n F i g Th e zi n c v apor p asses up th e
47 . .

sh aft wi t h th e oth er g ase s b ut on re ach in g th e coole r p art s of

, ,

t h e ore i t is l ar gely conde n sed i n t h e ore a n d p as se s dow n a gai n

, ,

wit h t h e d esce n d i n g ore to t he h otte r parts of t he f urn ace Th e .

res ul t of th i s proces s i s t h at t h e zi n c v apor becom es conce ntrated

i n t h e l ower part of t h e fu rn ace a n d fi n ally beg i n s to cond en se i n ,

th e l i q u id s t at e i n t h e vici n ity of t h e w ater cool ed w al l s b b -

,
.

Th e con de n s at ion of th e z i nc v apor occ urs m ore freely at th e

s i de s of t h e furn ace th a n at th e e n d s s ince th e form er are fu rth er ,

from t h e carbo n elect rode s an d are t h ere fore cool e r ,

Th e con .

d e n s e d z i n c flow s ou t of t h e fu rn ace t h ro u gh t h e ch a n nel s

gg , ,

be ne at h th e s ide s of th e fu rn ace a n d collect s at h h Th e m o l te n, .

m ateri al s i n th e botto m of th e furn ace are l e ad L m atte M and , , , ,

sl ag S , Th e sl ag becom e s con ge al ed arou n d th e s ide s an d

.

en d s of t he f urn ace an d i n t h i s way m ai nta i n s th e ch an nel

,

th roug h wh ich t h e z i n c flow s Th i s 13 p os sibl e bec a us e z i n c m e l t s

.

° °
a t 4 1 9 C wh il s t th e sl a g w ill re m ai n sol id up to at l e as t 1
. C .

Th e sol i di fi e d sl a g al s o s erve s to preve n t any l e ak age of t h e c u r

ren t by p as s i n g t h ro u gh th e m ol te n sl a g i nto th e m etal of t h e
wate r j acke t S uch l e ak age co ul d t ake pl ace howeve r h i gh er up
-
.
, ,

i n t h e fu rn ace wh ere th ere is n o sl ag to for m a cr u s t on th e

iron .

A not her fe at u re of i n te res t is th e arra n ge m en t for u s i n g th ree

ph as e c urre n t Th e i nve ntor h a s adopted t h e sys te m ex pl ain ed
.

i n ch apt er v F i g 3 5 i n wh ich t h ree electrode s or som e m ult ip l e

.
,
.
, ,

of t h i s are e mploye d an d are con n ected to t h e t ra n s form er s i n

,

s uc h a way th at t h e c urren t e nte ri n g by a ny el ectrode ret ur ns .

t h ro u gh t h e oth e r two th u s re n deri n g u n n ece s s ary th e th ree r e

,

t u r n c able s S h own i n F i g 3 3 an d F i g 3 4 A s i ngl e ret u rn cabl e

. . .

from th e m olte n l e ad i n th e f urn ace i s p rovided to c arry any u n

b al a nced c u rre nt Th i s arran g em e n t avoid s t h e d i ffi c ulty tha t
.

wo ul d aris e fro m th e i n d uct ive e ffec t of t h e iron j ac ket s if th e .

c u rren t p as se d com pl etely t h ro ug h t h em e n t eri n g th e fu rn ace “

by th e e lect rode s cc an d l e a v i n g by a con n ect ion from th e

, ,

c r uc i bl e a a as i n th e H e ro ul t fu rn ace F i g 2 9
, , ,
. .

I n s melt i n g a s ulp h i de ore of le ad and zin c i n th i s fu rn ace ,

i t i s fi rst roast ed u n til i t con t a i n s abo u t 8 % of s ul ph ur an d th en

sm elted i n ad m ix t ure with coke or ch arcoal an d fl ux e s Th e .

c h arge i s p roport i on ed s o th at t he r e s u ltin g s la g will b e h igh i n ‘

l i m e a n d sil ica (at l e a st 5 0 % of th e l atte r ) as s uch a sl a g wi ll

, ,

n ot ret ai n a ny c o n s id e r a b le q u a n tity of z i nc o n acco u nt of it s

' '

,
1 7 0 THE E LE C T R I C F U R NAC E .

h i gh m el ti n g te mp erat u re a n d wil l h ave a h i gh electric al res i st ,

a nce A con s idera bl e am o u n t o f m atte i s p re fe rred e no ugh

.
-

iron bei n g pre sen t i n t h e ch ar ge t o p reven t m uch of th e zi nc

e n te ri n g th e m at te .

Th i s f urn ace h a s bee n d escribed at l en gth a s b ei n g th e fi rst ,

el ectrical zi nc fu r n ace in wh ich any rati on al att e m p t h a s b een

m ade to obt ai n t h e zin c i n th e l i q u i d s t ate Th e a uthor woul d .

a nt ic i pate c ert ai n d i ffi c ul ti e s i n t h e op e rat io n of s uch a fu rn ace ,

s uch a s th e for m at io n of cr u st s of zin c i n t h e s h aft wh ich wo ul d ,

p reve n t t h e re g ul ar de sce n t of th e ch ar ge an d th e p as s a ge of
t h e fu rn ace gase s .

W ith re g ard to t h e a mo u n t of el ectrical e n er gy re q u ir e d to

s mel t a ton of roaste d zi n c ore th e follo w i n g d at a m ay b e g iv e n .

S al g u es st at e s th at from a 4 0 or 4 5 p er ce n t ore h e ex tr acted 5 .

k g of zi nc per k il owatt d ay
. Th i s wo ul d corre sp on d t o .

k ilow at t h o ur s p er po un d s of zi n c o r e i f th e z in c obt a i n e d
a mo u nte d to 3 8 p er ce nt of th e ore C a s a r e tti an d Berta n i p ro .
*
.

d u c e d at Ber g am o I t aly 9 k g of zi n c per ki lowat t d ay wh ich

, ,
.
, ,

o n a zi n c ex t raction o f 3 8 p er ce n t of t h e o r e woul d m e a n 9 2 0 .
,

k il owat t h o u rs per p ou n d s of ore Th e a uth or u s in g a .

,

m i x e d l e ad zi nc ore c arry i n g abo ut 2 5 per cen t of e ach m et al w as .

,

abl e to ex tract bot h m et al s w it h a n e xp en d it u r e of fro m 800 t o 8 5 0

k ilowat t h o u rs pe r p o u n d s of ore u s in g th e o r e col d a nd , ,

S n y d e r r h a s m ad e a
‘
in a s m all f urn ace of on ly 1 5 k il owatt s .

c alc ul at ion b as ed p artly o n t h e f uel needed i n bl as t fu rn ace l e ad

s melt i n g a n d p artly on th e h e at t h eor e t ical ly n eed e d to re d uce a nd
d ist il zi n c fro m i t s ore s an d gi ve s t h e for m ul a ,
t i m es ,

th e perc e nt a ge of Z i n c for t h e k ilow att h o u r s n eed ed pe r

,

po u n d s of a l e ad zi n c ore F ro m t he abov e d at a i t m ay b e fairly .

i nferre d th at s mel t in g m ix e d l e ad zi nc ore s i n l arg e el ectrical

fu rn ace s wo ul d t ak e l e s s th a n 8 00 k ilowatt h o ur s wh il e for ore s ,

r u n n i n g h i gh e r I n z m c s a y 4 0 to 5 0 per c e n t abo ut 9 00 k il o
,
.
, _

wat t h o u rs wo ul d b e n eeded Th es e fi g u re s corre spon d to th e .

t reat m e n t of t h e col d ore wh ich h ad previo u sl y bee n roasted t o

re m ove th e s u lph u r ; i f t h e ore co ul d b e ch arged h ot fro m t h e
ro asti n g fu rn ace or i f th e carbo n ,
m on ox id e re s ul t in g
f ro m th e s m el ti n g operat ion co ul d b e u s ed to pre
h e at t h e ore a d ec ide dly l ower fi g u r e sh o ul d b e s u f
,

fi c ie n t .

*
C a s a r e tti an d B e r t an i R e p o r t o f
, Com mi s sion on z in c re s ou r c e s o f B r i ti s h C olu m
bi a , 1 9 06 , p . 131.

+S n y d e r, J ou n Ca n M i n I n s t
r . . . .
, v ol . v iii .
, 1 905 , p . 1 30 .
1 7 2 T HE E LE CTR I C F U R NAC E .

c alci u m Th e gre at a ffi n ity of s il icon for oxyg e n h as e n abl e d it

.

t o b e u sed for t h e red uct ion of m et al s s uch a s c hr om i u m

*
a n d t u n gste n i n t h e el ectric f u rn ace D r G ol d sch m idt h a s ,
. .

st ated t h at s i l icon c an n ot be u se d i n st ea d of al u m i n i u m in t h e .

th erm it m ix t u re s for wel d i n g a n d th e p rod uct ion of c arbon fre e -

m et al s a s t h e re act ion betwee n s il ico n an d iro n ox ides i s n ot

,

s u ffi cie ntly r ap id I t i s cl aim ed h owever th at M r A lb ro h a s

.
, ,
.

s ucceeded i n u si n g s il ico n i n th is m a n n e r ; 1 th e m ix t ure of s il icon L

a n d oxy ge n s upply i n g com p o u n d wh ich h e u s e s b e in g call ed

-

C alorite .

C
il ic o n coppe r a n all oy of s il icon i s use d a s a de
-
, ,

ox i dize r I n m ak i n g c asti n g s of copp er an d copp e r alloy s i n t h e ,

s am e w ay t h at t h e fe rro alloy of s il i co n i s u se d i n m ak i n g s te e l -

c ast i n g s C opp er sil icon i s m ade i n t h e el ectric f ur n ac e by t h e

.
-

C owl e s E l ectric S m elt i n g a nd A l u m i n i u m C omp any at L oc k ,

port N Y I ,
. .

F u s e d ! u a rtz S il ica th e ox ide of s il ico n i s a v al u abl e r e .

, ,

fr a c t o r y m at eri al for l i n i n g m et all ur g i c al fu rn ac e s I t s u s es a s a

’

r efr actory m ateri al h ave bee n d e scribe d i n C h apter I V A l tho u g h .

very refractory s i lic a or q u artz c an b e fu s ed an d i t t he n , ,

pos ses s e s v al u abl e p rop ert ie s a n d h a s bee n u s e d for som e t i m e in

'

th e co n s tr uctio n o f s c ie n t ifi c app arat u s A s a n e x ample t h e -

.
,

w ell k nown q u artz fi l a m e n t s of C

-
V Boy s m ay b e m e nt ion ed . . .

Th es e are m ad e by m el ti n g th e q u artz i n th e oxyh ydroge n bl o w

pipe . R ece n tly i t h a s b ee n fo u n d pos s ible to fu s e q u artz i n th e
el ectri c furn ace an d to m ake t ub e s cr ucibl es d is h e s a n d oth er , ,

articl s o u t of t h e f u se d q u artz
e
Th i s m ateri al sc arcely e x p an d s .

at al l wh e n h e ated its coe ffi c ie n t of e x p an s ion be i n g only o n e ,

twe nt ieth of t h at of gl as s I n con s e q ue nc e of th i s i t is pos s ibl e .

to p l u n ge a red h ot articl e m ade of f u se d q u artz i nto col d water

-

wit ho u t crack i n g i t F u se d q u art z I s a t r an sp are n t gl as s b u t .

,
“
E l e c t r o q u a r tz or s ili ca m elt ed i n t h e el ectri c f urn ace h a s a
”

m il ky wh ite color A r ticl e s of th i s m ateri al c an b e ob ta in ed fro m .

th e W il so n M a e u le n C o 1 1 0 L iberty S tree t N e w Y or k §
-
.
, ,
.

I n form at ion with re g ard to t h e m a n u fact u re of fu s ed q u art z

a rticl e s i n t h e el ectric furn ace c a n be fo u n d i n t h e E lectroch e m ical
I n d u stry vol p 5 3 a n d vol i v pp 3 6 9 a n d 5 0 2
,
. .
,
. .
,
. .

Gla ss — A lth o u gh g l as s c an e as ily b e m e l te d i n f u rn ace s fi re d

by gas th e cl e anl i n es s an d con ve n ie nc e of el ectrical h e at i n g h av e
,

*
F M B e k e t p a te n t s d e s c i b e d i n E l e c tr o c h e m i c al I n d u s tr y v ol v
. . c ,
r , , . .
, p . 237 .

+ T r an s A m er E l
. ect o hem S c l v ii
. p 49 r c . o .
, vo . .
, . 2 .

S il i c o c o p p e r i n th e B a s s F o un d y E l e c t o c h e m i c al I n d u s tr y v o l p
I n- r r ,
r , . . 1 21 .

E l e c t o h e m i al I nd u s v l p p 6 7 a nd
§ r c t y c 7 r ,
o . v .
, . 10 .
 M I S C E L L ANEOU S USES . 1 73

l ed to th e u s e of th e electric fu rn ace i n th e m an u fact ure of gl as s .

A l arge n u mbe r of fu rn ace s h ave bee n devis ed for th i s p urpose

an d p art ic ul ars o f som e of t he se w il l b e fo u nd i n W r i gh t s ’

book on E l ectric F u rn ace s an d i n vol u me s i i i an d i i i of ,

.
,
.
,
.
,

t he E lect roch e m ical I nd u st ry .

A l undum Th is i s a n art i fi c ial cor un d u m or e mery m ade by

.
-

fus i n g b a u x it e i n a n electric f ur n ace an d a l l o w in g i t to coo l ,

sl owly t h u s form i n g a h ard a n d to u gh crys t al l i n e m as s wh ich i s

,

b roke n u p a n d u s ed as a n ab ras ive Th e p roces s w a s i nve n ted .

by C B J acob s .
*
an d t he m ateri al i s m a n ufact ure d at N i ag ara
.
,

F all s by th e N orto n C o mp a n y f A n electric fur n ac e s u it abl e for .

t he m an u fact ure of al u n d u m h as bee n p ate n ted by A C . .

H i g g in s i
N itr ic A ci d — A n
i nte re st i n g app l ication of th e elect ric
.

f u rn ace i s fo u nd i n th e prod uct i on of n i t ri c ac i d fro m air I t h a s .

b ee n k n ow n for a l on g t i m e t h at a n electric d isch arg e h a s th e

p roper ty of c a u s i n g t h e ox y ge n an d n i t roge n of th e a i r to com ‘

b i ne togeth e r form i n g n itric ox i de an d th e meth od w as u se d a

, ,

n u mb er of ye ars a go for re m o v i n g n i t roge n from ai r a nd so

i sol ati n g t h e s m al l a mo u n t of ar gon w h ich i t cont ai ned Man y .

i nve ntors h ave tried to fi n d a m eth od of prod uci n g n itric ac id or

o th er compo u n d s of n it ro ge n from t h e a ir on a com merci al sc al e ,

a n d by on e p roce s s th at of B i rkel and an d E yd e § calci u m n it rate , ,

I s n ow prod u ced on a co n s id erabl e scal e Th e app arat u s con .

s i st s of a d i sc sh aped fu rn ace l i ned w ith fi r e bric k i n wh ic h a n

- -

e l ect ric arc is m ai nt ai ned b etwee n two wate r —

, ,

coo l ed coppe r
el ect rode s wh ich are h el d abo ut on e ce nt i m eter ap art A n alter .

n at in g c urre nt at abou t vol t s i s e mploye d t o prod uce t h e

, ,

a re ,
wh ich i s S pre ad o ut by m e an s of a s t ron g electro m agnet ,
-
,

i n to a d i sc of fl am e as m uc h a s 6 % feet i n d ia m eter Th is im .

m e n se arc co n s u m e s no l es s th a n 5 00 k ilowatt s an d eve n l arger ,

fu rn ace s are conte mpl ate d A i r i s p as sed t h ro u g h th e furn ac e .

,

t rave rs i n g th e arc and a port ion of th e n it roge n comb in e s with ,

oxy ge n to form n itri c ox ide of wh i ch abo u t 2 % i s p re se n t i n t he ,

i s s u i n g ai r A fter l e a v i n g t h e fu rn ace th e ga se s pa s s t hrou gh

.

*
C B J a o b s U S p a te n t
. . c ,
E l e c t o h e m i c al I n d u s try ol iii p 4 6
. .
r c , v . .
, . 0 .

E l c t o c h m i al I ndu s t r y v ol i p
+ e r e c 5 , . .
, . 1 .

I A C H i g g i n s U S pat nt E l e t r o h e m i c al I ndu s t y
e ol iii p 30 c c r ,
v . .
, . .

b y A J Lo t k a C h e m I n d
.
. .
, .

m anufa c tu e o f N i t a t s f o m A i 9 5 p
§ T h e r r e 69 5 r r, . .
, . .
,
1 0 , .
,

a b s tra c t d i n E n g i n e e i n g an d M i n i n g J o u n al 9 7 p 8 4 8
e r r , 1 0 , . .

E l t i c al E x t a ti o n o f N i t o g n f o m th A i b y J S E d s t o m T an s I n t e r n a t
ec r r c r e r e r, . . r , r . .

E l e c t i ca l C on g s s S t L ou i s 9 4 o l ii p 7 ab s t a c t e d E l e t o c h m i c al I nd u s tr y
r re , .
,
1 0 ,
v . .
, . 1 ,
r c r e ,

v ol ii p 399 ,

E l e c tr o c h m i al I nd u s tr y o l i v p p 6 9 5 a n d 3 6 ; v o l
. . . .

e c , vp 358 . .
, . 12 , 2 ,
0 . v .
, . .
174 T H E E LEC T R I C F U R NAC E .

r e acti o n t owers i n wh ich t h e n itric ox ide comb i n e s with m ore

ox y ge n t o form n itric perox ide an d t h i s u n ite s with wa t e r to fo r m '

n itric acid Th e aci d i s n ot s ol d i n t h at for m b ut i s ne ut r al iz e d

.

w ith l i m es ton e y i el di n g c alc i u m n it r at e wh i c h i s fo u n d to b e a n

e x cell e n t fertil ize r a s wel l as for m i n g a r aw m ateri al for cert ai n
c h e m ic al p roces s es Th e yi e l d of t h is m ater i al correspon d s t o
.

00 or 6 00 k il ogra m s of p ur e n itric aci d p er k ilowatt ye a r T h e

5
-
.

i n d u s try i s c arr i e d o n at N otod de n i n N or w ay wh ere th e op e r at

-

i n g comp a ny con trol s w ate r fall s with a n a g gr e g ate of 3 5 0 00 q ,

h orse pow e r wh ich c an f urn is h e l ectric al e n er gy at a cos t of abo ut

-

$ 3 p er h orse powe r ye ar - -
.

P h os ph or u s — Th i s i s l ar gely m ad e i n th e e le c tr ic f u r n a c e I t
'
. .

is obt ai n ed by h e at i n g a ph osp h a t e With c arbon an d s a n d Th e .

ph osp hor u s is red uced a n d vol at il ize d wh il e th e re m ai nder of t h e

ch arge m el ts to a S l ag A s th e ch ar g e m u s t b e h e ated i n t h e
. .
.

ab s e nc e of air th e elect ric fu rn ac e is p art ic ul arl y s u it ab l e for it s

,

tre at m e nt B ot h arc an d re s i st ance m e t h ods of h e at i n g are e m

.

pl oy e d .

C a rb on B i s u l p h i d e —
Th i s i s another
. el ect ric f ur n ace p r od uc t
'

a n d i s m ad e by h e ati n g c arbo n an d s ul ph u r Th e el ectr ic c u rren t .

p as se s th ro u gh a m as s of b roke n carb on wh ich b eco m es stron gl y ,

h e ated . Th e s ulp h ur m el te d by t h e wast e h e at of t h e f urn ace

, ,

flows down i n to th e h ot port ion of t h e fu rn ace wh ere it re ac ts ,

with th e c arbon form i n g c arbon b i s ulp h id e wh ich p as se s off a s

, ,

a g a s an d i s con de n se d o ut s id e t h e furn ace

'

,
Th e p rod uct ion of .

ph os ph or u s a n d c arbo n b i s ulph i d e i n t h e el ectric f u rn ace is de

scribe d i n W r i gh t s E l ectric F ur n ace s an d t he ir I rid u s tr ia l A p
’ “

pl ication , an d in t h e vol u m e s of th e E l ect roch e m ic al I nd u st ry

“
.

V .
—E l e ctr olytic P r oce s s e s .

E le ctrol ys is Th e u s e of a d irect c u r r e n t f o r d iv id i n g a
.
-
“ ”

ch e m ic al com po u n d i n to two com pon en t p arts h as al re ady b e en

,
“
m e n tioned s e e E l ect rolyti c F u r n aces p 3 0 b u t a few word s ,
”
.
, ,

m ay b e added h ere W h e n a d irect or con t i n uo u s c urre n t flow s

.

th ro u gh a f u sed s al t or a sol ut ion of a s al t i n water t h e s al t ;

, ,

or th e water i s broke n u p by t h e c urren t i nto two p art s O n e of

,
.

t h ese p art s i s h yd roge n or a m et al wh ich i s l ibe r ated at th e

"

, ,

cath ode o r el ectrod e t h ro u gh wh ich th e c u rre n t l e ave s th e l i q u id ,

wh il e th e rem a i nde r of th e s al t or of th e w ater i s l ibe r ate d at th e

, ,

anode or el ectrod e by wh ich t h e c urre n t e n te rs th e l i q u id Th u s .

— h
a N a C l elect roly sed
( ) 2Na C I 2
(at anod
_ _
e ) T at .

i s t o s a y wh e n f u sed co m m on s al t i s el ectroly sed sodi u m is s e t

, ,
”

free at t h e cath od e a n d c hlori n e at th e anode .

1 7 THE E LE C T R I C F U R NAC E .

I n th e e le c tr o yls is of s ol ut ion s a de fi n ite a m ou n t of electricity

.

i n p as s i n g th r ou gh th e s ol ut ion will al way s p rod uce a de fi n it e

a m o u n t of decompos i tio n Th i s am o u n t i s alway s t h e s a me for
.

t h e s am e sol ut ion an d i n d i ffere n t sol ut ion s ch em ic al ly e q u ival e n t

,

a mo u n t s of decom pos it ion are e ffect ed A c urre nt of o ne am p e re .

fl owi n g t h ro u gh acid ul ate d w at er for o ne secon d w ill l iberate

m i ll i gr am s of hyd roge n an d i n a ny oth er sol ution t h e
,

wei gh t of th e m et al l iber ate d will be

. m ill i gr am s m ul t ipl ied ,

by t h e atom i c wei gh t of t h e m et al an d d ivide d by t h e val e n cy of

t h e m et al i n t h e p art ic ul ar s ol u tio n T h u s th e am o u n t of t h e
.
,

m onovale n t m et al sod i u m th at wo ul d b e s e t fre e per s econ d wou ld

be th e atom ic wei gh t of sodi u m or mg ; ,
.

w h il e t h e we ig h t of cop per d epos ite d wo ul d b e m g X 63 2 . .

,

t h e atom ic we i gh t of copper or m g i n c upro u s s al t s s uch

, .
,

a s C u z C l z i n wh ich copper is m onoval e n t wh il e i n th e m ore

, ,

us u al c upri c s al t s s uch a s C u S O 4 i n wh ich t h e m et al i s d ival en t

, , ,

only h al f th at am o u n t wo ul d b e depos it ed by th e c urre n t Th e .

a mo u n t of m e t al act u al ly obt ai n e d as t h e res ul t o f elect ro l y s i s 15

freq u e ntl y l e s s th an t h e c alc ul ated we i gh t o n acco u n t of
secon d ary re act ion s s uc h a s t h e m et al red i s sol vi n g i n th e
,

el ectrolyte hyd roge n bei n g l ib er at ed i n s te ad of th e m et al l e a k

, ,

a ge o f th e c u rre n t etc a nd t h e r at io of th e m et al act u al ly d e

,
.
,

pos ited to t h e t h eore t ic al q u ant ity i s k n ow n as t h e c u rr e n t

e ffi cie ncy a s i t s h o w s w h at p roport io n of t h e c u rre n t is e ffect iv e
,

i n l iberat i n g t h e m et a l .

Th e el ectri c al e nergy n ece s s ary to p rod uce a de fi n it e we i gh t

of a m et al by th e el ect roly s i s of a ch e m ic al co m po u n d of th e
,

m et al dep e nd s n ot only o n th e n u mb e r of a m pere h o u rs n e eded

,

to l ib erat e th e we i gh t of m et al b u t al s o o n t h e vol t a ge of th e
/

op eration ; th at i s o n th e elect ric al pre s s u re n eede d to dr ive th e

el ect ric c u rre n t t h ro u gh t h e el ect rolyte s o as t o prod uce t h e de
co mpos iti on E ach s ol ut io n h as a d efi n ite el ect ric a l p r e s s u r e
'

wh ich m u s t b e ex ceed ed b efore el ectrolys i s will t ake p l ace ; and

'
th e w ork in g vol t a ge m u s t b e decidedly above th e m i n i m u m i n
order to drive a rap id c u rre nt of electricity t h rou gh t h e sol ut ion .

Th e p as s age of t h e c u rre n t al so prod uce s h e at th e am ou n t be i n g ,

p r oport ion al to th e s q u are of t h e c urre n t an d t o th e res i s t an ce of

th e el ectrolyt ic cel l wh il e a s h a s bee n n ot ed t h e am o u n t of
, , ,

m et al depos ite d i s proport ion al to t h e c u rre n t al on e F or a give n .

‘

a m o u n t of ch e m ical wor k accom pl i sh ed th e h e at g e nerate d will ,

be l e s s i f th e c urre n t i s s m all t h an i f a l arge c u rre n t is e mpl oyed

, ,

a n d th ere fore t h e e ffi cie ncy of th e operat ion w il l be gre ate r wit h

 E LEC T R OLY T I C P R OC E S S E S .
1 77

th e s m all er c ur ren t I n elect r o ly s i s at f ur n ace te mperat ure s

.
,

h owe ve r i t i s ofte n co nven ie n t to h e at the e l ectrolyte e l ectrica l l y

,
'

i n ste ad o f b y th e ex ter n al appl icat i o n of f uel h eat and i n s uch ,

case s th e prod uct io n of he at by t h e c urre n t ca n not be re garded as

wast e .

Th e n at ure of th e a node h as a gre at e ffect upon th e voltage

n eeded for e lectroly s i s Th us electroly s i n g a sol ut io n of copp e r
.
,

s ulph ate with a n a node th at doe s n ot d i s solve copper an d oxy ge n ,

wo ul d b e l i be rate d t h e electric c urre n t w o ul d h a v e to do th e

,

work of separ at i n g th e se el e m e n t s a n d a p res s ure of m ore th an ,

on e vo l t wo ul d b e n eede d b u t if t h e anode were m ade of copper

,
’
.
,

th i s wo ul d d is solv e a s fas t a s t h e copper depos ited on th e cathode ,

n o che m ic al wor k wo uld be don e a n d th e s m alle st vol tage wo ul d ,

Su ffi ce to prod uce e l ectroly s is I t i s pos s ibl e to c a l c ul ate from

.
,

a v ai l abl e d at a th e a m o u n t of e n ergy n eeded to sep arat e a de fi n it e “

we i gh t of a com po u n d i nto its ele m e n t s an d th e rel at i on of th i s ,

to t h e e l ectric al e n ergy act u al l y re q u ire d to prod uce th i s de

co m pos i t i on i s th e e nergy e ffi ci e n c y o f t h e proces s .

\Vhe n a n anh ydro u s s al t or m i x t ure of s al t s i s used as an

e l ect ro l yte i t m u st b e he ated u s u al ly t o a re d h eat to r e nder i t
, ,

fl u id an d i t s elect roly s is m ay b e cl as sed a s a fu rn ace op erat ion

,
.

S om e e x a mple s of th e se elect rolytic furn ace p roce s se s will now

b e given .

Th e A ck e r P f or C a u s ti c S o d a a n d C h l i
r oce s s or n e —I n t h i s
proce s s fu sed com m o n s alt or sod i um chl orid e i s electro l y sed ,

u s i n g c arbo n a node s by wh ich t h e c urre n t e n te rs th e l i qu i d an d ,

m ol te n l e ad for th e c ath od e b v wh ic h t h e c u rrent l e aves Th e .

s al t i s b roke n up in to chlorin e wh ich is l iber ate d at t he anod e ,

an d i s l ed aw ay an d u sed for m ak in g bl e ach in g powde r an d ,

sodi u m wh ich i s l iberated at th e c ath ode an d all oy s w ith th e lead

,
.

Th e l e ad co nt ai n i n g th e s odi u m is t he n t re ated with ste a m wh i ch ,

comb i n es with t h e sod i u m t o form ca u st ic soda .

Th e followi n g re act ion s t ak e p l ac e

r o l s e d : C 12
2NaCl ( e l e c t y ) (l i berated at th e a )
n ode + 2 N a

( al l oyi n g w ith th e l e ad cathode )

'
.

— :
2Na (all oyed with th e l e a d ) + 2 I I zO
(the j et of s tea m )
2 NaO H + H2 .

Th e i nge n io u s arran gem e n t by w h ich th i s i s accom pl i sh ed i s

ill u st rated i n F i g 4 9 Th e app arat u s con s ist s of an irre g ul a r
"

. .

s h aped c as t iron ve s sel abo ut 5 feet l on g wh ich i s d i v ided in to

, ,

th ree com p art me n t s A B and C w ith th e con n ect i n g ch an n el

’

, , , , ,

R . T h e l arge r comp art m e nt A con t ai n s m el ted s al t S re st in g

’

, , , ,
1
78 T H E E L EC T R I C F UR N AC E .

on a t h i n l aye r of m olte n l e ad w h ich i s ca u se d to ci rc ul at e a s

s ho w n by t h e arrows F o u r el ectrode s E of grap h itized c arbon
.
, ,

a re i m m e rse d i n t h e f u sed s al t a n d for m t h e a nod e of th e ‘

el ect roly t ic cell b ei n g con nected t o t h e pos it ive c abl e from a

,

dy n a mo . Th e i ron t an k i s con n ected at th e poi n t H to t h e

n e gative c able t h u s m ak i n g th e m ol te n l e ad th e c a th o d e Th e
, ,
.

el ectric Cu rre n t p as s es fro m th e c arbon el ectrode s th rou gh th e

m el ted s alt to t h e fu s e d l e ad o n w h ich th e s al t re s t s I n p as s in g .

t h ro u gh t h e s al t c hl ori n e i s l iber at e d at th e c arbon electrod e s

,

a n d e scapes be in g d raw n aw ay by a fan wh il e t h e sod i u m i s

, ,
’

l ib e rate d at th e s urface of t h e l e ad a n d a llo y s wit h i t I n t h e s m all .

com p artm e n t B a j et of s tea m i nt rod uced by th e p ip e F s erve s

, , , ,

to bl ow t h e l e ad up t h e vert i cal p ip e P an d over i n to t h e th ird , ,

co m p art m e nt C from wh ich th e le a d r e t u r n s by t h e p a s s a ge R ,

, , ,

to t h e fi rs t com p art m e n t T h e l e ad e nt e ri n g B i s ch arg e d wit h

.

s o d i u m an d wh e n i t m eet s t h e s te a m i n t h e p ip e P th e sod i u m
, , ,

F ig . 49 .
—A cker ’
s C a u s tic S od a F u rn a ce .

co mbi ne s with t h e s te am for m i n g a nh ydro u s c a u st ic sod a wh ich

, ,

fl oat s on th e l e a d i n C an d over flow s by th e spo ut D an d , ,

hydrog en wh ic h e sc apes at D a n d b u r n s Th e Co mp art m e n t A

,
.

is l i n ed abov e t h e l evel of th e l e ad wit h m a g n es ite b r ic k s M

, , , ,
i

an d t he cover is form e d o f fi r e b ric k t il e s T Th e s al t to b e

-
,
.

u s ed i n th e p roces s i s w arm ed o n th e top of th e f u r n ace and th en

i n t rod uced th ro u gh ch ar gi n g h ole s i n th e roof E ach an ode .

co n s ist s of a bloc k of graph it ized c arb on 1 4 i nch e s lon g 775 ,

i ri c h e s wid e an d 3 i nch e s th ic k wh ich i s s upported b y two fi v e

, ,

in c h c arbon rod s p as s i n g th ro u gh t h e top of th e fu rn ace Th e .

c arbo n block s are l owered u nt il wi th i n i nch of t he m olten -

l e ad . Th e c u rre n t us ed i s am pere s th e vol t age of e ach ,

furn ace or pot b ei n g o nly 6 or 7 F ro m 40 to 4 5 pot s are u s e d .

'

at once b ei ng c On n e c te d i n serie s s o t h at t h e s am e c urre n t p as s es

, ,

th ro u gh th e m al l an d th e tot al v ol t a ge n ece s s ary i s 2 7 5 ; ab o u t

,
1 80 TH E E L E C T R I C F U R N AC E .

cyl i n der a n d collect s at F from wh ich i t m ay b e l adl ed or m ay

, ,

ove rflow th ro ug h a spo ut wh il e th e oxyge n r i ses o u t s id e th e g a u z e

,

cyl i n der a n d is t h erefore u n abl e to att ac k th e s od i u m

, , ,
Th e .

hy droge n ri se s wit h th e sod i u m i n s ide th e cyl i nd e r an d e scap e s

t h ro u gh th e h ol e s i n t h e cover T h e u s e of th e g a uze cyl in d e r .

allows th e a node an d c ath ode t o b e b ro u gh t v e ry close to e ach

.

oth er b ei n g only on e i nch ap art w ith o u t d an ger of th e sod i u m

, ,

m eeti n g th e oxy ge n an d i n th i s w ay t h e re s ist a nce of th e a p

,

p arat u s i s kep t lo w an d a h i gh el ectrical e ffi cie ncy c a n b e ob

,

ta in e d .

F ig . 50 .
—C a stn er s ’
S od i u m F u rn ace .

Th e apparat u s co n s i st s of a c as t i ro n p ot A Se t i n b r ic k '
-
,

wor k B an d h e ated i f n ece s s ary by a rin g of g as b u rn ers H t o

, , ,

a te mp erat ure ve ry l i ttl e ab ove t h e m el t i n g poi n t of t h e ca u s ti c

T h e c ath od e D i s s u p p o r te d i n pos i tio n an d i n s ul at ed
’

sod a .
, ,

from t h e i ron p ot by m e an s of t h e t ube G wh ich b ei n g closed , , ,

at t h e bottom by a ri n g of i n s ul ati n g m ateri al s uch a s porcel ai n , ,

i s fi ll e d with th e f u se d c a u s t i c sod a w h ich is t he n all owed to ,

sol idi fy Th e t u b e is k ep t a l ittl e cool er t h a n t h e re s t of th e

.

app arat u s an d t he c a u st ic i n G t h erefore re m ai n s sol i d an d

, , , ,

s upport s an d i ns ul ate s th e c ath ode I t i s ve ry i mporta n t t h at t he .

 E LEC T R OLY T I C P R OC E S S E S .

fus ed ca us t ic s ho ul d n ot b ei h e a te d far above it s m elt i n g po i n t

.

b e c a us e th e sod i u m wo ul d th e n rapidly red is so l ve i n it Th e "

°
c a u st ic m el t s at abo ut 3 OO G a n d s houl d b e kept not m ore t h an .
,
°
10 above th is ; 9 0 per ce nt of th e t heore tical q u ant ity o f sod i u m .

°
be in g t he n obt a i ned I f h eated 2 0 above it s m el t in g poi n t n o
.

sod i u m wo ul d be prod uced a s i t wo ul d d i s sol ve a s rap i dly a s i t ,

form ed A pot 1 8 i nch e s i n d i a mete r a n d two feet d eep will h ol d

.

2 0 po u nd s of m el ted c a ust ic a n d t ak e s a c u rre n t of m

5 a ,

pe re s at fi v e vol ts Th e c u rre n t d e n s ity i s amper e s p e r

.

s q u are foot at t h e cath ode a nd at th e a node At the .

*
N i agara E lect roch e m ic al C omp a ny s pl an t i n 1 9 0 2 th e re were ’

1 2 0 s uc h pots e mploy i n g i n all ,

h orse pow e r an d prod uc , ,
-
,

i n g abo ut 5 0 po u nd s e ach per d ay or po u n d s for t he wh ol e ,

pl a n t Th e co n s um ption of powe r w as abo u t fou r h ors e power

.
‘

h o urs per po u n d of s od i u m .

O f t h e total an n ual prod uct ion of sod i u m abo ut ton s ,

a r e u sed for cy an i de m ak i n g ton s for m ak i n g sod i u m per ,

ox i de a nd 5 00 to n s are sol d i n th e m et all ic st at e

,
.

Th e A s h cr oft S od i u m P r oce ss + — T h i s i s a n atte m pt to p ro .

d uce sodi u m from com m o n s alt i n st ead of from t h e m ore ex

p e n s ive c a u s t i c soda C om m on s alt h as s o h i gh a fu s in g .

te m pera tu re t h at i t c a n not be elect roly s ed d irectly for t h e m et al

sod i u m a s t h i s w o ul d b e v ol at il ized I n th e A c ker proce s s sod i u m
,
.

i s prod uced b ut o nly as a n al loy w ith m olte n l ead fro m wh ich

, ,

i t i s reco v ered a s c a u st ic s od a Th e A s hcroft p roces s i l l u strated .

,

i n F i g 5 1 co n s i st s i n e lect roly s i n g fu sed s al t i n a t a n k A u s i n g

.
, , ,

le ad a s th e c athod e to ret ai n th e res ul t in g sodi u m an d th e n c arry ,

i n g t h e sod i u m l ead all oy to a s econd t an k B wh ere i t b ecom e s , ,

t he anode i n a b at h of f u sed ca u st ic sod a kept j u st ab ov e

,

i t s mel ti n g poi n t I n t h i s t an k m et all ic sod i u m i s l iberated at

.

t h e cath ode C an d floati n g u pward i s c a u gh t w ith i n t h e h ood

, ,

D a n d overflows th rou gh t h e p ip e E
,
.

Th e react ion s t h at t ak e pl ace ca n b e m ade cl ear by th e fo l

lowi n g e q u at ion s
— —
I n A 2 N a C l (el ectroly s ed ) C I2 (l iberate d at t h e a n o d e ) + 2 N a
=

( di s sol vi n g i n th e le ad c athode )
I n B— N a O H (e le c t r o ly s e d ) : H O (at a n o d e ) + N a (l ibe rat ed at
t h e c ath ode )
N a (i n l e ad a llo v ) + H O = N a O H

* Ri ha ds
c r , E le c t r o c h e m . I nd .
, v ol . i .
, 1 90 2 , p . 1 5 .

+ A s h o f t Tcran s A m , r . . E l e c tr o c h e m . So c .
, v ol . ix .
,
1 9 06 , p . 1 23 ; E l e c tr o c h e m . an d
Me t
. I nd l iv
.
, 9 6 p
vo . .
,
1 0 , . 21 8 .

I3
 1 82 T H E E LE C T R I C F U R NAC E .

I n A wit h a n i n sol ubl e anode t h e s al t wh ic h fo r m s t h e

, , ,

e l ectrolyt e is b roke n up i nto ch lori n e and sodi u m

,
I n B the .
,

c a u st ic sod a el ectrolyte is r e form ed by re act ion (3 ) a s fas t as it

-

i s de stroyed by react ion

F ig 5 1
. .
—A ’
s h cr o ft s S od i u m F u rn a ce .

Th e prod uct s of the fi rs t t a n k are c hlori ne wh ich is p i ped ,

aw ay and u t il ized a n d sodi u m a s an alloy w ith l e ad ; w h il e com

,

m on s al t i s con s u m ed Th e secon d t an k yiel d s sod i u m on ly

.
,

wh ich i t t ake s fro m th e l e ad al l oy Th e f us e d c a u st ic wh ich

.
,

s e rve s a s el ectroly te is not d e st royed b ut m erely s erv e s a s a

, ,

c arrier for th e sodi u m Th e el ectr i c c urre n t wil l l ib e rat e

.

twice as m uch sod i u m a s i n t h e C ast ner p r o c e s s b e c a u s e on ly ,

_

s odi u m is s e t fre e at th e c ath ode wh il e i n th e ol de r proce s s e q u al

,

e q u ival e nt s of sodi u m a nd hydroge n were s e t free .

A s t h e t a n k A m u st b e h ot e n o u gh to fu s e s al t t h at is n e arly ,

°
8 00 C
°
.wh ile t h e t an k B is l ittle m ore t h an 3 00 C t h e l e ad
,
.
,

sodi u m alloy m u st b e coole d d u ri n g it s p as s a g e fro m A to B ,

a n d th e le ad ret urn i n g from B t o A m ust b e reh e ated Th i s 18 .

acco m pl ish ed by a twi n p ip e P of con s id erabl e l e n gth con n ect i n g

th e two ve s sel s s o th at th e al l oy flowi n g fro m A t o B give s u p
,

its h e at to th e l e ad flowi n g fro m B to A Th e p ipe i s fol ded o h .

- .
.

it sel f for comp actn e s s only a p art be i n g sh own i n th e d raw in g

,
.

Th e m ethod of p rod ucin g a cont in uo u s circ ul at ion of t h e l ead is

1 84 T H E E LEC T R I C F UR NAC E .

Th e al kal i m et al p ot a s s i u m s tr on g ly re se mbl e s sod i u m an d ,

i s obtai n e d by el ectroly s is of it s fu s e d s alt s i n p r act ic ally t h e s a m e

m an n er . Ma gn e s i u m l ar gely u se d for fl ash l igh t s an d t h e
,
-
,

al k al i n e e a rth m et al s , b ari u m c alci u m an d s tront i u m wh ich u n t il

, ,

rece ntly we re q u i t e r are i n th e m et al l ic form al th ou gh l i m e t h e , ,

ox ide of c alci u m i s s o com m on a r e al l o b t ai ne d by th e el ectrol y s i s

, ,

of t h e f us ed chlori d es of t h e s e m et al s C alci u m h a s al s o bee n .

obt ai ned by h eati n g calci u m c arb id e t o a ve ry h i gh t e mp e rat u re

in the el ectric furn ac e T h e c arb id e d i s soci ate s y iel di n g c al ci u m
.
,

v apor wh ich c a n b e con de n s ed C alc i u m i s l e s s viol e nt i n i t s

.

re act ion s th an sod i u m an d will for m a val u abl e re d ucin g r e a ge n t

i n cert ai n m et all u rgic al operat ion s W h e n c alc i u m i s ad d e d to .

m olte n st eel i t i s s a i d to re m ove ve ry com pl etely not only t h e

,

oxy ge n b u t al so a ny n itroge n t h at m ay b e con t ai n ed i n th e s teel

, ,

form i n g a n i tr i d e of c alci u m A n ot her co mpo u n d . c al ci u m ,

hydride i s form ed b y h eati n g c alci u m i n a n at m os ph e re of

,

hy droge n I t i s c all e d h ydrol ith (hyd ro g e n s ton e ) b ec a u se

.
“ ”

, ,

whe n pl aced i n wate r i t l i berate s a l ar g e q u a nt ity of h yd rog en

,
.

Th e h ydroge n i s s uppl ied i n p art by th e c alci u m wh ich r e act s ,

w i th w ater form i n g l i m e an d h yd roge n an d i n p art fro m th e

‘

h v d r o g e n cont ai ned i n th e c al ci u m h ydri de a s s how n i n th e e q u a ,

t i on
C a H2 2 H2 O CaHzOz 2 H2 .

O nekilogr am of th e hydrol ith i s fo u nd t o y i el d as m uch a s

o ne c ubic m eter of hyd roge n s o th at i t s ho ul d b e very val uabl e
,

for i nfl at in g ball oon s an d for oth er p u rpose s .

Th e S w in b u rn e a n d A s h cr oft ch l or i n e s me ltin g p roce s s — Th i s

i s a m eth od for t h e t re at m e n t of m i x ed s ul ph ide ore s s uch as th ose
of zinc an d l e ad A l th o u gh l ar gely a ch e m ic al proces s th e fi n al
.
,

st age is c arried o ut i n a n electric f ur n ace a nd a S hort accou n t ,

m ay t h erefore b e give n h ere

, ,
.

T he ore con s i st in g of s ul ph ide s of l e ad zi nc i ron an d

, , , ,

m a n g anes e wit h som e s i l ver i s decomposed by t h e act ion of d ry

, ,
° °
c hlori ne at a te m p erat u re of 6 00 C or 7 O O G i n a speci al ve s sel .
,
.
,

c all ed a t ran sform er for m i n g a f u s ed m i x t u re of ch l orid e s of t h e

,

m et al s . T h e s ul ph ur com e s o ff i n t h e fre e s tate an d ca n b e ,

c on de n se d a nd s aved wh il s t t h e e arth y m a ttte r or g an g u e from

, ,

t h e ore re m ai n s s u s pe n ded i n t h e f use d chl orid e s E n ou g h h ea t

,
.

i s p rod uced by th e re act ion to keep t h e t ran s form e r at th e rig h t

t em perat u re wh ic h ca n b e re g ul ated by p as s in g th e ch lori n e m or e
,

or l es s rapidly W h e n t h e ve s se l i s full of chlorid e s t h ey are

.

tapped o ut l eavi n g e nou gh beh i n d to se rve a s a m ol te n b ath i nto

,
 E LEC T R OLY T I C P R OC E S S E S . 1 85

wh ic h m ore ore ca n be ch ar ged and th ro u gh wh ich t h e chlorin e ,

c a n be p as s ed Th e m olte n chloride s are t re ate d w it h m olte n

.

l e ad wh ich s erve s to re m ove th e s i l ve r an d wi t h z i nc t o re m ove

, ,

th e l e ad Th e re m ai n i n g chloride s are di ssolved i n w ater separ

.
,

ated fro m th e ga n g ue by fi lt rat i on an d t h e i ro n a nd m an gan e se ,

p reci pitat ed che m ical ly by th e add it ion of chlori n e an d zin c ox id e ,

l e avi n g a s ol ut ion of zi nc chl orid e on ly Th i s sol ut ion i s e v a p o r .

at ed an d t he n fu se d an d electrolyse d i n a fur n ace show n i n o ut

,

l i n e in F i g 1 9 p 3 0 . Th e prod uct s are mol te n zinc wh ich i s

,
. .
,

t appe d o ff at i n te rval s an d chlori n e wh ich i s comp res sed an d , ,

us e d a ga i n for t h e treat men t of fres h q u an tit ie s of Or e Th e .

p roces s i s on e of great i n teres t an d i s appl ic abl e to ve ry m a ny ,

com pl e x ore s wh ich a r e d iffi c u l t to t re at by oth e r m eth od s

,
It .

i s s el f con t a i ned a n d doe s not re q u i re any exp en s ive re a gen t s a s

-
, ,

t h e ch lori n e for t h e tran s form er i s prod uced i n t he electroly s i s of

t h e zi n c chloride b ut t h e operat ion s are s om ewh at compl icated
, ,

a n d wo ul d n eed very c are ful atte n t ion A t p re se n t t h e only com .

m eric al i n st all at ion is at a pl a n t of th e C ast n er Kell n er C o wh ich -

.
,

h as a s u pply of ch lori n e from oth er proce s s e s a nd u ses i t for t h e ,

tre at m e nt of com ple x ore s as de scribed above b ut O m it s th e ,

fi n a l el ectrolys is obt ai n i n g th e zin c i n th e form of chloride

,
Ac .

“
co u nt s o f t h i s proces s c a n b e fo u n d i n t h e E lect roch e m ical I n
d u stry vol i p 4 1 2 ; vol i i p 404 ; vol i ii p 6 3 t h e
,
”
. .
,
. . .
,
. . .
,
.
,

t ran s act ion s of t h e I n st it u t ion of M i n in g an d Met all ur gy for 1 90 1 ,

a n d th e M i n e ral I n d u s try vol s x an d x i ,

. . .

A l u min iu m — Th i s i s t h e m os t i m port a n t m et al th at i s pro

.

d u c e d s olely i n th e el ectric furn ace O rig i n ally it w as obt ai n ed by .

com pl icated ch e m i cal m eth od s i n v ol vi n g th e u s e of m et all ic sod i u m

a s a red uc i n g a gen t b ut th e el ect ric al m eth od describe d on p a g e
, ,

e nt i rel y s up pl anted t h e olde r p roce s se s Th e com m on m etal s

i ro n coppe r l e ad t i n zi nc etc —occ u r i n th ei r ore s a s ox i de s
7 .

, ,
.
,
, , ,

or ca n ea s ily b e co nverted i nto ox ide s by a roas t i n g operat ion ,

an d th es e ox ide s are re ad ily red uced to t h e m et all ic st ate by t h e

action o f carbo n i n a n ord i n ary fu r n ace bec a u se at s uch t e mp era , ,

t u re s oxy ge n h as a great er a ffi n ity for c arbo n t h an it h a s for th e

,

m et al . O th er m et al s h oweve r s uch as al u m i n i u m cal c i u m , , , ,

a n d sod i u m h ave a gre at e r a ffi n ity for ox y ge n th a n th ose al ready

,

m en t ion ed an d i t i s ve ry d i ffi c ul t an d i n som e c ase s i mpos sibl e

, , ,

t o red uc e t h e ox ides of t he se m et al s by m e an s of carbon at ord i n

a ry furn ace t em perat ures W ith t h e ai d of el ect ric ity h oweve r .
”

, ,

a ny m et al c an be red uced eith er by h e at i n g t h e ox id e to a very ,

h i g h te m p erat u re at wh ich th e a ffi n ity betwe e n th e m etal and

,
1 86 T H E E LE C T R I C F U R NAC E .

oxy ge n i s l e s s en ed s o th at th e l atte r c a n be re m oved b y m e an s

,

of c arbon or by di s s olvi n g t h e ox id e or oth er ore of th e m et al

,

i n 'a s u it abl e s ol ven t a nd apply i n g a n el ectric al forc e t o te ar t h e

,

com po u nd i nto two p art s by electroly s i s t h u s l iber at i n g t h e m et al

,
.

A l u m i n i u m c alci u m a nd oth er m et al s c a n b e red uce d by c arbon

, ,

at t h e h i gh tem perat ure of t h e el ectric fu rn ace b ut i m m ed i at e ly ,

omb i ne with a furth er q u a nt i ty of c arbon form i n g c arb id e s

c
.
,

I t i s th erefore nece s s ary wh en t h e p ure m et al i s de s ired to e m

, , , ,

pl oy el ectrolys i s i n st e ad o f t h e d i rect red uctio n w i t h c arb on .

A l u m i n i u m h a s bee n t e rm e d S ilver from C l ay as it form s

“ ”

som e 1 5 o r 2 0 p er ce n t of ord i n ary cl ay b u t th e ex pe n s e of e x

.
,

tract i n g al u m in i u m from cl ay woul d be s o gre at th at t h e r ich e r

F ig . 52 .
—A l u min iu m F u rn a ce .

ore b a ux ite i s alw ay s e m pl oyed a s a so u rce o f t h is m e t al

, ,
.

B a ux i te con s i st s of al u m i n a t h e ox i de of al u m i n i u m combi n ed
, ,

with some wate r an d as soc i ated wit h s i l ica ox id e of iron etc I f , ,

.

th e n at u ral b a u x i te we re m erely c alci n ed to re m ov e th e w ater

and t he n elect roly s ed i n t h e el ectri c fu rn ace t h e i ron an d s il icon ,

wo ul d b e re d uced m ore re adily th a n th e al u m i n i u m Th e res ul t .

i n g me t al w o ul d th erefore be i m p ure an d wo ul d be al m os t u sel es s

for m os t of t h e p urpo se s to wh ich al u m i n i u m i s ap pl ied th o ug h ,

an i mp u re m et al obt ai n ed i n t h is w ay wo ul d s erve for t h e p ro

, ,
’
d uct ion of h i gh te mpe rat u re s by D r G o l d sch m idt s Th e rm i t
.

p r oce ss . For th e prod uct i on of th e p ure m et al th e b au x it e m u st

be p ur i fi ed before be i n g i n t rod uced i nto th e el ect rolyt i c fu rn ace .
1 88 T H E E LEC T R I C F U R NAC E .

bee n s t ate d th at i n recen t p r actice th e al u m i n i u m f u rn ace

° °
wor ke d at 7 SO C or 8 00 C . .

Th e al u m i n i u m i n d us try i s grow i n g r ap idl y at th e p res e nt “

t i m e a n d a n ex te n ded u s e of t h e m et al w ill n o do ubt follow th e

l ar ger s upply P rof R ich ard s g ive s t h e tot al prod uct ion Of
.
*
.

al u m i n i u m i n 1 9 0 6 as n ot far sh ort of m etric ton s , val ue d

at an d s ay s t h at th e o utp u t i n 1 90 7 wil l prob abl y ‘
-

be twice a s gre at a s i n 1 9 0 6 an d t h at i n 1 9 08 th e p rod uct ion of

,

al u m i n i u m will p rob ably b e twice as gre at a s i n 1 9 0 7 .

*
J
. W R i h a d s En gin
. c r , eer i n g a nd M i n i n g J o u n al
r , v ol . lxxx iii p
, . 1 08 3 , an d th e

M i n e r al I n du s t ry, v ol . xv .
 F U T U R E D E V E LO P M EN T S . 18
9

CH AP T E R V II .

F u tu re De v e l op me n ts of th e E le ctri c F ur n a ce ~

I n t h i s concl ud in g ch apter a n attem p t m ay be m ad e to ,

in d ica te i n wh at di rec tion s f ut u re develop m e nt s of th e el ectr i c

fu rn ace m ay be e xpected a nd to wh at e x te n t t h i s de v el opm en t i s
,

l i kely to p roceed S uch a n atte m pt can h ardly fail to p rove

.

in correc t h owever o n acco u n t of t h e gre at ch an ge s t h at t ak e

, ,

pl ace i n t h e econo m ic con d it ion s of th e world a s wel l as on a c ,

co u nt o f th e d i scoverie s a n d i m p rove m e nt s wh ich are m ad e w ith

‘

i ncre as i n g freq uency .

Th e foll o wi n g q u es tion s m ay b e as ked

1. H o w far will t h e el ectric c u rren t repl ace fuel i n fu rn ace s
for t h e s m elt i n g a n d re fi n i n g of m et al s !
2 . W h at u n to uch e d fi el d s of u seful n es s are w aiti n g for th e
el ectri c fu rn ace !
3 . W h at l i m it s are th ere to th e com m erc ial de vel opm en t of
th e elect ric fu rn ace !
E lectric furn ace operat ion s m ay be ro u gh ly d ivi ded i nto two
c l as s es fi rst t hos e wh ich c a n sc arcely be e ffected i n a n y ot h er
, ,

way a nd i n wh i ch elect rical h e ati n g m u st alway s h ol d th e fi el d

, ,

s uch as t h e p rod uct i on of c alci u m carb ide c arbor u n d um a n d , ,

al u m i n i u m S eco n d th os e i n wh ic h e it h er f uel or el ectrical heat

.
,

m ay b e u sed wit h a fair m eas ure of e ffi cie ncy an d i n wh ich th e

‘

p rice of th e two s o urces of he at m u st be comp ared ,

i n add it io n to th e e fli c ie n c y of e ach before decid in g wh ich ,

to e m pl oy .

Th e rel ati ve price s of coal a nd ele ctrical e n er gy an d th e ,

a m o u nt of electr ical powe r th at w il l b e avail able are con s idera ,

t io n s of th e fi rs t i mport a nce i n determ i n i n g th e fut ure of t h e

el ectric fu rn ace .

U n til a few ye ars a go th e el ectric c urren t w as a won derful

a n d e x pe n s i v e com m od ity a n d th e i de a of u s i n g i t for h e at in g on
,

a com m erci al sc al e w a s prepostero u s A bo ut 1 3 ton s of coal .

we re needed to prod uce o ne el ectric al h ors e p owe r for a y e ar -

i
,

a n d t h i s el ectrical e ne rgy wo ul d fu rn is h l es s h e a t t h a n on e ton

,

of t h e ori gi n al coal S uch a m eth od of u s i n g coal w a s eviden tl y

.

ex t re m el y was te ful Th e gre ate r e ffi ci ency of el ect rical he at in g

.

so mewh at red uce s th i s d i fferen ce a nd to geth er with t h e s m al l er ,

cost of water powe r h a s m ade i t che ap er i n som e c ase s to u s e

-

”
“
wh ite coal i n st ead of bl ac k i n th e fu rn ace ,
.
 1 90 T HE E LE C T R I C F U R NAC E .

I n com p ari n g th e s uppl i e s a n d p rice s of coal an d electri ca l

e nerg y i t s h o ul d be re m e mbered t h at o n e ton of good coal p r o
,

d uce s as m uch h ea t as 1 y3 h ors e powe r ye ars of el ectrical e ne rg y

-
,

b ut th at t h e e ffi ci ency of t h e el e ctr i cal fu rn ace i s fro m 2 t o 3 0

ti m e s as gr e at a s t h e e ffi c ie ncy of ord i n ary m et all urgic al furn ac e s ,

s e t h at a n el ectri cal h ors e power ye ar w il l p rod uce a s m uch

-

e ffective he at as s everal ton s of coal Th e fi g ure s for di ffere n t

.

O perat ion s are g ive n i n C h apt er I I I p a ge 3 4 .

,
.

’
Th e worl d s prod uct ion of coal at th e p re se n t t i m e i s ab ou t
m i ll io n ton s a ye ar an d i s s te ad ily i ncre as i n g T h e ele c tri c
,
.

fu rn ace d raws it s e ner gy m ai n l y from w ater powers The -

.

w ate r powers of th e worl d t h at h ave al re ady bee n ut i l iz e d a r e

-

very s m all i n com pari son wi th th e p re s e n t coal o utp ut h av i n g in ,

all on ly abo ut I p er cen t of th e h e ati n g p ower of t h e l atter

. .

I n vi ew of t h e fact t h at coal m in i n g i s a l on g e s t abl is h e d -

in d us try , wh il e t h e el ect ri fi cat ion of w ate r power s is on ly o f -

r ece n t growth i t i s re ason able to s upp ose th at th e l atte r wil l ih

,
- v

creas e more q u ic kly i n proport io n t h an t h e form e r I n both cas e s .

th e re are l i m i ts h owever ; th e coal m i ne s will ul t im ately all b e

,

d i scove re d an d worked ou t to a depth at wh ich th e cost b ecom e s

al most p roh ib itory wh il e o n t h e oth e r h an d t h e w at er p ow e rs w il l
,
-

11 be de v eloped l e av i n g only t h os e th at a r e too ex pe n s iv e t o

,

ut ilize
. W h en t he s e l i m i t s are re ach ed th e coal s upply w ill h av e
s un k to a s m al l p rop ort io n of th e a m o u n t n eeded for h e at i n g an d
power b ut th e wa ter powe rs will con ti n u e to giv e a s teady s up pl y
,
-

of pow e r for al l t i m e wit h on l y m ai nt en ance an d i nte r e st ch arg e s .

Th e ex h a us tio n of coal s uppl i e s m ay not b e re ach e d fo r

h u n dred s or t ho u s a n d s of y e ars b ut i f th e d evel op me n t of t h e
,

m i ne s p roce ed s a s at prese n t at i ncre as in g r at e s l i k e com pou n d

, ,

in te rest th ei r pract i cal d epl et ion m ay b e le s s di st a n t th an now a p

,

p e ars prob abl e . I n an y c as e i t see m s l i kel y t h at a s coal ca n on ly

be u sed o nce wh i l e w ater pow e rs are not d ete rior ate d by u s e
,
-
,

th e l atter m ay b e ex pecte d ul t i m ately to l arg el y repl ace t h e form er

for m ot i v e powe r an d t o som e ex te nt for f urn ace work .

Th e pre se n t age e speci al ly on th i s cont i ne n t i s on e Of th e

, ,

b arb aric u s e of t h e m i ne ral as set s s uch a s coal an d ore A s th e .

pop u l at i on i nc re ase s a nd th e devel op m e n t of m i ne s is p u sh ed to

i t s l i m it th e i ncre as in g s carcity both of th e ore and of th e fu el
,

to s m el t i t ,
will m ake i t n ece s s ary to sp e n d m ore m on e y in
ut i l izin g th es e t o th e very be st advan t a ge u si n g th e coal with th e
°

greate st econom y a n d ex t ract i n g e v ery p os sibl e p rod uct from th e

o re. I t h a s bee n s u g ge st ed th at th e prese n t en orm o u s prod uc
t ion of i ron an d steel for ex am pl e c a n onl y rep re sen t a t em pora ry
192 THE E LEC T R I C F U R NAC E .

not pre vio usly b e re ach ed or i n oth er word s i t h a s do uble d

, th e
avail abl e r an ge of tem per at ure s above t h e freezi ng poi n t .

II. I n th e electric furn ace s ub s t a nce s c an b e h e ate d to any

temperat ure wi th i n th i s i ncre as ed r a n ge w ith th e com pl et e ex
c l u s io n of air or fu rn ac e g as es wh ile wit h oth er f ur n ace s i t w a s
,

very di ffi c ul t a n d some ti m e s i m pos s ibl e to e x cl u d e th e fu rn ac e

g ases from t h e s ub s ta nce t o b e h e ated .

III Th e greater e fli c ie n c y of th e el ectric fu rn ace over th e

.
,

f u el furn ace wh ich i s p art ic ul arly n ot ice abl e at h i gh te mp e ra

,

t u re s h as en abl e d th e electri c c urre nt alth o u gh m ore ex p e n s ive

, , ,

to repl ace fuel for cert ai n p urpose s .

IV . Th e elect rolyt ic fu rn ace e n abl es a direct electric te n s io n

to b e appl ied to b rea k u p com po u n d s th at c a n not b e de al t wit h

by t h e ordi n ary ch em ic al react ion s at h i gh te mp er at u re s .

Th e i ncre as ed ran ge of te m per at u re th at i s n ow avail abl e

h a s res ult ed i n a com pl ete n ew ch e m i s try of h i gh te mp erat u re s .

A t t h es e tem p erat u re s al l m et al s are red uce d fro m th eir ox ide s b y

c arbon , an d m any of t h e m u n i te wit h m ore c arb on t o for m c ar
b ides som e of wh ich h ave v al u abl e p rop erti es
, O th er co m .

'

po u n ds s uch a s s ilicide s a nd boride s h av e al so b e e n o b ta in e d a n d ‘

s t u die d . N o do ub t i n t h e f ut ur e m a ny oth e r com po u nd s will

b e obt ai n ed fro m th e ele m e nt s s il icon c arbon c alci u m ox yge n
, , , , ,
’
a n d al u m i n i um wh ich form s uch a l ar ge prop ort io n of th e e art h s
,

cr u st as th e wor k t h at h a s al re ady b ee n don e i n th i s d irect ion

,

c a n only be con s ide re d t o h av e scr atch ed l i gh tly i n t h e vi r gi n soi l

j

t h at h a s bee n pl aced at o u r d i spos al C o u n t m g 1n th e oth e r

.

el e me nt s i t w il l be s ee n wh at a n i m m e n se fi e l d for d i scove ry l i e s
,

o p e n to t hos e wh o are work i n g with t h e elect ri c f urn ace An .

ot he r power f urn i sh ed by th e electri c fu r n ace i s t h e ab il ity t o

s ep arate an d p u ri fy s ub st a nce s by fr act ion al d i s till ation at th e s e
h i gh t e mperat u re s W h at co ul d for m erl y b e don e by th e
.

ch e m ist i n th e sep arat io n of org a n ic l i q u i d s by d i st ill at io n i n

gl as s ve s s el s c an n ow b e e ffected i n t h e electri c fu r n ac e i n th e
cas e of s uch bodie s a s i ron l i m e a n d s il ic a not t o m en t ion t h e
, ,

m ore fu s ibl e m et al s s uch as g ol d a nd s ilver Th e re m oval by .

d i st ill at ion i n th e electric fur n ace of t h e as h form i n g m atte rs fro m

a nt h r acite d uri n g its co nversion i nto g raph it e i s o n e com m ercial
, ,

e x am ple of a p roce s s wh ich w il l n o do ub t b e l argely e m ploye d

i n t h e fut u re .

The h i gh t em per at u re s t h at ca n b e obt ai n ed t ogeth er wit h ,

t he e as e with wh ich air ca n b e ex cl uded a nd t h e h i gh e ffi cie n c y ,

eve n a t h ig h te m perat u re s h as m ad e i t econ om ic al t o s m el t

'

,
 F U T U R E D E V ELO P M EN T S . 1
93

e l ect ri cally s uch m et al s as ch rom i u m m an gan ese t un gste n , , ,

t it a n i u m a n d t he ele me n t S il icon wh ose red uct ion h ad bee n

, ,

d i ffi c ult e xpe n s ive a n d i nco mp l et e i n ord i n ary f urn ace s O th er

, , .

e le m e nts will n o do ubt b e add ed to th is l i st a n d a l arge n u mber

, , ,

o f alloy s an d compo u nd s of t h es e w i l l cert ai nly b e d i scovered .

Th e el ectroly tic furn ace h a s alre ady en able d a l u m i n i u m ,

s od i u m potas s i u m m ag ne s i u m calc i u m b ari u m stront i u m an d

, , , , , ,

o ther m et al s to b e obt a i ned from th e ir f used s alt s to geth er w ith ,

ch lori n e an d oth e r s ub s t ance s A lth o u gh mos t of th e ord i n ar y

.

m e t al s t h at are a m e n ab l e to th i s t reatm e n t m u s t h ave bee n ex

e r i m e n t e d w it h al re ady t he re are no doubt m a ny n ew proce s se s
p ,

of t hi s ch aracte r w ait i n g to b e d i scovered a nd it see m s l i kely th at

,

a far gre ate r u s e c a n b e m ad e of th e a l k al i a nd al kal i n e earth

m etal s t h at h ave bee n m ade a v a i l able i n q u ant ity by t h i s m ea n s .

Th e very h i g h tem pe rat u re of t h e el ectric furn ace h as e n

abl ed it to b e u s ed for m el t i n g re fractory m et al s an d st il l m or e
refractory s ub st a nce s s uc h a s s i l i ca l i m e m ag n es i a an d al u m i n a
, ,
.

Th e pos s ib il i ty of fus i n g t he se s ubs ta nce s i n q u a nt i ty wil l l e ad t o

fres h use s of t he s e an d oth e r m ate ri al s Th e co nvers ion of .

a morph o u s c arbon i nto g raph i te i s a n e x am pl e of a phy sical.

c h an ge i n a n e l e m e n tary s ub st ance at a h i gh te mpe rat u re t h at ,

m ay not soo n b e d upl i c at ed t ho u gh th e p rob l e m of it s con ve rs ion

,

i nto t he d i a mon d is st i l l u n sol ve d com m erc i al ly .

O ne very i mporta n t u s e of t h e el ectr i c fu r n ace i s for e x p e r i

m en t al wor k in t h e l aboratory H ere th e it em of cos t i s n ot
.

a m atte r of g reat i m port an ce a s th e operation s are u s u a l ly s m all

a nd occ a s i on al . Th e res ul t s of s uch exp eri me ntal work a re
fre q ue ntly very i m portan t a n d far re ach i n g -
F or s uch p urpose s .

t h e el ect ric fu rn ace will b e i ncre a s i n gly e m ployed an d sta nd ard ,

form s wi l l b e d ev i s ed for h e at in g s ub s t ances a nd carry in g o ut r e ,

act ion s with th e complet e ab se n ce o f oxy ge n c arbon or oth e r o b , ,

i n a b le s ub st ance V ac u u m a n d pre s s ure fur n ace s wil l al so

j e c t o .

b e con st r ucted an d e m pl oyed .

O n e prob abl e devel op m en t of th e el ectric furn ace i n th e n ear

f ut u re is m ad e pos s ibl e by t h e i nterm itten t u s e th at i s m ad e of
e l ect ric power for l i ght i n g a n d m otor p urpose s W h e n el ect ric .

powe r i s p rod uced hyd ra ul icall y l ar ge q u an t it ie s co ul d b e sold

,

for el ect ric furn ace wor k at m oderat e pr ice s prov i ded it were
only u sed betwee n cert ai n ho u rs A lth o u gh t h e s m el t in g of
.

ores co uld h ardly be c arried o n i n th i s i n te rm itten t fa sh ion t h ere ,

are m a ny p u rpose s for wh ich el ectric al h eat co ul d be appl i ed i n

th i s way . O n e of t hese h a s bee n s u g ge ste d by R ich ard
 1
94 TH E E L E C T R I C F U R N A C E .

M o ld e n ke i n an art icl e e n t itled E l ectric S m e l t in g for th e

i n wh ich h e s u gge s ts t h at fo u n dry m e n s ho u l d m ake
th ei r own s teel c ast i n gs by m e an s of th e e l ect ric f urn ac e prefer ,

ably th e i nd uct i on f u rn ace ; t h at eve n iro n c ast i n g s woul d b e

m ad e bette r i n th i s w a y th an i n th e c u pol a an d th at t h e el e c t ri c ,

f u rn ace wo ul d b e i de al for b r as s m el ti n g S uch o p e r at ion s .

co ul d of c o u rs e b e con d ucted cont i n uo u sly or as h a s b ee n s u g

, , ,

gest ed above i n term itte ntl y s o a s to ob t ai n th e pow e r m or e

,

ch eaply .

I n concl u s io n i t sh o ul d b e re me mbere d t h at wat e r power s -

are n ot t h e only avail abl e so urce of el ectric al power for fu rn ac e

work O n e oth er i m port an t so u rce of s uch powe r is th e wa st e
.

g as fro m th e i ro n bl a st furn ac e Th i s i f u se d i n l ar g e g a s .

e n gi n es w ill fre que n tly fu rn i s h a con s id erabl e a mo u nt of p owe r

i n e x ce s s of wh at i s n eeded for r u n n i n g t h e pl an t an d t h i s ex ce s s ,

co ul d be u se d for th e el ectric s m el t in g of s teel or S i mi l ar p urpose s .

Prof J W R ic h a r d s r h a s s t ated t h at th ere is as m u ch a s

. . .
‘

000 h ors e pow e r avail abl e fro m t h i s so urce i n t h e U n ited S t ate s

-

al one .

For s om e el ectric f u rn ace proces se s eve n coal b u rn e d i n

st e a m boil ers m ay b e us e d t o ge n erat e p ow e r b ut a con s ider abl e ,

s avi n g ca n n ow b e e ffecte d by t h e u s e of co al wh ich n ee d n ot ,

eve n b e of very good q u al i ty i n g as prod ucer s for r u nn i n g l ar g e ,

g as e n gi ne s .

O th er so urce s of el ectric p owe r wh ich m ay b e u s e d i n t h e ,

f ut ure w h e n th e p rice of coal i s getti n g h i gh er are t h e i m m en s e

, ,

m ove m e nt s of w at er k nown a s th e t ide s A tte m pt s h ave al s o

'

b ee n m ade to h arn e s s th e oce an w ave s wh os e gre at p ower i s a t

‘

te sted by m a n y r o c k bo u n d coast s a nd al th o u gh th e ir irre g ul arit y ,

re nders th e m u n s u it abl e for el ectric l i gh t i n g a n d oth e r u se s of

elect rici ty wh ere con s t a ncy is a n e s s e n t i al factor i t w o ul d se e m ,

poss ibl e th at cert ai n s m el t i n g ope r at ion s co ul d b e cond uct ed in

th i s way .

Th e stride s of phy s ical scie nce i n rece n t ye ar s h ave bee n s o

‘

en orm o u s th at t h ere seem s to b e n o l i m it t o wh at m ay ult i m ately

be pos s ibl e an d i f i n th e fut u re we are abl e a s s u ggest e d by L ord
, ,

Kelvi n to d raw e n dl es s s uppl ies of p ower from th e eth er itse lf

, ,

we c an awai t with q u iet m i nd s t h e ex h a u st ion of t h e coal s uppl ie s

of th e world .

*El o h e m i al an d M e t allu g i al I ndu s t y

e c tr -
c lc r c r , vo . v .
, 1 9 07 , p .
42 .

+ T an
r s A m E l e tr o c h m
. S oc l iii .
9 3 p 67 c e . .
, vo . .
, 1 0 , . .
1 96 I ND EX .

A .

A rc e l ectr i c
,
,
1, 2, 3, 19, 2 1, 3 2 , 53 , 6 1 , 67, 1 73 .

furnaces ,
1
, 3 , 4, 5, 8, 10
,
19
,
20
,
6 0 6 2 , 6 6 6 9 , 7 1 , 7 4 , 87 9 2 ,
- - -
1 29
1 73 .

furnaces d i rect heat i n g 1 9 2 0 3 2 (s e e G i rod Herou l t ,

-

,
-

, , , ,
Hi g g i n s ,

S a lg ues S i e m en s and Wi l l son , ,

.

furnaces i nde p en d ent 1 9 3 2 see B i r k e l and and E y d e , , , , ,

M o i ssan .

S i e m en s a n d S ta s s a n o ,
.

l i g ht 1 2 , ,
.

res i stance o f 6 7 ,
.

v o l ta g e o f 6 0 6 2 6 7 69 1 7 3 ,
-

,
-

,
.

A r s e m v acuu m e l ectr i c furnace 83

, ,
.

A shcroft so d i u m p rocess 1 8 1 1 83
, ,
-
.

A shcroft and S w i nburne ch l or i ne s m e l t i n g p rocess 1 84 1 85 , ,

-
.

Ba i rd C a l i forn i a e l ectr i c s m e l t i n g o f i ron ores 1 4 1 07 1 2 1

, , , , ,
.

Ba l ance s h eet o f heat 4 6 ,

.

Bar i u m 1 9 3 ,
.

Barnes D r H T s p ec i fi c heat o f w ater 3 8

,
. . .
, ,
.

Barus t h er m o e l ectr i c p y ro m etr y 82

,
-
, .

Batter y e l ectr i c 1 3
Baux i te o r e o f a l u m i n i u m 5 2 1 86 —
,
.
, ,

, 1 87 , ,
.

refractor y mater i a l 5 2 5 5 5 6
'

.
, , ,

Beard heat i n su l at i on 5 6
, ,
.

Bec k et F M u se o f s i l i con f o r reduc i n g meta l s

,
. . 1 72
, ,
.

w ater j ac k ets f o r e l ectrodes 80 -

.
,

Benn i e P M c N G i n stee l furnace 1 0 5

,
. .
, ,
.

Ber g am o Ita l y z i nc i n e l ectr i c furnace at 1 7 0

, , ,
.

Bertan i a n d C a s a r e tti z i nc i n e l ectr i c furnace 1 7 0

, , ,
.

Besse m er furnace 86 9 1 9 2 , , ,
.

stee l 1 2 8 5 86 , , ,
.

B i r k e l and a n d E y d e n i tr i c ac i d i n e l ectr i c furnace 1 7 3 , ,

.

B i su l p h i de o f carbon p ro d uct i on i n e l ectr i c furnace 1 7 4 , ,

.

B i tu m i nou s coa l ca l or i fi c p o w er o f 4 3 44 , ,
-
.

u se o f i n e l ectr i c furnace 1 2 4 ,
.

B l ast furnace cok e u sed i n 1 3 4 1 1 1 0 , , , ,

.

e ffi c i enc y 4 1 1 2 3 1 2 8 , , ,
.

e l i m i nat i on o f su l p hur and p hos p horu s 1 3 2 ,

.

Bo i l i n g te m p erature o f car b on 5 3 5 5 , ,
.

Borchers D r W 9 ,
. .
,
.

e l ectr i c furnaces 2 4 60 7 6 80 , , , ,
.

E l ectr i c S m e l t i n g a n d R e fi n i n g
“
3 4 5 6 24 1 5 5 , , , ,
.

Bo u d ou a r d O te m p erature m easure m ents 5 0 5 2 5 3 5 6 82

,
.
, , , , , ,
.

Boy s C V q uartz fi l a m ents 1 7 2

,
. .
, ,
.

Brass 4 0 ,
.

Br i c k s refractor y 4 9 5 8 ( see a l so a l u m i na baux i te car b on do l o m i te

, , , , , , ,

fi r e c l a y m a g nes i a a n d s i l i ca
-
, ,
.

Br i sto l W H e l ectr i c furnace 2 2

,
. .
, ,
.

ther m o e l ectr i c p y rometer 83 -

,
.

Br i t i sh ther m a l u n i t 3 3 3 8 3 9 4 0 4 3 , ,
-

, ,
.

Bronze a l u m i n i u m 6 , ,
.

i n con struct i on o f e lectr i c furnaces 80 8 7 1 5 2 , , ,

.

Bro w n W G ,
stee l from o r e i n e l ectr i c furnace 1 3 3
. .
, ,
.

Bun se n b atter y 3 ,
.

Bur g ess G K p y rometr y 82 83

,
. .
, , ,
.
 I N DE X .
97

Burn i n g g ases from e l ectr i c furnace ,

6, 1 0, 1 10
,
1 1 3, 11 5, 1 2 0, 1 2 2 - 1 2 8,

he at fro m burn i n g fu e l , 33, 41

C ab l es e l ectr i c 1 5 1 8 6 7 80 8 1 1 0 5 1 06 1 08, 1 1 7 , 1 1 9
, ,
-
, , , , , ,
.

C a l c i um 1 0 9 9 1 84 1 93
, , , ,
.

carb i de 9 1 0 1 2 5 1 1 5 4 1 5 5 , , , , ,
-
.

h y dr i de 1 84 ,
.

n i trate 1 7 3 1 7 4 ,
-
.

C a l i forn i a e l ectr i c sme l t i n g i n 1 4 1 2 1

, , , .

C a l l ender re si stance p y rometer , 82

, .

C a l or i e ,

C a lo r i fi c p o w er o f fue l s and e l ectr i ca l ener g y 3 3 41 , , ,

-
44 .

C a l or i m eter 4 1 4 2 , ,
.

C a l or i te subst i tute f o r therm i t 1 7 2

, ,
.

C anada e l ectr i c heat i n 1 9 1

, ,
.

e l ectr i c sme l t i n g i n 36 ,
.

C anad i an i ron ores 1 2 1 ,

.

Go v ernment C omm i ss i on 1 3 etc ( see H a a n e l ) , ,

.
,
.

C a p ac i t y o f e l ectr i c furnaces 4 5 88 9 0 9 1 9 2 9 5 9 6 99 , , , , , , , , ,
1 00, 1 06 ,

13 2, 1 44 .

C arb i de of ca l c i um 9 53 54 1 5 5 , ,
1 0, 1 2, ,
1 -
.

s i l i con ( see carboru ndu m ) ,

.

C arb i des 9 ,
1 55 -
12, 1 3 6, 1 49 -
.

C arbon amor p hou s 5 3 7 6 7 7 7 8 7 9 3 0 1 4 2 1 4 3 1 4 7 . 1 4 8 1 49

, , . . . . . . . . .

b l oc k s 2 5 2 6 5 3 , , ,
.

bo i l i n g p o i nt o f 5 3 5 5 , ,
.

ca l or i fi c p o w er o f 4 3 ,
.

cruc i b l es 8 ,
.

d i a m ond 3 5 3 1 4 2 , , ,
.

e l ectrodes 1 2 4 5 6 1 7 2 3 4 8 5 3 7 7 7 8 79 80 8 1 , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,
1

furnace l i n i n g s 8 1 2 5 3 5 4 1 0 8 1 1 2 1 1 7 1 1 9 , , , , , , , ,
.

g ra p h i t i c ( see a l so g ra p h i te ) 53 , ,
.

f o r reduc i n g ores 86 1 07 137 13 8 1 5 5 1 70 19 1

, , , ,
-

,
.

i n i r o n and stee l 1 2 8 5 1 2 5 1 2 7 1 2 9 1 3 4 , , , , , ,
.

N at i ona l carbon co m p an y 7 7 ,
.

p o l e o r p o i nt I 2 , ,
.

refractory mater i a l 8 5 3 5 5 1 0 8 , , , ,
.

res i st i v i t y 5 3 ,
.

retort carbon 6 5 4 7 9 , , ,
.

rods 2 2 4 1 4 4 1 4 6 1 49 I S2 1 5 3 . . . . . . .
.

tubes 2 3 ,
.

v a p our 2 ,
.

C arbon b i su l p h i de 1 7 4 ,
.

C arbon m onox i de ca l or i fi c p ower o f 4 3 , ,

.

C arborundum 1 0 1 2 5 4 5 7 1 5 0 1 5 3 ,
-
,
-

,
-
.

d i sco v er y o f 1 0 1 49 , ,
.

furnace 1 1 1 2 2 4 1 5 0 1 5 3 ( see A cheson ) , , , ,

-

,
.

u ses 1 1 5 4 5 5 so 1 5 3 . . . . .

fi r e sand 5 4 5 5 5 6 5 7 1 5 2 -

, 1 ) ) )
°

C a r b u r i te ,
C a s a r e tti and Bertan i e l ectr i c z i nc sme l t i n g , 1 7 0 ,
.

C as i n g of furnaces 23 4 8 5 9 87 9 4 9 8 1 03 , , , , , , , ,
1 08 , 1 0 9, 1 13 , 1 15,

1 2 0, 1 29 , 1 3 0, 161, 1 69 .

14
19 8 I NDE X ,

0 .

C ast i n g o f m e ta l s front i s p i ec e 9 6, 1 9 4 , ,
.

C as t i r o n 4 0, 85
‘

, .

C astner sod i u m p rocess a n d furnace 1 7 9 1 8 1 1 82

, ,
-

,
.

C astner K e l l ner C o m p an y ch l or i ne s m e l t i n g p rocess 1 85 , .

,
C at h ode 2 , 1 7 4 1 87,
-
.

C au st i c soda A c k er s p rocess and furnace 1 7 7 1 7 9 ,

’
,
-
.

e l ectro l y s i s 1 7 9 1 83 ,
-
.

C ha m p ag ne ( A r i e g e ) France , e l ectr i c z i nc s m e l t i n g at ,
C ha p p u i s ther m o e l ectr i c p y r om etr y , 82
,
-
.

C harcoa l ca l or i fi c p o w er of 4 3 44
, ,
-
.

f o r reduct i on o f ores 1 09 , 1 1 0, 1 15 1 2 0, 1 2 4 , , ,
1 25
,
1 26,
1 2 7, 1 28 .

furnace l i n i n g 3 6 5 3 , , ,
.

C har g i n g and d i schar g i n g furnaces 1 7 ( see a l so i nd i v i dua l fu rnaces ) , , .

C h ats Fa l l s cost o f e l e c t r i c p o w e r from 3 4

’

, ,
.

C he m i ca l ener g y 1 6 1 7 6 , ,
.

C h l or i ne 3 0 3 1 1 7 7 1 7 9 1 84 1 8 5
,
-
,
-
,
-
.

C h rom i te 5 2 1 06 , ,
.

C hrom i u m 1 2 1 3 6 1 4 1 , ,
-
.

C l ark e D r F W S i l i con i n earth s cru st 1 7 1

,
. . .
,
’
,
.

C l ass i fi cat i on o f e l ectr i c fur n aces 1 8 3 2 ,

-
.

C l ay ( s e e fi re c l ay ) 4 9 5 0 5 4 5 5 5 7
. 98
-

.
-
. . . .
.

C oa l ca l or i fi c p o w er o f 3 3 4 3 4 4
, , ,
-
.

su p p l i es o f 1 89 1 9 1 ,
-
.

u se o f i n e l ectr i c furnace 1 2 4 ,
.

C oa l g a s ca l or i fi c p o w er o f 4 3 44
, , ,
.

C ok e ca l or i fi c p ow er of 4 3 4 4
, , ,
.

f or cores o f e l ectr i c furnaces 7 4 7 5 7 6 , , ,

.

f or cruc i b l e stee l furnaces 3 4 3 6 3 9 , , ,

.

f or i ron b l ast furnace 1 3 4 1 1 1 0 -

, , ,
.

f or l i n i n g e l ectr i c furnaces 5 3 ,
.

f or reduct i on o f ores 1 2 4 1 2 8 , ,
.

g ra p h i t i zed 7 6 ,
.

res i st i v i ty o f 5 3 ,
.

C o l b y i nduct i on stee l furnace 1 3 3 0 9 6 99 1 0 1

, , , ,
-
,
.

C o l l i ns (01 C o l l en s ) C L U ses of A cheson Gra p h i te 1 4 8

, ,
. .
, ,
.

C onc l us i on s 83 84 ,
-
.

C onduct i on o f heat 5 7 5 8 , ,
.

C onduct i v i t y o f m o l ten meta l s 7 2 7 8 1 0 1 1 05 , , , ,

.

mo l ten s l a g s 7 4 7 8 , ,
.

C on l ey e l ectr i c furnace 2 3
, ,
.

C onstruct i on o f e l ectr i c f iI r n a c e s 1 7 4 8 84 , ,
-
.

C on su m p t i on o f e l ectr i ca l ener g y i n e l ectr i c furnaces 4 6 4 7 4 8 49 , , , ,

5 8, 89 , 9 0, 9 2 , 9 6 , 9 8, 1 00, 1 1 1, 1 13, 125, 1 26, 1 27, 128

I S3 . 1 7 0

o f e l ectrodes , 80, 1 3 1 .

C ontents of e l ectr i c furnaces ,

so l i d ,
2 6, 32, ( see a l so i nd i v i dua l
furnaces ) .

me l t i n g 2 6 2 8 3 2 66 69 ( see a l so ,
-
, , , ,

i nd i v i dua l furnaces ) .

l i q u i d 2 8 3 2 7 2 ( see a l so i nd i v i dua l
,
-

, ,

furnaces ) .

C ont i nuou s e l ectr i c furnaces , 1 0, 1 7 , 4 9 .

C oo l i n g o f e l ectrodes b y w ater , 4 , 5 , 5 9 , 6 0, 80, 8 1 , 87 , 1 0 5 , 1 3 0, 173 .

furnaces , b y a i r ) 3 5 ) 5 7 1 5 8) 5 9 )
b y “ l ater , 2 9 1 5 7 1 941 9 7 ) 1 6 1 °
2 0C) I N DE X .

D .

D I S c ov e r y carborundu m 1 0 1 4 9
of
, ,
.

e l ectr i c a r e 1 ,
.

e l ectr i c batter y 1 ,

e l ectr i c furnace g ra p h i te 1 1 1 4 3 , ,
.

p r i nc i p l e o f e l ectr i ca l heat i n g 3 ,
.

D i ssoc i at i on o f s i l i con carb i des 5 5 5 6 1 4 3 1 53 , , , , .

D i st i l l at i on o f m eta l s i n e l ectr i c furnace 5 8 1 4 7 1 9 2 , , , ,

.

z i nc 1 5 7 1 7 0 ‘

,
-
.

B i ston H enr y a n d S ons C o l b y i nduct i on stee l furnace front i s p i ece

, , , ,

07 1 9 9
D o l o m i te refractor y m ater i a l
, 94 1 1 3 ,
.

l i n i n g f o r e l ectr i c fi1 1 n a ce 87
,

1 12 ,
1 13
, ,
.

D u e s s e ld o r f car b orundu m p l ant at 1 5 3

, ,
.

D u p re A ex p l os i v e g a s fro m ferro s i l i con 1 4 1

,
.
,
-

,
.

D y na m o e l ectr i c 16 18 1 67 , , ,
.

E d stro m , e l ectr i ca l extract i on o f n i tro g en fro m the a i r 1 7 3

J S . .
, ,
.

E ffi c i enc y o f furnaces 3 3 47 1 23 1 28 1 92 ,
-
,
-
,
.

ca l cu l at i on o f 3 7 4 6 ,
-
.

use d f o r m e l t i n g m eta l s 3 4 3 6 -
, ,
.

E i c h h o ff P rof
,
o p erat i on o f Herou l t stee l furnace 89
.
, ,
.

E l ectr i c arc 1 2 3 5 3 , , , 1
~

arc furnace ( see a r e furnaces ) ,

.

b atter y I 3 , ,
.

ca b l es 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 80 8 1 1 0 5 1 06 1 08 1 1 7 1 1 9
, , , , , , , , , , ,
.

c i rcu i t 1 5 1 6 , ,
.

current 2 3 1 5 1 8 ( see a l so other head i n g s )

, , ,
-

, .

d y nam o 3 1 5 1 6 1 8 , , , ,
.

ener g y a m ou nt u sed i n furnaces 4 6 4 7 , 4 8 4 9 5 8 89 9 0

, , , , , , , , 92 ,
9 6 , 9 8, 1 0 0, 1 1 1, 1 13 ,
125
,
1 2 6, 1 27
,
1 2 8, 13 1, 13 7,
I S3 , 1 70
h e a tl n g p o w er of, 1 5
-
17, 33 ,
-

43 , 46 , 1 89 - 1 9 4 .

furnaces ( see arc cont i nuou s cruc i b l e e l ectro l y t i c e x p e r i

, , , ,

m e nta l i dea l i nduct i on i nterm i ttent p ressure res i stance

, , , ,
-

, ,

s m e l t i n g tube v acuum ) , ,
.

see a l um i n i um a l undu m b ar i u m ca l c i u m cal c i u m , , , ,

car b i de ca l c i u m n i trate cau st i c soda car b on b i su l p h i de

, , , ,

car b orundum ch l or i ne co p p er d i amond f e rro all o y s , , , ,

-

fu sed q uartz g l ass g ra p h i te g ra p h i te el ectrodes i ron

-

, , , , ,

n i trates a n d n i tr i c ac i d p hos p horu s p l at i nu m p otass i u m , , , ,

s il o x i c o n sod i u m stee l stront i u m z i nc , , , ,

.

see A cheson A ck er A r s e m A shcroft B i rk e l an d , , , , ,

Borchers Br i sto l C astner C o l b y C on l ey C o w l es D es , , , , , ,

'

p retz E v an s E y de Faure G i n G i rod Gron w a l l Ha a n e l

, , , , , , , ,

Ha l l H ar m et H ar k er H erou l t H i g g i ns Ho w e Imray
, , , , , , ,

I s c h e w s k y J acob s J ohn son K e l l er K j e ll i n L a v a l L i nd , , , , , ,

b l ad M c G il l Mo i ssan N a p i er P atterson P e p y s P i chou

, , , , , , ,

P otter R e y no l ds R u th e n b u r g S a l g ues S i e m en s S n y der

, , , , , ,

S t a n s fi e l d S t a s s a n o S w i n b urne Ton e Tuc k er Turn b u l l , , , , , ,

Wi l l son .

see ach i e v e m ent s a i r coo l i n g c l ass i fi cat i on con s tru e ,

-

, ,

t i on cores costs current current den s i t y d e fi n i ti o n d e

, , , ,
-

, , ,

s i g n d e v e l o p m ent d i m ens i ons d i sco v ery d is t i l l at i on

, , , , ,
 I NDEX . 201

E l ectr i c furnaces cont i nue d ,

.

e ffi c i enc y e l ectrodes en v e l o p e future heat h i story l i n

, , , , , ,

i n g s mater i a l s o f construct i on measurements o p erat i on

, , , ,

o ut p ut p r oduct i on re g u l at i on res i stance res i st i n g c o n

, , , ,
-

tents res i stors ta p p i n g tem p erature u ses v o l tag e wa l l s

, , , , , , ,

water coo l i n g -
.

furnace com p an y A mer i can i nduct i on furnaces 9 6 9 8 , , , ,

.

heat 2 6 1 5 1 6 3 3 4 3 1 89 1 9 4
, , , , , , ,
-
.

horse p ow er y ear heat i n g v a l ue o f 3 3 4 3 1 9 0

- -

, , , ,

i nductance 1 7 1 0 1 1 03 , , ,
.

i nert i a 1 7 ,
.

l i g ht 1 2
—
.
, ,

p o w er u sed i n fu rnaces 3 8 1 2 45 4 6 6 0 66 68 6 9 7 0 7 2 , , , , , , , , , , ,

7 3 1 89 1 9 0 1 9 3 1 9 5 ) 96) 9 8) 99 ) 1 00 , 1 06 1 1 2 07 121 )
13 1)

137, 138
,
1 46 , 1 5 0, 1 52, 1 5 5, 1 6 0, 16 1 ,
165, 1 7 0, 1 73, 1 7 8,

1 81 , 1 83 , 1 90 .

res i stance 1 5 1 7 ,
-
.

res i st i v i t y 7 6 7 8 ,
-
.

tran sfor m ers 1 8 6 7 9 3 9 4 9 7 1 0 1 1 02 1 0 5 1 0 8 1 1 7 1 1 9 , , , , , , , , , , ,

.

v o l ta g e 6 6 7 1 ( see a l so i nd i v i dua l furnaces )

, , .

E l ectr i ca l Meta l l ur g i ca l C om p an y ferro a l l oy s i n e l ectr i c furnaces 1 3 8 ,

-

,
.

E l ectrochem i ca l an d Meta l l ur g i ca l I ndu st ry fre q uent references ,

.

E l ectroche m i ca l S oc i et y A mer i can tran sact i ons o f ( see A mer i can ) , , ,

.

E l ectrodes I 2 4 5 1 7 5 3 5 9 6 0 6 7 7 1 7 7 7 8 7 9 80 8 1 1 1 3 ( see
, , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , , , ,

a l so i nd i v i dua l furnaces ) .

centra l 2 7 2 8 , ,
.

co p p er 5 I 7 S 1 7 7 . . .
.

ho l ders 1 1 1 7 80 8 1 , , ,
-
.

l atera l 2 6 2 7 , ,
.

p o s I tI v e , 4 , 5 .

w ater coo l ed -

, 4 , 5 , 5 9 , 60 , 80, 8 1 , 1 3 0, 173 .

E l ectro l y s i s , 2, 6, 3 0 3 1 , 3 2, -
1 65 , 1 7 4- 1 77 .

E l ectro l y t i c furnaces , 7 , 1 5, 0
3 31
-
, 3 2, 1 77
-
1 83 , 1 87 ,
192, ( see a l so ,

A c k er , A shcroft , C astner Ha l l , ,
H erou l t , S w i nburne .

E l ectro m a g net ,
-
1 73 .

E l ectron s , 2 .

E l ectro -
q uartz ,
1 72 .

E ner g y u sed i n e l ectr i c furnaces ( see e l ectr i c ener g y ) ,

.

E n g e l hardt , V , o p erat i on o f i nduct i on furnace 9 5 1 00

.
, ,
.

E n g l and stee l i n e l ectr i c furnace i n 3 6 9 9

, , ,
.

E n v e l o p e refractor y o f e l ectri c furnace 1 7 4 8 , ,

.

E ssen German y e l ectr i c stee l furnaces at 9 9 1 06

, , , ,
.

E ssent i a l p arts o f e l ectr i c furnace 1 7 ,

.

E th y l ene C 2 H4 ca l or i fi c p o w er o f 4 3
, , ,
.

E uro p ea n C omm i ss i on R e p ort ( see H a a n e l ) ,

.

E uro p e e l ectr i c sme l t i n g o f i ron and stee l i n 1 3

, , ,
.

e l ectr i c z i nc sme l t i n g i n 1 60 ,
.

E v an s J W stee l from o r e i n e l ectr i c furnace 1 3 2 1 3 4

,
. .
, ,
-
.

E v a p orat i v e heat u n i t 3 8 3 9 ,
-
.

E x p an s i on a n d contract i on o f refractor y mater i a l s 5 0 5 1 , ,

.

E x p er i menta l e l ectr i c furnaces 2 1 2 2 2 3 1 6 3 1 6 4 1 9 3 , , , ,

-

,
.

E x p er i ments at S au l t S te Mar i e ( see H a a n e l ) .

,
.

E y de and B i r k e l and n i tr i c ac i d fr m a i r i n e l ectr i c furn ace

,
o
, ,
1 73 .
2 02 I ND E X .

Faure e l ectr i c res i stance furnace 5

, ,
.

Ferro a l loy s 1 42
,
-
.

chrom i u m 1 2 1 3 6 , ,

m an g anese 1 2 1 3 6 1 4 1 , ,
-
.

m o l y bdenu m 1 2 1 3 8 1 4 0 1 4 1 , , , ,
.

n i ck e l 1 2 ,

s i l i con 1 2 1 3 6 1 4 2 , ,
-
.

t i tan i u m 1 2 1 3 6 1 4 1 , ,
-
.

tu n g sten 1 2 1 3 6 1 4 1 , ,
-
.

v anad i u m 1 3 8 1 4 0 1 4 1 , , ,
.

F e rro a l l o y w or k s G i rod 1 3 8 1 3 9
-
, ,
-
.

Fer y o p t i ca l m easure m ent o f te m p erature o f arc 5 3

, ,
.

F i re c l ay 4 9 5 0 5 4 5 5 5 7 5 8
-
.
-
I S7
. . . . .

F i tz G e r a ld F A J e l ectr i c furnace des i g n and A cheson furnaces and

,
. . .
,

furnace p ro d ucts 5 4 6 5 7 3 7 5 7 7 83 1 4 3 , , , , , , , ,

Fo rsse l l a n d F i tz G e r a ld res i st i v i t y o f carbon 7 7 , ,

.

F rance e l e c tr I c furnaces i n 1 2 4 5 1 1 3 1 6 0
, , , , ,
.

“
Fue l a n d R efractor y M ater i a l s A H S exton 4 9 5 0, 5 1 5 2 ,
”
. .
, , , ,
.

F u e l ca l or i fi c p o w er o f 3 3 3 6 3 9 4 1 4 2 4 3 4 4
, , , , , , , ,
.

oil ca l or i fi c p o w er o f 4 3
, ,
.

Furnaces Besse m er 86 9 1 , , ,
.

b l ast 1 3 8 5 1 07 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 8 1 2 9
, , , , , , , , ,
.

charg i n g and d i schar g i n g 1 7 ( see a l so i nd i v i du al furnac es ) , , .

construct i on 1 7 4 8 84 , ,
-
.

cont i nuou s 1 0 1 7 49 , , ,

cruc i b l e furnace 3 4 3 5 3 6 , , ,
.

des i g n 4 8 84 ,
.

e l ectr i c ( see e l ectr i c furnaces ) ,

.

e f fi c i enc y 3 3 4 6 1 2 3 1 2 8 1 9 2 ,
-
,
-
,
.

i nterm i ttent 7 1 0 4 8 , , ,
.

l i n i n g s ( see l i n i n g s o f furnaces ) ,
.

o p erat i on 4 8 84 ,
.

o p en h earth 3 4 3 5 3 6 so 86 88 -
135 . . . . . .

re v er b erator y 3 4 3 5 3 6
‘

.
, ,

shaft 3 4 3 5 1 3 5 . .

Fu se d q uartz 2 2 1 7 2
-

, ,
.

m a g nes i a 5 2 ,
.

Future de v e l o p m ents o f e l ectr i c furnace 1 89 1 9 4 ,

-
.

Gas car b on 6 ,
.

coa l g a s ca l or i fi c p o w er ,
of , 4 3 44 -
.

fro m e l ectr i c furnaces 6 1 1 0, 1 13 , 1 2 2 - 1 28 ,

13 1 ,
1 5 6, 5 7 , 1 64
1 .

i n furnaces , 5, 1 67, 1 73 .

Ger m an y e l ectr i c stee l furnaces I n 3 6 9 1 , 9 9 1 06, 1 3 1

, , , ,
.

G i n stee l furnaces 3 0, 60 6 4 66 7 2 7 8 80 86 1 0 1 1 04
, , , , , , , , , , ,
1 05 , 1 06 , 1 07

G i rod e l ectr i c furnaces and ferro al l oy s , 1 06 1 07 , 1 3 8

,
-
,
.

G l ass i n e l ectr i c fur nace 1 7 2 1 7 3 ,

-
.

Gol dsch m i dt , D r , S ta s s a n o stee l furnace 6 1 1 3 1 , 1 3 5.

, ,
.

ther m i t p rocess 1 4 1 , 1 7 2 1 86 , ,
.

Gram ca l or i e ,
2 04 I ND E X .

Herou l t Turn b u l l , e l ectr i c furnace , 1 1 7 1 2 1 , 1 2 7

- -
.

H i g g i n s , A C , e l ectr i c furnace , 1 7 3 . . .

Hof m an , H O , m e l t i n g te m p eratures o f c l ay s 4 0.
. . S e g er cones ,
82 .

Horse p o w er u se d i n e l ectr i c furnaces , 1 2 , 3 3 , 3 4 ,

-
3 6, 43 , ( see al s o
e l ectr i c p o w er u sed i n furnaces .

Ho w e P rof H M e l ectr i ca l cruc i b l e furnace 2 2

,
. . .
, ,
.

m e l t i n g te m p eratures o f cast i ron -

, 40 .

H u nt D r T S terr y C o w l es e l ectr i c furnace 6

,
. .
,
’
,
.

Hu nt i n g d on and S i e m en s e l ectr i c furnace 1 5 , , ,

.

Hutton D r R S cost o f w ater p ow er 3 4

,
. . .
,
-

,
.

e l ectr i ca l tu b e furnace 2 3 ,
.

ferro a l l oy s 1 3 8 1 40 -
, ,
.

G i rod stee l furnace 1 06 ,

.

heat i n su l at i on 5 6 ,
.

Hy dro g en ca l or i fi c p o w er o f 4 3 , ,
.

Hy d ro l i th 1 84 ,
.

I bb otson E C K j e ll i n stee l furnace 9 5

,
. .
, ,
.

Idea l e l ectr i c furnace 4 8 1 2 2 1 2 8 , ,

-
.

I m ray O e l ectr i c furnace g rap h i te 1 44

,
.
, ,
.

I n d e p en d ent arc furnaces 1 9 3 2 ( see B i rk e l and a n d E y de L a v a l , , , , ,

M o i ssan S i e m en s S ta s s a n o , ,
.

In d uctance 1 7 1 0 1 1 03 , , ,
.

I nduct i on furnaces 2 9 3 0 80 9 3 1 0 5 1 6 6 1 6 7 ( see C o l b y G ron w a l l , , , ,

-
,
-
, , .

K j e l l i n S n y der ,
.

I nert i a e l ectr i ca l 1 7 ,
.

I n su l at i on e l ectr i ca l 1 2 0 , ,
.

o f h eat 56 57 58 , . . .

I nter m i ttent e l ectr i c furnaces 1 0 1 7 4 8 ( see a l s o A cheson Borch ers , , , , , ,

C o l b y C o w l es G i n G ron w a l l J o h n son K j e lli n etc

, , , , , ,
.

I nternat i ona l A cheson Gra p h i t e C o mp an y 7 7 1 4 4 1 4 6 1 4 8 , , , ,

.

I nternat i ona l C a l c i u m C o m p any S w i tzer l and i nduct i on stee l furnaces , , ,

99 .

Iron a l l oy s 1 2 1 3 6 1 4 2
, , ,
-
.

b l ast furnace 1 3 8 5 1 07 1 1 0 -

, , , , ,
1 1 1, 1 1 2, 1 21,

cas i n g o f e l ectr i c furnaces 5 9 , ,

87 , 9 4 , 1 03 , 1 08
,
10
9, 1 13, 1 1 5,
1 2 0, 1 29, 161 1 69 .
,

cast , 4 0, 8 5 .

cost o f, 121 .

p i g . 4 9 . 8 5 . 86 . 1 07 1 2 9
-
.

re d uct i on from o r e , 49 , 86 , 1 07 1 3 5 -
.

s m e l t i n g , e l ectr i c , 1 3 1 4 , 1 07 1 2 9 , ( see ,
-
G i rod ,
Haa n e l , H a et

Herou l t , K e l l er , Turnbu l l ) .

v o l at i l i zed ,
12 .

w rou g ht , 4 0, 85 .

I s c h e w s ky , B V o n , rotar y e l ectr i c furna ce .

,
23 .

Ita l y ,
e l ectr i c z i nc s m e l t i n g 1 7 0 ,
.

S ta s s a n o stee l furnace 1 3 1 3 0 , ,
.

J .

J acob s C B p ro d uct i on o f al u n dum i n e l ectr i c furnace

,
. .
, ,
173 .

J ohn son W M e A , e l ectr i c zi nc furnace 2 6 1 5 7 1 5 8

,
. .
, ,
-
.

u se s g rap h ite 1 48 ,

J o u le 3 ,
.

J u d d E K g ra p h i te 1 4 2
,
. .
, ,
.
 I NDE X . 2 05

K ao l i n 4 9 ,
.

K athode ( o r cathode ) 2 1 7 4 1 87 , ,
-
.

K e l l e r e l ectr i c sme l t i n g of i ron stee l and ferro a l l o y s , 1 2 1 2 9 , 1 3 5 ,

, , ,
-
,
137 ,

e l ectr i c stee l furnaces 9 2 1 07 1 3 5 , , ,

.

o r e sme l t i n g furnace 13-

14 6 3 6 4 6 9 7 0 7 1 7 8 80 I I I , , , , , , , , , , ,
1 13 .

K e l v i n L ord ener g y from the ether 1 9 4

K i l o g ra m ca l or i e 3 8—
.
, , ,

39 ,
.

K j e lli n i nduct i on stee l furnace 1 2 1 3 3 0 3 2 6 4 6 6 7 2 7 8 80

, , , , , , , , , , , 86 ,
9 3 9 6 , 9 7 , 9 8, 99 , 1 01 1 05 1 06 , 1 07
-
.
, ,

K o r t fo r s , Herou lt stee l furnace at 6 9 88 , ,

.

K ru p p w or k s E ssen e l ectr i c stee l furnaces , , , 99 , 1 06 .

K r y p to l ,
23 ,
1 49 .

L a k e S u p er i or P o w er C o p an y 1 1 1 m ,
.

L am p en A h i g h tem p erature measure m ents 5 0 5 1 5 5 5 6 83 1 5 3

,
.
, , , , , , ,
.

L an y on Z i nc C om p an y 1 5 7 ,
.

L a P raz Herou l t stee l furnace 4 5 6 2 69 88

, , , , ,
.

L athe F E stee l from o r e i n e l ectr i c furnaces 1 3 3

,
. .
, ,
.

L a v a l D e e l ectr i c furnaces 2 8 2 9 5 9 7 2 80 1 3 5 1 5 8 1 5 9
, , , , , , , , ,
.

L ead 4 0 1 6 1 1 7 0
, ,
-
.

L e C hate l i er h i g h te m p erature measurements 5 3 82 , , ,

.

L e L eux K e l l er and C o e l ectr i c sme l t i n g 1 1 3 .

, ,
.

Len h er V H Mo i ssan
,
T h e e l ectr i c furnace
.
,
trans b y 7 .
,
“
,
”
.
,
.

L e w es F B ,
A cet y l ene 1 55
. .
, ,
.

L i g ht e l ectr i c 1 2 , ,
.

L i me refractor y m a te r i a l 5 0 5 1 5 5 5 6 5 7 60 6 1
, ,
-

, , , , ,
.

L i m estone refractor y m a te r i a l 8 6 1 , , ,
.

L i nco l n P M res i st i v i t y o f carbon 7 7

,
. .
, ,
.

L i ndb l ad e l ectr i c i nduct i on furnace 1 0 1

, ,
.

L i n i n g s o f furnaces 8 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 3 4 9 60 9 6 1 1 2 1 1 3 1 3 2 ( see a l s o , , , , , ,
-

, , , , ,

i n d ivi d u a l furnaces )
L i v et France K e l l e r o r e —
.

, s m ei t i n g furnace at 70 1 1 3 1 3 7 , , , , .

L l o y d M B and D u p re ex p l os i v e g a s from ferro s i l i con

,
. .
, ,
-
,
1 41 .

L o n g m u ir P anal y s i s o f ferro a l l oy s 1 3 9
,
.
,
-

,
.

L ot k a A J n i trates from a i r 1 7 3
,
. .
, ,
.

L uck e P rof C E
,
cost o f w ater p o w er 3 4 . . .
,
-

,
.

Lu m m e r , tem p erature of arc , 53 .

Maber y P rof C ,
C o w l es furnace 6 . . F .
,
’
,
.

reduct i on o f m eta l s b y carbo n 9 .

M a e u l e n Wi l son C om p an y art i c l es o f fu se d q uartz 1 7 2

,

, ,
.

Mag nes i a ( ma g nes i te ) refractor y m a te r i a l 8 1 9 5 1 5 2 , , , , 55, 56, 57 .

88 , 9 4 , 1 05 , 1 1 2, 1 13, 1 17, 1 29 , 13 1 .

Mag nes i um ,
1 84 .

Man g anese 12, 1 3 6- 1 4 1

co n struct i on o f furnaces 4 9 —
, .

M a te ri a l s of 6 0 ( see a l s o a l um i na b a ux i te , , ,

carbon carboru ndu m do l om i te fi r e c l ay l i m e m a g nes i a , , ,

-

, , ,

s i l i ca s i l oxi c on ,
.

M c Gi ll U n i v ers i t y e l ectr i c cruc i b l e furnace at 2 2 ,

,
.

Measurements o f furnace te m p eratures 82 83 , ,

.

Measur i n g i n stru ments e lectr i ca l 1 8 , ,

.

Me l ted meta l s as res i stors 2 9 3 0 7 2 9 3 1 06 ,

-
, ,
-
.

Me l t i n g contents o f furnaces 2 6 2 8 3 2 66 6 9 ,
-

, , ,
.
2 06 I ND E X .

M elting m eta l s , furnaces for , ( s e e C o l b y , G i n , G i rod , Har k er ,

22,

M c G i ll , M o i ssan , S i e m en s )
_

K j e lli n , .

M e l t i n g meta l s . 3 . 3 4 . 3 5 . 3 6 . 3 9 . 4 0. 4 1 .
M e l t i n g tem p eratures o f m eta l s , 4 0, 5 6 .

refractor y m a te r i a l s , 4 9 5 6 - -
.

Meta l s , m e l t i n g te m p eratures and heat re q u i red to m e l t, 4 0

M eta l l ur g i ca l ca l or i fi c p o w er , 4 2 4 3 -
.

M et h ane (m ars h g a s ) , C H4 , 4 3 .

M i sce l l aneou s u ses o f e l ectr i c furnaces , 1 7 1 1 7 4 -

.

M i ssour i , fi r e c l ay , -

M o i ssan Henr i , e l ectr i c arc furn ace , 8, 9 , 1 9 , 4 8, 6 0, 6 1 , 6 2 , 66 ,

6 9 , 80 .

p roduct i on o f d i am ond , 3 , 7 , 9 .

researc h es , 7 , 9 , 5 6 , 1 5 5 .

T h e e l ectr i c furnace ,
“
7 , 5 0, 6 1 .

M ol d e n k e , R , u se o f e l ectr i c furnace i n fou ndr y , 1 9 4

. .

M o l y b d enu m , 1 3 8, 1 4 0, 1 4 1 .

M ortar f or fi r e b r i c k s , 5 0, 5 1 -
.

M ultip le core furnace ,

1 53
-
1 54 .

N a p i er e l ectr i c arc furnace 3

, ,
.

N at i ona l C ar b on C om p an y ex p er i m ents on the res i st i v i t y of carb on , , 77

N atura l g a s 4 3
N e w J erse y fi r e —
.
,

br i c k s 4 9 ,
.

N i a g ara Fa l l s cost o f e l ectr i c p o w er at 3 4

, ,
.

e l ectr i c furnace o p erat i on s at 1 2 5 4 1 3 8 1 4 6 , , , , ,

"

1 73 ,

1 79 , 1 81 .

N i ck e l 1 2 1 3 8 1 4 1
, , ,
.

N i trates and n itr i c ac i d from the a i r 1 7 3 1 7 4 ,

-
.

N orton C om p an y manufacture o f a l u ndu m , 1 7 3 ,

.

N or w ay cost o f w ater p ow er i n 3 4 1 7 4
,
-

, ,
.

e l ectr i c z i nc s m e l t i ng i n 1 60 ,
.

manufacture o f n i tr i c ac i d from the a i r i n ,

1 74 .

N otod d en manufacture of n i tr i c ac i d from the a i r at

, ,
1 74 .

O h m s . 1 6 . 1 7 . 66 . 7 3 . 7 5 . 7 6 . 7 7 . 7 8 .

O il (fue l ) , 4 3 .

O ntar i o , e l ectr i c i ron s m e l t i n g i n , 1 1 0, 1 2 0 -

.

O p en hearth furnac e , 2 , 3 4 , 3 5 , 3 6 , 4 6 , 86 , 87 , 88, 9 0, 9 2 , 1 3 2 , 1 3 5 ,

-
‘

stee l , 1 2 , 86 , 9 1 , 9 2 .

O p erat i on o f e l ectr i c furnaces , 4 8 84 ( and see i nd i v i dual fu rnaces ) -

,
.

Herou l t stee l furnace , 89 .

O p t i ca l p y rometr y , 82 83 -
.

O res , a l u m i n i um , 6 , 7 , 5 2 , 1 86 1 87 -
.

i ron ,
13. I 4. 4 5. I 47 . 19 1

zm c , 1 55
-
1 70 .

O re -
sm el t i n g , ( see
a l um i n i um i ron z i nc , , ,

furnaces see C on l e y C o w l es E vans G i rod Ha a n e l

, , , , , ,

Har m et H erou l t Hi g g i n s I sc h e w s k y
,
J acob s , , , ,

J oh n son K e l l er P i chou R e y no l ds S n y der S tan s

, , , , ,

fi e l d S t a s s a n o T one T urn b u l l Wi l l son

'

.
, , , ,
2 08 I N D EX .

R e fi n i n g o f stee l i n e l ectr i c furnace 4 6 , , 47 , 86 9 4 , -

1 3 2- 1 3 5 .

R efractor y m ater i a l s , 1 7 4 9 5 8 ,
-
.

a l u m i na 5 2 , 5 5 , , 5 6, 5 7 .

baux i te 5 2 5 5 , , , 56 .

car b on 8 5 3 5 5 1 08 , , , ,
.

car b orundu m 1 1 5 4 5 5 5 6 1 53
car b oru ndu m fi r e —
, , , , ,
.

sand 5 4 5 5 -

, , , 5 6, 57 , 1 52
d o l o m i te 5 2 8 7 9 4 1 1 3 , , , ,
.

ex p an s i on and contract i on o f , 5 0, 5 1 .

fi r e c l ay 4 9 5 0 5 4 5 5 5 7 9 8
-

.
-

. . . .

g rap h l te . 5 3 . 5 4 . 9 8. 42 . 1 43 I .

heat conduct i v i t i es , 56 58
-
.

l i m e 50 5 1 5 5 56 ,
-
, , , 5 7 , 6 0, 6 1 .

l i m estone 8 6 1 , , .

m a g nes i a 8 1 9 5 1 . . . . 5 2 . 5 5 . 5 6. 5 7 . 88. 9 4 . 1 05 .
1 17 1 29 , 13 1 .
,

m e l ti n g te m p eratures of, 49 5 6
-
.

p orce l a i n ,
21 .

s i l i ca so
5 5 . 5 6. 5 7 . 1 7 1 .
. .
172

s i l o x i c on , 5 4 , 5 5 , 5 6 .

R e m sche i d H erou l t , e l ectr i c stee l p l a n t at , 9 1 .

R e p ort o f E urop ean C o m m i ss i on ( see H a a n e l ) ,

.

ex p er i m ents at S au l t S te Mar i e ( see Ha a n e l ) .

,
.

R es i stance e l ectr i ca l 2 1 5 1 6 , , ,
.

furnaces 3 1 6 2 1 3 2 7 5 7 8 ( see a l so i nd i v i dua l furnaces )

, , ,
-
,
-
,
.

rometr y 82
py ,
.

R es i st i n g contents o f furnaces so l i d , ,
26, 32 .

li qu id ,
28 -
32, 72, 78 .

m e l ti n g , 26 2 -
8, 3 2 66 , 69 .

R es i st i v i t y e l ectr i ca l
, , 75 .

am or p hou s carbon , 77, 78 .

cok e 7 6 ,
.

furnace cores 2 4 , , 7 5 7 8,
-
14 4 - 1 52 .

g ra p h i te 7 7 7 8 , ,
.

mo l ten m eta l s 7 2 , 7 8, 1 01 1 05 .

sla g S . 74 . 7 8 .

R es i stors o f e l ectr i c furnaces 6 1 6 1 8 2 1 2 6 3 2 7 3 7 8 , , , ,

-

, ,
-
.

R e v er b erator y furnace 3 4 3 5 ,
-
.

R e y no l d s L B e l ectr i c z i nc furnace 1 6 4
,
. .
, , ,

Ri char d s P rof J W 3 9 7 8 9 2 1 44 1 4 7 1 5 0 1 5 3 , 1 80
,
. . .
, , , , , , , ,
1 94 .

a l u m i n i u m 6 1 87 1 88 , , ,
.

furnace e ffi c i enc i es 3 6 3 7 1 5 6 , , ,
.

meta l l ur g i ca l ca l cu l at i on s 3 4 3 7 , , , 4 0, .

42 , 43 52
5 3 , 5 6 , 5 8, 125 .

Ri es H , N e w J erse y fi r e
,
.
,
-
b r i ck s , 4 9 .

R ob erts A u sten S i r W C ther m o e l ectr i c p y rom etr y , 82

-
,
. .
,
-
.

R ods car b on 2 , 2 4 1 4 4 , 1 4 6 1 4 9 1 5 2 1 5 3
, , , , , ,
.

R oe c h l i n g i ron w or k s e l ectr i c stee l furnaces a t 9 9 m o

, , , ,
,

R oss i A u g u ste J ferro t i tan i um 1 3 7 , 1 3 8

,
.
,
-

,
.

R u th e n b u r g e l ectr i c furnace 6 5 1 4 5
, , ,
.

S al g ues e l ectr i c z i nc f u rn ace a n d s m e l ti n g

, ,
28
.

,
16 1 , 170

S a l t e l ectro l y s i s o f 1 7 0 1 7 9 1 8 1 41 83
, ,
-
,
.

S an Franc i sco p r i ce o f p i g 1 1 0 1 I n 1 2 1
,
1 ,
.
 I ND E X . 09

S ar p sbor g Nor w a y e l ectr i c z i nc sme l t i n g at

, ,
-

,
1 60 .

S au l t S te Mar i e e l ectr i c i ron sme l t i n g at 49

.
,
-

, ,
6 2 , 69 , 8 1 , 1 08
,
1 1 1, 1 13,
1 17, 121, 1 26, 133 .

S cott E K refractory mater i a l s 5 2 5 4

,
. .
, , ,
.

S e g er cones p y rometer 82 , ,
.

S exton A H refractor y mater i a l s 49 5 0

,
. .
, , , , 5 1 , 52 .

S h aft furnaces 3 4 3 5 ( see a l so C on l e y ,

-
, ,
Ha a n e l, Harmet , Herou l t ,
Tone Turnbu l l K e l l er ,
S t a n s fi e ld , ,
.

S h e ffi e l d i nduct i on stee l furnaces i n 99

, ,
.

S i emen s S i r W e l ectr i c arc furnace I 3 4 5 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 60 1 3 7

,
.
, , , , , , , , , , ,
.

o p en hearth stee l 86 -

, ,
.

S i l i ca ( refractory m a te r i a l ) 5 0 5 5 5 6 5 7 1 7 1 1 7 2 , ,
-
, , ,
.

S i l i con 1 2 ,
1 42 1 50
,
17 1 172 -

, ,
-
.

S i l o x i c o n furnace and manufacture 1 2 1 5 3 1 5 4 ( see A cheson )

, , ,
-
,
.

u ses o f 5 4 5 5 5 6 . . .
.

S i l v er from c l ay 1 86 ,
.

S m e l t i n g and re fi n i n g e l ectr i c ( see Borchers ) , ,

.

S me l t i n g e l ectr i c cost 7 3 2 1 2 8
, , , , ,
.

i ron a n d stee l 1 2
i ron ores 1 3 1 4 1 07 —
.
,

1 29 ( see i ron ) , , , ,
.

re g u l at i on o f 1 8 7 1 7 3 1 09 1 1 3 , ,
-

, ,
.

S me l t i n g furnace e l ectr i c f o r ores C on l e y E v an s G i ro d H a a n e l , , , , , , ,

H armet Herou l t H i g g i n s I s c h e w s k y J acob s J ohn son

, , , , , ,

K e l l er P i chou R e y no l ds S n y der S ta n s fi e ld S ta s s a n o
, , , , , ,

Tone Turnbu l l Wi l l son , ,

.

S n y der i nduct i on sme l t i n g furnace 2 9 1 3 5 1 6 6 1 6 7

, , , , ,
.

e l ectr i c z i nc sme l t i n g 1 6 5 1 6 7 1 6 8 1 7 0 , , , ,
.

S oda ( cau st i c ) A c k er p rocess 1 7 7 1 7 9 , ,

-
.

S od iu m A shcroft p rocess 1 8 1 1 83
, ,
-
.

C astner p rocess 1 7 9 1 8 1 ,
-
.

S od i um ch l or i de e l ectro l y s i s o f 1 7 7 1 7 9 1 8 1 1 83 , ,
-

,
-
.

S ource o f e l ectr i c current 1 8

-

,
.

S p a i n i nduct i on stee l furnace i n 9 9

, ,
.

S p i eg e l 1 3 9 ,
.

S talh a n e O i nduct i on stee l f urnace 1 0 1

,
.
, ,
.

S ta n s fi e ld D r A ,
e l ectr i c cruc i b l e furnace 2 2
. .
, ,
.

e l ectr i c z i nc furnace 1 6 4 ,
.

e l ectro therm i c p ro d uct i on o f i ron and stee l 3 6 1 3 3 -

, ,
.

Idea l e l ectr i c furnace 1 2 1 1 2 8 ,

-
.

m e l t i n g tem p erat u re o f s i l i ca 5 0 ,
.

ther m o e l ectr i c p y ro m etr y 82 -

,
.

S ta s s a n o C a p t ,
e l ectr i c stee l furnace 1 3 1 9 4 8 6 1 6 2 66 6 8 6 9
, , , , , , , , , ,

1 07 . 1 2 9 - 1 3 1 . I 33. 13 5 .

S tee l ,
85 .

Besse m er 1 1 1 2 8 5 86 , , , ,
.

cost o f 9 0 1 3 5 , ,
.

cruc i b l e 3 6 8 5 86 88 89 9 1 , , , , , ,
.

me l ted i n e l ectr i c furnace 1 5 86 1 07 , , ,

-
.

o p en hearth 1 2 86 9 1-

, , ,
.

p roduct i on d i rect from o r e i n e l ectr i c furnace 1 29 1 3 5 -

—
.

p roduct i on o f i n e l ectr i c furnace 3 1 2 1 3 4 4 4 7 86 1 07 1 29

, , , , , ,
-
,
13 5 ( see a l so C o l b y E v ans G i n G i ro d G r n w a l l
, , , , ,
o
,

Herou l t K e l l er K j e lli n P e p y s S ta s s a n o , ,

structura l 9 0 1 00 1 07 1 3 1 :
, , .

, , , ,

too l 4 0 4 7 89 9 1 1 0 7
, , , , ,
.
2 IO I ND E X .

S te i nhart O J ferro a l l oy s 1 3 8
,
. .
,
-
,
.

S tront i u m ,

S u l p hur i n b l ast furnace p ig i ron 1 3 2 - -

e l ectr i c furnace p ig —
, .

i ron 1 1 0 -
, ,
1 1 1, 1 2 8,

e l ectr i c furnace s te e l 88 99 1 3 2 -

, , , ,
13 5 .

S w eden e l ectr i c z i nc sme l t i n g i n 1 6 0

,
-

,
.

e l ectr i c stee l m ak i n g 1 2 3 6, 9 3 9 4 -

, , , ,
101
-
.

S y racu se Herou l t Stee l furnace i n 9 0

,
-

,
.

Te m p erature a l u m i n i u m furn a ce 7 , ,
.

de fi n i t i on 3 7 3 8 , ,
.

h i g h o f e l ectr i c furnaces ,
2, 3, 7, 1 5 , 2 4, 3 3 , 5 5 , 1 43 , 1 44 ,
1 47 1 I SO ) 1 52) 53 ) 1 1 5 5) 1 56) 17 1) 1 86 ) I91 °

measurements o f ,
82 83 -
.

o f arc 2 53 56 , , ,
.

o f e l ectr i c furn aces 12 4 8 49 5 6 7 7 , , , , , ,

82 83 ,
-
19 1
1 93 ( see a l so tem p eratures h i g h
, , ,

o f me l t i n g m e ta l s 40 ,
.

o f m e l t i n g p l at i nu m 2 21 50 , , ,
.

o f m e l ti n g q uartz 2 50 5 5 56 , , , ,
.

o f m e l ti n g refractor y mater i al s 4 9 5 6 ,
-
.

T her m i t , 1 4 1 , 1 7 2 , 1 86 .

T her m o e l ectr i c p y ro m etr y , 82 83

- -
.

T ho m p son , S P , E l ectr i c i t y a n d Ma g net i s m

“
. .
,
1 .

Thom son 3 ,
.

T h o m son e l ectr i c w e l d i n g
, ,
26 .

T i des e l ectr i c p ow er fro m

, ,
194 .

T i l t i n g furnaces 87 88 9 6 ,
-
,
-

9 8, ( see a l so C o l b y ,
Herou l t , We l l m a n )
T in , 40 .

T i tan i u m 1 2 1 3 2 1 3 6 1 4 1
, , ,
-
.

T one F J e l ectr i c furnaces

,
. .
, ,
25, 17 1 .

Too l stee l 4 0 4 7 89 9 1 1 07
-
, , , , ,
.

Tran sformer e l ectr i c 1 8 6 7 , , , 9 3 , 9 4, 101 , 1 02

,
1 03 , 1 05
,
1 08, 1 17,

1 19 .

T ro l l hattan , e l ectr i c z i nc sme l t i n g at , 1 6 0 -

.

T ube furnaces , 3 , 2 1 2 3 , ( see a l so D e s p r e tz, H ar k er , H utton ,

- -
Po tter ,

T uc k er ) .

Tuck er , S A e l ectr i c tube furnace , 2 3

. . .

h i g h tem p erature measure m ent s, 5 5 , 5 6, 83 , 1 5 3 .

T un g sten , 1 3 6 1 4 1 -
.

T ur i n , S t a s s a n o furnace at , 1 40 .

T urnbu l l Herou l t , e l ectr i c o r e s m e l t i n g furnace , 1 1 7 - 1 2 1

- -
.

U n i ted S tates out p ut a l um i n i u m i n 7

,
of , .

p roduct i on o f e l ectr i c stee l i n , 3 6, 9 7 , 9 8 .

p roduct i on o f g ra p h i te i n 1 43 ,
.

U ses of e l ectr i c furnace 86 1 3 6 1 88 1 9 1 1 9 4 , ,

-
,
-
.

Vacuu m e l ectr i c furnace 83 1 9 3 , ,

.

Vana d i u m 1 3 8 1 4 0 1 4 1 , , ,
.

Vancou v er e l ectr i c z i nc sme l t i n g at

, ,
1 70 .