Chapter 4

Biodiversity and its Conservation

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 Introduction to Bio-Diversity
Biodiversity is the variety of life on earth.
It includes all life forms-from the unicellular fungi, protozoa
and bacteria to complex multi-cellular organisms such as
plants, birds, fishes and animals.
Biodiversity is the variety of flora and fauna on planet earth.
According to the World Resources Institute-"Biodiversity is
the variety of the world’s organisms, including their genetic
diversity and the assemblage they form.
The concept reflects the inter-relatedness of genes, species
and ecosystems.
Because genes are the components of species, and species are
the components of ecosystems.

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 From the driest deserts to the dense tropical rainforests and
from the high snow-clad mountain peaks to the deepest of
ocean trenches, life occurs in a marvelous spectrum of forms,
size, color and shape, each with unique ecological inter-
relationships.
Diversity may be defined as the number of species present in a
community, a measure termed as species’ richness.
It refers to the total genetic information contained in the genes
of individuals of plants, animals and microorganisms.
The genes found in organisms can form enormous number of
combinations each of which gives rise to some variability.
Genes are the basic units through which hereditary information
is transmitted from one generation to another.
When the genes within the same species show different
versions due to new combinations, it is called genetic
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variability.
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 Value of Genes

Rice grown in Asia is protected from the four main rice

diseases by genes brought in from a wild species from
India.
The sugarcane industry in the US was saved from collapse
by disease resistant genes brought in from wild Asiatic
species.
A tomato discovered in Andes has been used to increase
the sugar content of cultivated varieties, increasing their
commercial value.
Species Diversity
A species generally consists of all the individual organisms of
a natural population which are able to interbreed, generally
sharing similar appearance, characteristics and genetics. A
species is one of the basic units of biodiversity.
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 Measurement of species
Species richness is the simplest measure of biodiversity
and is simply a count of the number of different species in
a given area.
Species evenness is a diversity index, a measure of
biodiversity which quantifies how equal the populations
are numerically.
So if there are 40 foxes, and 1000 dogs, the population is
not very even.
But if there are 40 foxes and 42 dogs, the population is
quite even.
This is the variability found within the population of a
species or between different species of a community.
It represents broadly the species richness and their
abundance in a community.

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 For example, all rice varieties belong to the species Oryza
sativa, but there are thousands of varieties of rice which
show variations at the genetic level and differ in their color,
size, shape, aroma and nutrient content of the grain. This is
the genetic diversity of rice.
New genetic variation arises due to in individuals, by gene
and chromosome mutation. This is the diversity of ecological
variations in
 Ecological niches(places),
 Trophic structure,
 Food-webs
 Nutrient cycling etc.

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The ecosystems also show variations with respect to physical
parameters like;
 Moisture,
 Temperature,
 Altitude
 Precipitation etc.
The ecosystem diversity is of great value that must be kept
intact.
This diversity has developed over millions of years of
evolution. If we destroy this diversity, it would disrupt the
ecological balance.
We cannot even replace the diversity of one ecosystem by
that of another.
Coniferous trees of boreal forests cannot take up the function
of the trees of tropical deciduous
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 Value of Biodiversity
Drugs and Medicines
About 75% of the world’s population depends upon plants
or plant extracts for medicines.
The wonder drug Penicillin used as an antibiotic is derived
from a fungus called "Penicillium.
We get Tetracyclin from a bacterium.
Quinine, the cure for malaria is obtained from the bark of
Cinchona tree,
Digitalin is obtained from foxglove (Digitalis) which is an
effective cure for heart disease.
Vinblastin and vincristine, two anticancer drugs, have been
obtained from Periwinkle (Catharanthus) plant, which
possesses anticancer alkaloids.

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Fuels
Our forests have been used since ages for fuel wood.
The fossil fuels coal, petroleum and natural gas are also
products of fossilized biodiversity.
Productive Values
These are the commercially usable values where the
product is marketed and sold.
These may include the animal products like tusks of
elephants, musk from musk deer, silk from silk-worm, wool
from sheep, fir of many animals etc, all of which are traded
in the market.

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Genetic Value
Biological diversity is a valuable genetic resource.
Most of the hybrid varieties of crops under cultivation have
been developed by incorporating useful genes from different
species of plants to produce better quality of the product with
longer self-life or having better resistance to pests.
The genes from the Kans grass (Saccharum Spontaneum)
grown in Indonesia helped in imparting resistance to red rot
disease of sugarcane.

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Social Values/Ethical Values
These are the values associated with the social life,
customs, religion and aspects of the people.
Many of the plants are considered holy and sacred in our
country like Tulsi (holy basil), Peepal, Mango, Lotus,
Neem etc.
The leaves, fruits or flowers of these plants are used in
worship or the plant itself is worshipped.
The tribal people are very closely linked with the wild
life in the forests.

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Aesthetic Value
Great aesthetic value is attached to biodiversity.
We will not like to visit vast barren lands with no signs of
visible life.
People from far and wide spend a lot of time and money to
visit wilderness areas where they can enjoy the aesthetic
value of biodiversity and this type of tourism is now known
as ecotourism.

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Ecological Value
It refers to the services provided by ecosystems such as
 Prevention of soil erosion,
 Prevention of floods,
 Maintenance of soil fertility,
Nutrients cycles,
Fixation of nitrogen,
Hydrological cycle,
Acts as carbon sinks,
Pollutant absorption
Reduction of the threat of global warming etc.

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 Biodiversity at Global Level
Cellular life has existed on Earth for probably more than
3,500 million years, but for more than half this time consisted
only of prokaryotes (i.e. unicellular organisms such as bacteria
and blue-green algae).
Multi-cellular animals (metazoans) first appeared some 600
million years ago.
The present geological era is perhaps the richest in biological
diversity.
The approximate number of species that might exist on Earth
is about 8.7 million.
Invertebrate animals and plants make-up most of the species.
About 70% of all known species are invertebrates (animals
without backbones such as insects, sponges, worms, etc.);
while, about 15% are plants.
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 Tropical deforestation alone is reducing the biodiversity by
half a percent every year.
Many of these species are more vulnerable to extinction
when their natural home is destroyed.
About 50 to 80% of global biodiversity lies in these
rainforests.
More than one-fourth of the world’s prescription drugs are
extracted from plants growing in tropical forests.
Temperate forests have much less biodiversity.
Globally, we have roughly
170,000 = flowering plants
30,000 = vertebrates
250,000 = other groups of species
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The species richness depends on the following
environmental conditions:
Warmer areas hold more species than the colder areas;
Wetter areas hold more species than the drier ones;
Areas of varied climate and topography hold more
species than the areas of uniform climate and
topography;
Areas at lower altitude (elevation) hold more species
than the high altitude areas;
Less seasonal areas hold more species than the highly
seasonal areas.

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 Threats to Bio-Diversity
Extinction, the elimination of a species, is a normal process
in nature. Species however, human impacts on populations
and ecosystems have accelerated that rate of extinction,
causing hundreds of species, sub-species and varieties to
become extinct every year.
Causes of Extinction
Population Risk: Uneven change in population rates (i.e.
birth rates and death rates) can cause a species in low
abundance to become extinct. For example, blue whales as
they swim over the vast areas of ocean, and if in one year
most whales were unsuccessful in finding a mate, then births
could be dangerously low.
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Environmental Risk: Environmental risk means variation in
the physical or biological environment, including variations in
predator, prey, symbiotic or competitor species. In case of
species that are sufficiently rare and isolated, such normal
environmental variations can lead to their extinction.
Natural Calamities: A natural catastrophe is a sudden change
in the environment. It includes fires, storms, floods,
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions etc. Such a natural catastrophe
may cause the extinction of most forms of life there.
Genetic Risk: Change in genetic characteristics in a small
population of a species, due to reduced genetic variation,
genetic drift or mutation, genetic assimilation[cross-breeding]
makes the species more vulnerable to extinction.

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Human Actions: Human activities like hunting ; development
of agriculture, rise of civilization, rapid deforestation and
introduction of industrial chemicals and emissions, pesticides
and pollution are also leads to extinction of species.
Habitat Loss and Degradation: Habitat loss and degradation
are the major proximate causes of species extinction, affecting
89% of all threatened birds, 83% of mammals and 91% of all
threatened plants assessed globally .The main causes of habitat
loss are agricultural activities, harvesting or extraction
(including mining, fishing, logging, etc.) and development of
human settlements, industry and associated infrastructures.

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Habitat Fragmentation: Habitat fragmentation may take
place due to the development of roads, towers, canals, fields,
industries, etc. in an original large habitat. Habitat
fragmentation divides populations into isolated
groups.These isolated, small, scattered populations are
increasingly vulnerable to inbreeding depression, high infant
mortality and susceptible to environmental hardships, and
consequently, in the end, possible extinction.
Diseases: Pathogens, or disease organisms, may cause
extinction. Animals [in sanctuaries and reserves] are more
prone to infection when they are under stress.
Poaching: Poaching is another threat to living species.
Wildlife is sold for live specimens, folk medicines, furs,
hides, skin (or leather) and other products such as ivory,
antlers and horns.

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 Endemic Species of Ethiopia

Endemic species are those that are found in a single

locality/area and nowhere else in the world.
They, thus, have a value in their uniqueness.
Areas of endemism containing several endemic species,
genera or even families have generally been isolated for a
long time, thus enabling the original species to evolve
into new genetic entities better adopted to local area.
Isolated mountain tops, valleys and large oceanic Islands
are usually areas of endemism.
Most notable of the endemic mammals are the gelada
baboon, the Walia ibex, the Menelik's bushbuck, the
mountain nyala, Swayne's hartebeest and the Simien fox. 24
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 Ethiopia takes the first rank in the quantity of bovines in
Africa and one of the leading countries in Africa in bird
species
There are 9 national parks, 3 sanctuaries and 8 game reserves
in Ethiopia.
Ethiopia has an extraordinary range of wildlife with 242
listed mammal species, 28 of these being endemic.
Threats to Ethiopian Biodiversity
 Deforestation
 Habitat loss
 Overgrazing
 Human interference
 Illegal hunting

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Ethiopia is unquestionably a critical region for large number of
bio-diversity and includes;
Mammals (277 spp.), 22 endemic
Birds (861 spp.), 27 endemic
Reptiles (78 spp.), 3 endemic
Amphibians (54 spp.), 17 endemic
Fishes (101 spp.), 4 endemic
Hot Spots of Bio-Diversity
Hotspots are the main areas of focus for biodiversity
conservation.
These are the areas that are extremely rich in biodiversity,
have high level of endemism, and are under constant threat
of species extinctions and habitat destruction.
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 Conservation of Bio-Diversity
Conservation of bio-diversity has the following specific
objectives:
 To maintain essential ecological processes and life-
supporting systems ;
 To preserve the diversity of species or the range of genetic
material found in the organisms on the planet; and
 To ensure sustainable utilization of species and ecosystems
which support millions of rural communities as well as the
major industries all over the world.
The wildlife conservation efforts are mostly centred on
protecting plant and animal life in protected habitats, such as-
botanical gardens, zoos, sanctuaries, national parks,
biosphere reserves, etc.
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 Types of Bio-Diversity Conservation

There are two approaches of biodiversity conservation:

(A) In Situ Conservation (Within Habitat)

This is achieved by protection of wild flora and fauna in
nature itself.
e.g. Biosphere Reserves, National Parks, Sanctuaries,
Reserve Forests etc.
This type of conservation is mainly done for conservation
of crop varieties, the wild relatives of crops and all the
local varieties with the main objective of conserving the
total genetic variability of the crop species for future crop
improvement or afforestation programmes.

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(B) Ex-situ Conservation (Outside Habitats)

This is done by establishment of gene banks, seed banks,

zoos, botanical gardens, culture collections etc.
Ex-situ conservation means conservation of species (sample
of genetic diversity), particularly of endangered species,
away from their natural habitat under human supervision.
The strategy of conservation of biodiversity is termed as ex-
situ or off-site preservation.
In ex-situ conservation, the endangered species of animals
are collected and bred under controlled conditions in zoos,
game farms, aquaria, etc., while plant species are maintained
in botanical gardens, arboreta and seed banks.

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 National Park
A national park is an area which is stricktly reserved by
the betterment of the wild life and where activities such as
forestry, grazing or cultivation are not permitted, and no
private ownership is allowed.
A national park is hitched to the habitat for particular
wild animal species like, lion, tiger, rhinosorous, etc. and
its boundaries are circumscribed by legislation.
Except for the buffer zone (where limited human activity
is allowed), no biotic interference is allowed.

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 National Parks of Ethiopia

A national park is a park in use for conservation purposes.

Often it is a reserve of natural, semi-natural, or developed
land that a sovereign state declares or owns. The national
parks of Ethiopia include:
Abidjatta-Shalla National Park ( 887 km²)
Awash National Park (756 km²)
Bale Mountains National Park (2,200 km²)
Mago National Park (2162 km²)
Nechisar National Park (514 km²)
Omo National Park (4,068 km²)
Semien Mountains National Park ( 220 km²)
Yangudi Rassa National Park ( 5000 km²)
Chebera-Churchura National Park (1250 km²)
Gambella National Park (5,060 km²) 42
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 Biological Diversity at National Level
Ethiopia, because of its geographical position, range of
altitude, rainfall pattern and soil variability has an immense
ecological diversity and a huge wealth of biological resources.
This complex topography coupled with environmental
heterogeneity offers suitable environments for a wide range of
life-forms.
As a result, Ethiopia is known as one of twelve centres of
primary plant domestication in the world.
Furthermore, due to its geographical position and socio-
economic diversity, numerous crop plants that are known to
have originated elsewhere have developed an enormous
secondary diversification in the Ethiopian region.
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 Biological Diversity at National Level

Vegetation types in Ethiopia are highly diverse ranging

from afro-alpine to desert vegetation.
It has a large number of plant species and a recent work
indicated that the number of higher plants was over 7000
species from which around 12 % are probably endemic.
The diversity of organisms in an ecosystem provides
essential foods, medicines, and industrial materials.
As many as 40 percent of modern pharmaceutical
medicines in the developed world are derived from plants
or animals.
In Ethiopia, no less than 80 percent of the rural
community and a significant proportion of the urban
dwellers depend on herbal medicines for their primary
health care delivery system.
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