Scientists: “the formation of the universe began  Red Giant Star (Small or Medium) – an internal

through the explosion of a primordial atom which reaction stops

happened approximately 13.7 billion years ago.”  White Dwarf Star – very dense star that is the
end stage of average star life; doesn’t do
Big Bang Theory – introduced by Edwin Hubble (1929): nuclear fusion and it gives a lot of light and
“all celestial objects in the universe move away from relatively small
each other”  Black Dwarf – remain of the white dwarf that
cooled down and no longer emits light and
Big Bang Nucleosynthesis = Hydrogen and Helium, heat
Lithium and Beryllium  Red Super Giant – biggest star in the universe
 the process by which light elements formed with short life cycle forms at the end of the star
during the Big Bang life
 Supernova – a stellar explosion that is
Stages of the Big Bang Theory triggered by the loss of any remaining fuel,
 Singularity enriches interstellar medium
 a point in space and/or a moment in  Neutron Star – remnant of supernova that
time where the universe was infinitely ejects particles
hot and dense  Black Hole – absolutely massive, the reason for
 a one-dimensional point which contains them is able to pull in any light that passes
a huge mass in an infinitely small space, nearby where there is no light eve emit
where density and gravity become
infinite and space-time curves infinitely, Star Formation Theory
and where the laws of physics as we  states that stars are formed when a dense
know them cease to operate region of molecular cloud collapses
 Inflation  fragments of clouds contract and form a stellar
 a theory of exponential expansion of core known as protostar
space in the early universe; the  protostar contraction and gravitational force
inflationary epoch lasted from 10-36 results in an increased temperature that
seconds triggers nuclear reaction within the star upon
 Nucleosynthesis reaching 10 million Kelvin
 the process that creates new atomic  Neutrinos and positrons were released
nuclei from pre-existing nucleons, throughout the reaction which slows down the
primarily protons and neutrons reaction
 the nuclear fusion and the formation of  Main sequence star will be formed when the
new nuclei actions in the early stages of contraction stops and the protostar attains its
development of the universe gravitational equilibrium
 Recombination  In the core of main sequence star, hydrogen
 the epoch at which charged electrons fuses with helium through proton-proton
and protons first became bound to chain.
form electrically neutral hydrogen  Main sequence star gravitational force, forces
atoms the hydrogen and helium to fuse which results
 the formation of the capture of free to burning of the 2 primordial elements.
electrons by the cations in a plasma o Helium – converted to carbon at the
core
“Stellar” – means star o Hydrogen – converted into helium
surrounding the core
Stellar Nucleosynthesis – formation of elements in the  on the other hand, since massive stars possess
center of the star enough energy, mass temperature, and
pressure, the star will undergo a series of
Life Cycle of the Star stages where heavier elements are fused
 Nebula (Giant Gas Cloud) – the temperature is around the shell of the core
low enough for the synthesis of molecules; o Helium fusion = carbon
mostly composed of hydrogen o Oxygen fusion = neon
 Protostar – formed from nebula due to the o Neon fusion = magnesium
gravity that pulled Hydrogen gas together until o Magnesium fusion = silicon
it spins faster and faster and becomes ignited o Silicon fusion = iron
 Main Sequence Star – the stage in  when majority of the helium surrounding the
development where the core temperature core has been converted into carbon, the rate
reaches the point for the fusion to commence of reaction will decrease causing the
o Sequence Star I – those that convert gravitational force to act squeezing the entire
hydrogen into helium in their cores via star
nuclear fusion
  with low mass stars, considering that the matter was actually made up of tiny, invisible, and
amount of energy is not enough to sustain the indivisible atoms.
reaction, and the star’s fuel has been
exhausted, the outer material covering the star Structure of the Atom
will eventually be blown off leaving an inert  Atoms contain three sub-atomic particles
carbon core resulting to the formation of white called protons, neutrons and electrons.
dwarf  The protons and neutrons are found in the
nucleus at the center of the atom. The nucleus
Proton–Proton Chain Reaction in a Main Sequence is very much smaller than the atom as a whole.
Star The electrons are arranged in shells around the
 the average star gets its energy and convert nucleus
Hydrogen into Helium  The number of electrons in an atom is always
 starts with a proton and a neutron which fuse the same as the number of protons, so atoms
together to form deuterium are electrically neutral overall.
 when another proton collides with deuterium,  Atoms can lose or gain electrons. When they
Helium-3 is formed do, they form charged particles called ions:
 collision between the Helium-3 atom with o if an atom loses one or more electrons,
another helium-3 forms Helium-4 it becomes a positively charged ion
 The case is different for massive stars (eight o if an atom gains one or more electrons,
times the mass of our sun). These stars it becomes a negatively charged ion
undergo CNO (Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen) cycle
to convert Hydrogen into Helium. You can see Atomic Number and Mass Number
at the left how Carbon-12 fused with proton  Atomic Number – number of protons in the
(H) and form Nitrogen-13. Nitrogen-13 nucleus of an atom:
undergoes beta decay to form Carbon-13. o the atoms of a particular element all
Carbon-13 captures proton (H) and Nitrogen- have the same number of protons
14 is formed. Nitrogen-14 captures proton to o the atoms of different elements have
produce Oxygen-15, and Oxygen-15 undergoes different numbers of protons
beta decay that forms Nitrogen-15. The  Mass Number – total number of protons and
Nitrogen-15 fused with proton gives off Helium neutrons in an atom
to generate the stable atom of Carbon-12.
Then the process repeats again Dmitri Mendeleev – created a classification of
 Tri alpha process happens in red giant star elements based on their atomic weight
once they leave the stage of main sequence
star. This is how three Helium-4 are converted Antoine Lavoisier – named the Hydrogen element, the
into Carbon. lightest and the most abundant element in the
 A star accumulates more mass and continues periodic table
to grow into red super giant.
 Alpha Ladder Process – alpha particle fusion Henry Moseley
happens at its core and creates more heavy  an English physicist and his experiment
elements until Iron demonstrated that the major properties of an
element are determined by the atomic
How do elements heavier than Iron form? number, not by the atomic weight, and firmly
Neutron Capture – a neutron is added to a seed established the relationship between atomic
nucleus number and the charge of the atomic nucleus
 S-Process/Slow Process – happens when there  proposed that the elements’ atomic number,
is a slow rate of capturing neutron while there or place in the periodic table, was uniquely tied
is a faster rate of radioactive decay hence to their “positive charge”, or the number of
increasing the proton by 1 protons they have
 R-Process/Rapid Process – there is faster rate  X-ray Spectroscopy – Moseley’s method of
of capturing neutron before it undergoes identifying elements by shooting electrons and
radioactive decay thus, more neutrons can be looking at x-rays became a very useful tool in
combined in the nucleus characterizing elements
Supernova Nucleosynthesis – there is faster  When the elements were arranged according
rate of capturing neutron before it to their atomic numbers, there were four gaps
undergoes radioactive decay thus, more in the table. These gaps corresponded to the
neutrons can be combined in the nucleus atomic numbers 43, 61, 85, and 87. These
elements were later synthesized in the
While ancient magi and philosophers conceived of a laboratory through nuclear transmutations
world composed of four or five elements – earth, air,  In 1913, Moseley determined the atomic
water, fire (and metal, or consciousness) – by classical number for each element
antiquity, philosophers began to theorize that all
  Elements are now arranged by atomic number,
not mass, in the modern periodic table

Discovery of Nuclear Transmutation

Nuclear Transmutation – the conversion of one
chemical element or an isotope into another