CHAPTER ONE

1.0. INTRODUCTION

This project is on solar power inverter, this device converts direct current (DC) output of a
photovoltaic (PV) solar panel into a utility frequency alternating current (AC) that can be used in
the department of Science Laboratory Technology in Plateau State Polytechnic Barkin Ladi .The
5Kva solar power inverter have special functions adapted for use with photovoltaic arrays which
consist of four solar panel, heavy duty battery, charge controller unit in other to achieve a
constant 220v to 240v of electricity.

1.1. BACKGROUND OF STUDY

It is a well-known fact today that electrical power supply is not reliable. All over Nigeria, there is
a significant electrical power supply interruption. Because of these electrical power supply
interruption, many electrical instruments have this developed problems or even stopped working
entirely. Hence this crippled much business thereby affecting many countries economy as
Nigeria. Also there is increase in occurrence of power supply disturbance, which can be viewed
as a form of power pollution. High voltage spikes and momentary voltage drops are therefore
common. This power disturbance may affect the performance of sensitive equipment in private
and corporate organization causing loss of data and even damage to equipment.

In Nigeria today, it is not an overstatement to talk about the epileptic supply of electrical power.
This has become the order of the day such that many Nigerians now view these power outages as
“normal” and part of their daily life. A wide range of factors has been identified for this problem.
They include natural disasters, vandalism, maintainability and sustainability and lack of local
content. The problem of poor quality power supply cannot be properly addressed without a
review of other factors such as lack of political will to invest adequately in power sector, absence
of replacement policy resulting in obsolete equipment, unsustainable human capacity building
and inadequate reward and remuneration system to motivate human resources to perform well.

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According to the recommendation made by the institute of Electrical Electronics Engineering
(IEEE), the supplies that should be available for use should be continues, uninterrupted with
constant frequency and within the load determine in terms of voltage and current. These
requirements have become even more relevant in view of the high sensitivity and sophistication
of modern technological equipment in use today.

The progress made in developing alternate source of energy over the last decades has showed
that independent power systems are not only possible but also very practical. In fact a wide
variety of generating equipment is now available to allow individuals take advantage of just any
renewable source of energy, for number reasons however, most of these systems produce only
direct current (DC) and often do so only at low voltage. Nonetheless, it is generally agreed that
the greatest and most useful form of current is the alternating current (AC) since this exists in the
vast majority of homes.

Therefore, there arises the need to able to convert Direct Current (DC) to Alternating Current
(AC) that will be of a constant frequency and also be used to power electrical circuits either in
homes or in industries. Such electrical device is called an inverter.

An inverter is an electrical device that converts direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC),
the converted A.C. can at any required voltage and frequencies, with the use of appropriate
transformer, switching and control circuit. Inverters are common used to supply A.C. power
from DC sources such as panels or batteries.

The electrical inverter. 5KVA, 220 – 240, 50Hz is high power electronic oscillator. It is also
named because early mechanical AC to DC converters where made to work, in reverse and thus
are “inverted” to convert D.C. to A.C. the inverter performs the opposite function of a rectifier.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

As a result of continuous power failure and fluctuation in power supply by power holding

company of Nigeria (PHCN) sensitive application and system on affected by its interruption

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power supply. How its project is to provide a backup and reliable power supply of 500ka to

power a standard SLT laboratory or office.

1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT

The aim of the project is to construct a 5000VA solar power inverter in t-he department science

laboratory plateau state polytechnic Barkin Ladi.

In this project, a 5KVA D.C. to A.C Solar inverter will be constructed. The primary objective of
undertaking this project is for the following reasons:

1. To design an electrical system capable of producing power from a 12V D.C. battery that will
be used to produce an output of 5KVA 50Hz – 240V which will be used to drive electrical
appliances.

2. The project is also aimed at exposing the ND students to simple electrical design and building
electrical circuit.

3. The project (5KVA, 220v – 240v inverter) will also help the student to understand the basic
principles of operation of a solar power inverter circuit and its relevance in the department.

4. The project is also aimed at introducing the principle circuit of analysis.

1.3 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The project has been undertaken i.e. 5KVA, 220 – 240 volt inverter has four stages or units.

These units includes

i. Supply unit (i.e. the Solar Panel)

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ii. Charge controller unit

iii. Inverter unit

The scope of this project is primarily to show how the low voltage DC power supplied is used to

energize the circuit. It will also show how the inverter unit convert he low voltage DC into a low

voltage AC in form of square wave. The triggering unit provides the trigging pulse needed by

MOSFET to operate.

1.6 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

In spite of the base of construction of an inverter and it’s noiseless and pollution free native

unlike other alternative source of the generating electricity, there is a need for charging and

recharging the battery form time to time.

Another limitation is the inability of the circuit to provide a pure sine wave output wave form.

This is because it is quite expensive to design a pure sine wave inverter circuit.

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CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Literature Review /Theory of Components

2.1 Literature Review

From the late 19th century to the middle of the 20th century DC to AC power conversion

was accomplished using rotary converters, or Motor Generator (MG) sets. In the early

20th century, vacuum tube and gas filled tube began to be used as switches in inverter circuits

(www.monvicinfo.blogspot.com.ng).

The earliest inverter was a motor generator which was developed to serve the need of

world war II. The motor generator was reliable and at the same times the only way to convert DC

to AC (Gurdjian and Maxwell, 200).

Tunnel diode inverters are used for very low voltage and high current (Theraja and

Theraja, 2005).

2.2 Theory of Components

2.2.1 Transistor

The transistor is the most important example of an ‘active’ component, a device that can

amplify, producing an output signal with more power in it than the input signal. The additional

signal comes from an external source of power (www.wikipedia.org/wiki/transistor).

2.2.1.2 Metal Oxide Semi-Conductor Field Effect Transistor

The MOSFET is a class of FET transistors. The FET as the name implies conduction in a

channel is controlled to the gate electrode. There are no forward-biased junctions, so the gate

draws no current. The MOSFET is an important semi-conductor device and is widely used in

many circuit applications.

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In an inverter however, the MOSFETs are used as switching device at the inverter output

section. The various terminal of MOSFET are;

a. Source: This is terminal which majority carried enter the bar. Since carrier come from it,

it is called the source.

b. Drain: This is terminal through which majority carrier leave the bar i.e. they are drained

out from this terminal. The drain to source voltage VDS drives the drain current ID.

c. Gate: These are two internally connected heavily doped impurity regions, which form

two P-N junctions. The gate - source voltage VGS reverse biases the gates.

d. Channel: This is the space between to gates through which majority carrier pass from

source to drain when VD is applied.

Drain

Gate

Source

Fig.2.1: Schematic diagram of MOSFET

2.2.2 Diode

When a junction is formed between p-type and n-type semiconductor materials, the

resulting device is called a semiconductor diode. This component offers an extremely low

resistance to current flow in one direction and an extremely high resistance to current flow in the

other (Bird, 2010).

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 Fig.2.2 Schematic symbol of diode

2.2.3 Resistor

Resistors are devices used in circuits to limit current flow or to set voltage levels within circuits

(Scherze and Monk, 2013).

Fig.2.3 Schematic symbol of resistor

If a dc voltage is applied across a resistor, the amount of current that will flow through the

resistor can be found using Ohm’s law. To find the power dissipated as heat by the resistor, the

generalized power (with Ohm’s law substitution) can be used.

V=I×R

Ohm’s law

𝑉2
𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉 = = 𝐼2 𝑅
𝑅

(2.16) Ohm’s power law

R is the resistance or the resistor expressed in ohms (Ω), P is the power loss in

Watts (W), V is the voltage in volts (V), and I is the current in amperes (A).

2.2.4 Capacitor

A capacitor essentially consists of two conducting surfaces separated by a layer of an insulating

medium called dielectric. The conducting surfaces may be in the form of either circular (or

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rectangular) plates or be of spherical or cylindrical shape. The purpose of a capacitor is to store

electrical energy by electrostatic stress in the dielectric (Theraja, 2000).

Fig.2.4 Schematic symbol of capacitor

2.2.5 Voltage Regulator

A voltage regulator is a type of IC designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. A

voltage regulator may be a simple “feed-forward” design or may include negative feedback

control loops (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/voltage-regulator).

An IC consists of a number of circuit components (e.g transistors, diodes, resistors etc.) and

there interconnections in a single small package to perform a complete electronic function. These

components are formed and connected within a small chip of a semiconductor material (Mehta

and Mehta, 2008).

Fig.2.5 Schematic symbol of voltage regulator

2.2.6 Transformer

A transformer can be defined as a static device which helps in the transformation of electric

power in one circuit to electric power of the same frequency in another circuit.

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The voltage can be raised or lowered in a circuit, but with a proportional increase or decrease in

the current ratings. It has no rotating parts; it works on the principle of mutual induction.

Transformer needs two coils which are wound on a laminated steel core. These coils are called

primary coil and secondary coil. The coil to which the ac supply is provided is called primary

coil/winding while the coil in which the e.m.f is induced and from which the output is taken is

called secondary coil/winding. There is no direct electrical connection between primary and

secondary coil in a transformer (www.allaboutcircuits.com).

For the construction of the 5kva transformer we are considering the core-type transformer

because of the ease of winding. In all transformers that are used commercially, the core is made

out of transformer sheet steel laminations assembled to provide a continuous magnetic path with

minimum of air-gap included. The steel should have high permeability and low hysteresis loss.

For this to happen, the steel should be made of high silicon content and must also be heat

treated.

Operations of Transformer

 Transfer of electric power from one circuit to another.

 Transfer of electric power without any change in frequency.

 Transfer with the principle of electromagnetic induction.

 The two electrical circuits are linked by mutual induction.

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2.2.7 Operational Amplifier

An operational amplifier (often op-amp or opamp) is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic

voltage amplifier with a differential input and, usually, a single-ended output

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operational_amplifier).

Fig.2.6 Circuit diagram symbol for an op-amp

2.2.8 The Oscillator Unit

A monolithic Integrated circuit (IC SG3524N) was used in this section instead of the

conventional Astable multivibrator circuit. The IC SG3524N consists of all the control circuitry

for regulating Power or switching regulator.

Included in the 16-pin dual in-line package is the voltage reference, error amplifier, oscillator,

pulse width modulator, pulse steering flip-flop, dual alternating switches and current shutdown

circuitry.

2.2.9 Solar panel

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A solar panel is a device that is able to absorb sun rays and convert it into

electrical energy precisely DC. The photovoltaic panel comprised of silicon

crystals, which reacts with sun ray and under this process, converts the sun rays

into electricity. They supply the electricity for charging the batteries and for use by the

appliances either directly or through an inverter.

Fig.2.7 Schematic symbol of Solar panel

2.2.10 Solar battery

The battery that will be used in this project is a solar battery. Without the

battery, the system could only power when the sun is shining. The power would

interrupt each time the cloud passes, the system would become very frustrating.

The solar battery provided constant electricity and the load discharges 80% of

its charge.

The batteries are the heart of the system and were available in different

voltages and various amp-hour ratings depending on the requirement of the

system.

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Fig.2.8 Schematic symbol of Solar battery

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 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHOD CONSTRUCTION

This chapter deals with the materials, method of construction and analysis.

3.1 Material use in the design of an autotransformer:

i. Aluminum or Copper wire

ii. Silicon Steel
iii. Isolation (i.e impregnated paper, mica etc)
iv. Bolt and Nuts

(Single-phase) Transformer

 Where:
 VP – is the Primary Voltage
 VS – is the Secondary Voltage
 NP – is the Number of Primary Windings
 NS – is the Number of Secondary Windings
 Φ (phi) – is the Flux Linkage

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In this project, we will be using an Autotransformer

The primary and secondary windings of an Autotransformer are linked together

both electrically and magnetically reducing the cost over conventional
transformers. An autotransformer is used mainly for the adjustments of line
voltages to either change its value or to keep it constant. If the voltage adjustment
is by a small amount, either up or down, then the transformer ratio is small as V P
and VS are nearly equal. Currents IP and IS are also nearly equal.

Figure 3.1 Schematic diagram of an autotransformer

Unlike the voltage transformer which have two electrically isolated windings
called: the primary and the secondary, an Autotransformer has only one single
voltage winding which is common to both sides. This single winding is “tapped” at
various points along its length to provide a percentage of the primary voltage
supply across its secondary load. Then the autotransformer has the usual magnetic
core but only has one winding, which is common to both the primary and
secondary circuits.

Therefore in an autotransformer the primary and secondary windings are linked

together both electrically and magnetically.

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3.1 Autotransformer Working Principle

Autotransformer has single winding. When an alternating supply is given to the

primary circuit, because of Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic Induction, an emf is
induced in the primary part. Since the magnetic field is alternating in nature, and
conductors are stationary.

Autotransformer

The induced emf in primary produces a flux, which is called as primary winding
flux. This flux links the secondary winding and induces an emf on secondary
winding due to mutual induction. Hence emf is transferred in the secondary
winding. Based on a number of turns on the secondary side, the magnitude of
induced emf is determined.

3.3 Autotransformer Emf Working

The emf equation of induced emf is given as

E=4.44∅Nf

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This can be generalized for both primary winding emf and secondary winding emf.
If we take ratio we get as

E1/E2 =N1/N2 =k

It could be seen that the magnitude of induced emf is directly proportional to a

number of turns. If a number of turns are greater on the secondary side, it is called
a step-up autotransformer. If several turns are less, it is called a step-down
autotransformer. It is also observed that, in two winding transformers, flux links
the secondary winding through the core of the transformer. There is no electrical
link between primary and secondary. For that reason, the transformer is called as
electrically isolated but magnetically coupled device. But for an autotransformer,
there is electrical isolation. There is only one winding. For this reason,
autotransformer is called as electrically and magnetically coupled device.

3.4 Autotransformer Design

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A transformer basically consists of two parts

 Conductors
 Core

The conductors in the autotransformer are made up of copper. They are of low
resistance. The copper conductors are insulated with each other. The material used
for insulation is impregnated paper, mica, etc. The insulation also helps in reducing
eddy current losses. The winding is wound around the core. For a single winding
transformer, the requirement of copper is less as compared to two winding
transformers.

When the primary current IP is flowing through the single winding in the direction
of the arrow as shown, the secondary current, IS, flows in the opposite direction.
Therefore, in the portion of the winding that generates the secondary voltage, VS
the current flowing out of the winding is the difference of IP and IS.

3.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Autotransformer

The advantages are

 Losses in Autotransformer are less

 The efficiency of the autotransformer is more
 Copper Requirement is less
 The core requirement is less

The disadvantages are

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  Autotransformers cannot be used for high voltages. Since any discontinuity
in the primary winding would result in complete primary voltage on the
secondary side, therefore it cannot be used for high voltages
 The insulation requirement is more. Since autotransformer is both
electrically and magnetically coupled, the requirement of insulation is more.
 Because of common winding, a neutral connection is difficult.

3.6 Applications of Autotransformers

The following are the applications of autotransformers.

 Autotransformers are used for starting induction motors Autotransformers

are used for laboratory purposes.
 Auto Transformers are used for voltage regulation
 Autotransformers are used for laboratory purposes.
 Autotransformers are used in many industrial applications like paper mills,
factories, etc.

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