TEACHING AND LEARNING

The Concept of teaching and learning

LEARNING
Learning is a process that brings together personal and environmental experiences and influences for
acquiring, enriching or modifying one’s knowledge, skills, values, attitudes, behaviour and world views.
Learning is defined as “any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of practice and
experience”
This is the process by which we acquire and retain knowledge, Skills attitudes and capabilities that cannot
be attributed to inherited behavior patterns or physical growth.
Types of Learning
Trial and Error Learning –This is learning by trying out one possible solution after another in trying to
solve a problem - Thorndike (1874-1949)
Learning by Conditioning- This learning by conditioning or ‘getting used’ to, or ‘adjusted ‘to a new
situation, or a stimulus It is a process of substituting the original stimulus by a new one and connecting the
response with it (Pavlov –dog & meat &Skinner -Rat &food)
learning by insight- this is Learning by perceiving the relationship in the scene and understanding the
situation to arrive at a solution. Finding a solution to a problem is possible by perception of the whole
situation and when achieved, learning will have taken place (Kohler- chipanze, sticks and banana)
Learning by Imitation /Observations or Social learning
It is the simplest method of learning. Many of our day-to-day’s activities are learnt by imitating others. For
example, the way we eat, drink, walk, talk, dress, etc, are all learnt by imitating others. We observe and
watch what and how other people do certain activities and imitate them.

LEARNING STYLES

The way we learn is referred to as a learning style. Research shows us that each learning style uses
different parts of the brain lobe. By involving more of that brain lobe during the learning process, then we
are able remember more of what we learn. Vester (1998) and Howard Gardner (1983) identified the
following learning styles, include;

• Auditive learning (“by listening and speaking“), - learners in this category learn better by hearing
information rather than reading it or seeing it displayed visually ( teaching Tactic-this type like to recite
information repeatedly, emphasizing key points, keep asking questions and calling for verbal answers, or
provide audio clips for them to listen to during their free time)
• Visual learning (“through the eyes, by watching”), these prefer to see information and to visualize the
relationships between ideas. (Teaching tactic, Make presentation as visual as possible e.g show them
charts, graphics, video clips etc)
 • kinesthetic learning (“by touching and feeling”),/ - these are hands on or experimental learners. they learn
best by doing ( let the learners touch, feel, test, play with the teaching learning aids. give them the
opportunity to construct, write, repair, draw, etc)
 Verbal (linguistic) reading/ writing learners-: these prefer using words, both in speech and writing../
these learn best through reading and interacting with written materials. ( Provide this type of learners with
written handouts and keep asking them to write what they have noted )
 Logical (mathematical): These prefer using logic, reasoning and systems.
 Social (interpersonal): These prefer to learn in groups or with other people.
 Solitary (intrapersonal): These prefer to work alone and use self-study.

LEARNING THEORIES
Learning theories describe how students absorb, process, and retain knowledge during learning.
Behaviourism
The behaviourist perspectives of learning originated in the early 1900s, and became dominant in early 20th
century. The basic idea of behaviourism is that learning consists of a change in behaviour due to
acquisition, reinforcement and application of associations between stimuli from the environment and
observable responses of the individual. In behaviorism, positive and negative reinforcement are effective
tools of learning and behavior modification, as well as a punishment and reward
Cognitivism
To Cognitivists learning is understood as the acquisition of knowledge i.e. the learner is an information-
processor who absorbs information, undertakes cognitive operations on it, and stores it in the memory.
Therefore, its preferred methods of instruction are lecturing and reading textbooks; and, at its most
extreme, the learner is a passive recipient of knowledge by the teacher
Constructivism
Constructivism emerged in the 1970s and 1980s, giving rise to the idea that learners are not passive
recipients of information, but that they actively construct their knowledge through interaction with the
environment and through reorganization of their mental structures. constructivism emphasizes the
importance of the active involvement of learners in constructing knowledge for themselves. Students are
thought to use background knowledge and concepts to assist them in their acquisition of new information

TEACHING
Brown et al (1982) define teaching as an attempt to help someone acquire or change, some skill, attitude,
knowledge, ideas or appreciation.
Stones and Moris (1972) have defined teaching as activities that are designed and performed to produce
change in the learners’ behavior.
Farrant (1980) understands teaching to be a process that facilitates learning. The role of the teacher,
according to Farrant, is to act like a catalyst, actively stimulating learning. This means that the teacher
gives learners an opportunity to participate actively in the teaching-learning process.

Teaching approaches
These are sets of principles, beliefs or ideas about nature of learning, which influences the teacher’s choice
of classroom teaching activities. It is a way of looking at teaching and learning. They are teaching
approaches which influence teachers’ choice of teaching methods. Approaches to teaching are broadly
categorized as
Teacher –Centered approach, / Traditional Approach- where a teacher is viewed as the only source of
credible and reliable information. this is the traditional mode of teaching, where a teacher teaches, pose
questions while students sit and listen with little or no participation. It is characterized with;
It focuses attention on what is taught rather than what is learnt.
Teachers act as essential link between the child and what is being learnt.
Teachers see their role as communicating knowledge to their learners as efficiently as possible.
The teacher selects what the children learn, the methods by which they learn and the pace at which they
learn.
The teacher is often very rigid in the way the lesson is presented to the learners.
Learners get the impression they can only learn when their teacher is present and teaching. Learners are
regarded as uniform without considering their individual gifts and needs.
Learner –Centered approach/ PARTICIPATORY APPROACH, which views teaching as an interactive
process between the teacher and the learner, with the learner at the center stage of thier. Learners drive
the teaching –learning process asking and answering questions and actively contribute towards the topic
under discussion.
Acknowledges that children’s needs should determine what they learn at school.
Recognizes and respond to the changing characteristics that distinguish between children of different
ages and abilities.
It trains children in skills that are within their capability and stage of development.
Selects what is taught and the methods used so that they are appropriate to the comprehension and
experience of the children.
Utilizes the strong multinational forces that control so much of children’s natural learning.
It is more flexible and democratic depending on the prevailing circumstance.
 It emphasizes more of learners’ participation in the teaching – learning process through the use of various
activities.
Constructivist /inquiry based approach – this is based on the premise that students can construct their
own knowledge. It is an inquiry based learning where driving questions drive the lesson. Students are given
guiding questions, therefore what and how students learn is determined by the nature of questions
Collaborative learning approach –The approach is a blend of the learner centered and inquiry based
learning approaches. Students work in groups to solve a problem themselves
THE TEACHING CYCLE
Pre-active Phase (planning) It is the planning phase of instructional act. In the pre-active stage, teachers
are attempting to set both long-and short-term aims, goals, and objectives. It is at this point that Selection
of the content, organization of the content, choice of methods of teaching e. duration ,place and
management of the classroom teaching f. decision about evaluation tools
Interactive Phase (performing), This is the stage for actual teaching. It involves studying the classroom
environment and students’ mood whether they are favorable for teaching, reviewing of and establishment of
covered work, introducing and presenting content using appropriate methods and aids etc
Post-active Stage (analyzing) During the post-active phase of the teaching, teachers attempt to determine
how effective their teaching has been; how effective the lessons were. Typically the data gathered and
analyzed is a combination of observation of classroom activity and the results of students' written work.
Teachers can examine students' test scores, projects they completed, and written work they did. etc

METHODS OF T EACHING

1. LECTURE METHOD

This is a teacher-centered method of teaching involving oral presentation of information by the teacher to learners as
they listen and take note of what is important from the lecture. It is the oldest method of teaching very efficient at a
time when textbooks where scarce or none existent. The teacher takes a very active part in the teaching learning
process yet learners are inactive doing mainly the listening.

To effectively promoting learning using the lecture method, the teacher needs to integrate in some discussions, pose
question etc to allow students actively get involved .

Despite the popularity of lectures, the lack of active involvement of students’ limits its usefulness as a method of
teaching more so at secondary and primary school levels.

WHEN TO USES A Lectures

1. To orient students.
2. To introduce a subject.
3. To give directions on procedures.
4. To present basic material.
5. To introduce a demonstration, discussion, or performance.
6. To illustrate application of rules, principles, or concepts.
7. To review, clarify, emphasise or summarise.
ADVANTAGES
Its reliable and econ omical for big classep[eaction.
Require highly skilled instructors.

2. THE DISCUSSION METHOD

Discussion involves two-way communication between two or more participants in the teaching learning process. In
the classroom situation both the teacher and students take part in the discussion. Where students already have some
knowledge or experience, discussion may be used to develop the main points to be covered in a lesson. Discussions
maybe- Guided discussions- where the teacher takes a central part in directing the discussion, structured discussion
where a teacher only sets the rules and procedure for the discussion and then let students manage the discussion
themselves or Free discussion, where the teacher only introduces the topic and leaves the rests to students to
manage on their own

WHEN TO USE DISCUSSIONS

To develop imagin ative solutions to problems.

To stimulate thinking and interest and to secure student participation.
To emphasise main teaching points.
To supplement lectures, reading, or laboratory exercises.
To determine how well student understands concepts and principles.
To prepare students for application of theory of procedure.
To summarise, clarify points or review.

Advantages
Promotes cooperative learning and socialization
Increase students interest
Increases students acceptance and commitments.
Utilises student knowledge and experience.
Results in more permanent learning because of high degree of student participation.

Limitations
It is time consuming,
Limits the speed of content coverage which
Discussion can easily get out of control of if the leader is weak
Restricts size of groups

3. THE DEMONSTRATION METHOD

This calls for a teacher explaining and showing students how to do or perform a given activity who in
turn performs what the teacher has performed. It is the most effective way to teach an occupational
skill
Make sure all students can see and hear the lesson.
Use a medial summary to strengthen your explanation.
Observe all safety rules and procedures

When To Use Demonstration Method

To teach manipulative operations or procedures

To teach troubleshooting
To illustrate principles
To teach operation or functioning of equipment
To set standards of workmanship
To teach safety procedures
Advantages
It Minimizes damage and waste of materials
It Saves time
Limitations
It is expensive
Require careful preparation and rehearsal.
It may not be effective for large classes
Requires special classroom arrangements.

4. PROJECT METHOD
It is an activity performed by students independently or semi-independent with an aim of achieving a
specified task as set by the teacher. It is an effective way of teaching measurable and observable skills
where more students input and creativity is required. Students may work individually or in groups with
more autonomy and freedom from their teacher
Advantages
It builds confidence among students that they can equally perform an activity independent of their
teachers
It extends learning outside the classroom, as it tends seeks for application of classroom theoretical
knowledge
limitations
It is sometimes expensive
It is expensive

5. Fieldwork

This is teaching and learning done outside the classroom, i.e in the field

6. ROLE PLAY

In role plays, participants use their own experiences to play a real life situation. students are asked to assume and act
like the real person in perspective to deliver the intended message

7. Drama-

It involves acting/ theatrical performances using words and actions to pass on the message to be taught to students.
Students themselves may do the acting or inviting an external group of actors to make a peroformance about the
selected topic

8. BRAINSTORMING

The purpose of a brainstorming session is to discover new ideas and responses very quickly. It is particularly a good
way of getting bright ideas. Students are encouraged to let ideas flow freely, building on and improving from previous
ideas. No idea, howe ver crazy, should be rejected. These ideas are listed exactly as they are expressed on a
board or flipchart, or written on bits of paper. It is useful to collect answers to questions when you expect much
repetition in the responses. After a brainstorm session, the ideas can be discussed further and evaluated,.

9. Case study method

 10.Discovery

11.experimentation

12 educational tour, field trip

etc

PREPARATION FOR TEACHING

(a) The Syllabi (b) Scheme of work (c) Lesson notes (d) Lesson plan (e) Classroom organization
a) Syllabus (Syllabi )- This is an outlay of a course of study for a particular subject, indicating the topics to
be covered.
The purpose of the syllabus is to give an equal opportunity to all learners in the country in their preparation
for further education and preparation for national examination. It spells out (i) The national goals of
education. (ii) Objectives of Education. (iii) Aims of teaching the subject. (iv) Contents to be taught in each
class. Lists of teachers’ and learners’ reference books

FORMATS OF SCHEME OF WORK

TEACHER’S NAME: OMARIA ALFRED

SCHOOL: WOODS HIGH SCHOOL

CLASS: S.6 ICT SCHEME OF WORK: 1ST TERM 2005

W pe To Subt object Learni Activiti Skills/ Methods T/Aid/ ref remar
e rio pic opic ives/ ng out es/con values resources ks
e d comp omes tent
k etenci
es/
comp
etenc
e

Note: Statement of objectives, - As we state objectives,

They should be SMART
Should be stated using action verbs
Objectives should cater for the Cognitive (about mental), Affective (about attitudes, feelings) &
psychomotor (about doing) domains of the learner

Match with the level of learners e.g, basing on the six levels of thinking the following verbs could be used
 Knowledge Comprehensi Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation
define on Translate Distinguish Compose Judge
describe Restate interpret analyze plan Appraise
repeat discuss apply differentiate propose evaluate
record explain employ appraise design rate
Recognize Interpret use calculate formulate compare
List Exemplify Implement Organizing Checking Testing
Identify Summarize Carrying out Deconstructi Hypothesizin Experiment
Name Inferr Execute ng g
Locate Paraphrase Attribute Critiquing
Find Integrate
Recall

2. As we prepare our schemes, we take note of ;

Proper interpretation of the syllabus
Preceding and succeeding syllabus content as well as topical order of arrangement
Reference material , e.g textbooks, - content, usability, accessibility
Time – Number of periods a week, public holidays, school special days and activities etc
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SCHEME OF WORK
 It helps a teacher to reading ahead hence building academic confidence in advance.
 It increases the teacher’s readiness for teaching e.g. looking for learning aids, reference books
in advance.
 It enables a teacher to see the logical sequence of topics because he/she first looks at the
syllabus as a whole.
 It helps a new teacher taking over a class to find out where to start.
 It is one of the evidences that the teacher in charge is duty conscious.
 It helps a teacher to budget time for the syllabus content.

 LESSON NOTES
 LESSON PLAN
This is the breakdown of the schemes of work into specific and teachable outline. It is a procedure to be
followed in the teaching- learning process. A lesson plan can be for a single or double period is drawn from
a scheme of work meant for a longer period.
Format
TEACHER’S NAME: OMARIA ALFRED
SCHOOL: WOODS HIGH SCHOOL
Subject :
LESSON PLAN
week Date class Duration No. Avg age
students
Topic:

Sub-topic:

Either Objectives:
By the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
1. Cognitive (organise)
2. psychomotor
3.affective

Or Competencies
A learner
1. Organises
2.
3.
(Use appropriate verb as demonstrated on blooms taxonomy)

Learning outcomes; ( what do you want these learner to do at the end of the teaching/ learning cycle) eg a
learner should be able to organise.....

Generic skills and values

eg Critical thinking, problem solving etc ( what are the indicators)
Values such as sharing but we are more interesting in indicators.

Methods; think of learner centered especially constructivist methods eg group discussion, discovery, field
work, experimentation etc do not forget integrating in techniques such as question and answer, think pair
and share etc

Learning Aids: use real objects, charts, models, ICTs; soft and hard eg videos, laptops etc Map showing
.......

References: use APA style (Include all possible references about the topic to be taught)

Lesson Development
Step time Teacher’s activity learner’s activity
Introduction 05
(This can be
through
orientation or
review or
both)
Exposition/ 15
experiencing
(It is content
time)
Integration ( 15
trying out/
practice/
sharing time)
Evaluation/ 05
production
(Exercise time
)

Chalkboard plan

Date Fair copy Rough work New words

Self-evaluation
1.Strength

2. Areas that require improvement

3. Way forward

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
This is the technique of classroom control to facilitate achievement of lesson objectives.
Techniques of classroom control
 Give very simple and clear instructions to students.
 In your lesson plan, identify areas that may cause disturbances and work out solutions before
hand.
 Always be positive and never be negative towards students’ response or behaviour.
 Be confident and well prepared for any situation.
 Sometimes you have to ignore troublemakers.
 Give them responsibilities to execute.
 As a teacher, know the students by names.
 Identify the clever as well as the dull students and devise means of imparting knowledge to
these two different groups.
 Never issue threats if you cannot carry them out e.g. telling a student that I am going to send
you out and you don’t. Remember that it I s bad teachers who punish frequently.
 Give equal treatment to all students
 Discourage dodging of lessons/classes.