Did these economic activities Contribute to the growth and expansion of the Mutapa.

Farming generated more food and this helped many people to settle together farming
large communities
The control of trade by the leaders gave them power and wealthy which held them
dominate / controlling other less wealthy groups.
Knowledge of iron making also gave power in terms of weapons and helped the leading
group to establish authority and even expand its influence over large areas.
Resulting exhibition of power also enhanced growth and expansion when smaller ethic
groups Voluntarily joined the Mutapa state / kingdom
The King’s alleged religious powers were also a factor in the growth of the state as it
generated loyalty of subjects.
The political system where all subordinate people were controlled through the chief’s
representatives also enhanced growth
The military prove eased of the nucleus group of Mutota helped them to conquer other
areas and bring them under centralized authority

Political Politics of Mutapa state

The King was the head of the state and ruled with the help of the council.
His daily duties were to settle disputes lead religious ceremonies and political
organization / affairs.
Upon his death he became a mhondoro ( a high respected chief)
The Mutapa was ‘democratic’ because he consulted his council on important issues such
as war and important religious matters.
The council was made of army commanders, priest and sons of the pfumos.

Provincial administration.
It was headed by the provincial chief or pfumos
They enjoyed some degree of independents
They performed a number of duties which were
(i) paying tribute to Mutapa.
(ii) Contributing troops during wars
(iii) Collected the royal fire form the king and distributed to the social province.
Religion
The religion recognized the existence of a supreme God creator of all called Mwari
(Musikavanhu). The people and their God communicated through spirit mediums.
They know that there is a God in Heaven. They believe that their kings go to heaven and
when they are there call the vadzimus and ask them for what ever they require. The notes
shows the link between the people, vadzimu the mutapa and the religion. For one to be a
ruler they had to be sanction by the vadzimu if this happened he would be blessed and
automatically feared. The vadzimu gave him orders e.g. to have a war or not and in time
of famine and hunger he go help.
Military Organization
The Mutapa needed an army to defend the large area he controlled.
If an emergency arose he would gather his Dare or Hondo (council of war) to make plans
and choose who to conscript into the attacking or defending force.
The forces were organized into several battalions under a chain of command the top of
which was the Mutapa and a commander in chief.
Before heading into battle n’angas (spirit healers) ‘treated’ the soldiers to make them
brave.
Sources form the time say that the Mutapa armies liked to fight in the open using the
classic ‘ cow horns’ formation to surround the enemy.
Hwamanda parapand was used to give orders to attack to withdraw etc.

The decline of the Mutapa State

1. Weak Mutapas
Nyahuma who succeded Matope lacked his predecessor’s qualities. He was young, weak
and incompetent. Senior and more ambitious leaders were tempted to rebel.
His sub-chiefs Chang and Togwa / Torwa rebelled with success. In 1490 Changa started
to rule. But his rule was short-lived. In 1494 Changa was killed by Nyahuma’s son
Chikuyo Chisamarengu. Chikuyo rules from 1494 up to 1530.
The empire was divided into two.
Competition of these two Kingdoms remained a source of weakness.

ii) The vastness of the Empire

the vastness of the empire created by Nyatsimba and Matope proved too unworldly to
anybody without the qualities of those two. What was needed was an efficient
administrative and communication system backed by a powerful army leader who
followed Matope had neither the capacity nor ability to do so leading to the disintegration
of the Kingdom.

iii) Succession Disputes:

succession disputes which were by and large supported by the Portuguese also led to
empires decline. Portuguese interference in the Mutapa state also worked to destroy it e.g.
the struggle between Gatsi Rusere and Matuzianhe.
Mavhura and Kapararidze installed their own puppet Mamvura in 1630 and this
weakened the state.
Prazo –holders took land and recruited private army which attacked the local people.
The Prazo-holders enslaved the local people
The Mutapa state was invaded by the Rozvi under Changamire Dombo
The state was also invaded by the Nguni under Zwangendaba as well as the Ndebele
state.
The invasion of the state by the British in 1890 marked the end of the Mutapa state

Rozvi State

Origins
The founder of the Rozvi state was Changamire Dombo
The state was established around 1648. Changamire Dombo rebelled against the
munhumutapa and later established his state in Western Zimbabwe. He defeated the
Torwa people who were occupying the Khami ruins and occupied this area.
He established his capital at Danhan’ombe
The Changamire became militarily powerful and reach in cattle. Its army became known
as Varozvi (destroyer) under the leadership of their mambo called Dombo or Chikura.
The Changamire territory crutually consisted of Guruswa and Mbire but later included
most parts of what is now Zimbabwe.
The Rozvi attacked the Portuguese traders on the eastern edge of the Zimbabwe plateau
in 1684 for the control of the long distance trade.
In 1693 – 5 the Rozvi defeated the Portuguese and cleaned them out of the Zimbabwe
Plateau
They also defeated the army of Munhumutapa
Mukombwe sent to punish them.
They marched across the plateau to defeat the Togwa king. Mambo Dombo then made
his capital at Danangombe

The Rozvi Political System

The head of state was the Mambo who was a heredity ruler.
His daily activities / duties were to settle disputes lead religious ceremonies and political
affairs.
The council was made of army commander, priests and sons of pfumo

Provincial Administration.
It was headed by the provincial chief or pfumos
They performed a number of duties which were:
(i) paying tribute to Mutapa
(ii) contributing troops during wars
(iii) collected the royal fire from the King and distributed to the society / province.

Religion and politics

The Rozvi believed in the power and guidance of the ancestral spirit. These had to be
constantly praised, consulted and appeased through spirit mediums.
The spirit medium were those who could communicate directly with the ancestors for the
people
They believed in a sky God called Mwari.
Political authority was allied with religion to convince the ordinary people that the
political organization of the state was correct or legitimate
Politics and religion in the Rozvi state was the power of the territorial medium in
resolving succession arises.
He could pass the final word on the matter.
Tumbare – military leader – to defend the Rozvi.
In addition the religious authority relied on the military leader- called the Tumbare – who
stood for the King when he died until the other King was assessed.

Provincial Administration
The Changamire alone held the religious and political authority to install any new chiefs.
He appointed some from among his relatives.
The Mambo was the only one who could choose a chief because he had the religious and
political authority to dose

Economy
The economy of the state was built around agriculture and pasterlism and cultivating.
Dombos subject looked forward to be led by him in time of famine.

Hunting and Gathering

This continued to be an important part of the economy.
Hunting was enjoyed by men as a sport and Portuguese sources tell us that even Mambo
hunted on occasion

Mining
Mining was carried out in much the same way as in Mutapa state, with the gold being
used for trade any making jewellery
By the time the Rozvi state was in decline most of the mines were worked out, or
required more sophisticated modern equipment to extract the deeper ore.

Agriculture
Cattle were a form of wealth that could make itself felt in various way
(i) used to bring in extra numbers of people to Rozvi house wives and children
(ii) added plentiful mille and meat to the diet.
(iii) Provided leather and other useful by-products
(iv) Made Rozvi villages more secure form drought and famine than their Tonga
neighbours’ village in the tsetse – infested Zambezi Valley
Mambo used grain surplus paid as tribute to feed his army or court
They mostly cultivated 3 cereals
a) Finger millet b) drought resistant c) variety e.g. bulrush millet sorghum.
The Ploughing season was form September to November
From the 16th – 18th Centuries, some new crop were introduced via the Portuguese
although they never became staples rice, yams, sugar – can were grown.
The peasants also grew some crops from India and Portugal such as pineapples guavas,
paw paw, melons, sweet potatoes, cucumbers and lemons

Trade
Had external and internal trade
Traded with Portuguese
The Rozvi had middlemen called vashambadzi.
From the Portuguese the Rozvi received clothes, beer guns, sea shells beads, sugar,
candles, China ware.
Internal changes among the Rozvi people themselves were leading them into more
complex forms of social organization
Foreign trade contributed to building up the Mambo’s power
By the 18th century the Rozvi had set up valuable trade links with the Portuguese on the
Zambezi especially the traders around Zumbo
Between the year 1722, 1743 and 1781 the Mambo sent powerful armies to protect the
trading stations at Zumbo against attack from its enemies
The Mambo also provided protection for the vashambadzi, the traveling traders against
robbery.

Relationship with people

The Rozvi controlled or interfered with the people’s politics and land allocation and
made people to pay tribute
They even sometimes told people who could be their chief
The Rozvi Mambo, through initially having control over the ceremonies surrounding the
installation of chiefs, began to make the local people followe other Rozvi customs.
People who adopted some customs were the dynasties of Mutema, Chikanga – Mutasa,
Makoni, Marange and Muberu Nyashanu.
Zvimba never allowed themselves to fall under Rozvi domination and by the beginning
of the 19th century the seke, Chinamora, Mangwende and Chibata dynasties asseted their
independence.

Relations with the Ndebele

When the Ndebele arrived in region the Rozvi state was going through a succession
crisis.
Some houses such as Swabasvi, Sukuluba and Lazavi voluntarily submitted to the
Ndebele.
They and other Shona peoples agreed to herd Ndebele cattle in return for young people
(labour)
Sucessors of the last Mambo, Chirisamhuru, attacked the Ndebele in an attempt to regain
Rozvi supremacy.
Many of the Rozvi who lived inside the area of Ndebele settlement remained under their
own sub – rulers, became Ndebele speak and completely certified themselves with the
Ndebele.
The decline of the Rozvi state.
There was a serious drought in the Rozvi which affected it.
Civil wars also affected the state e.g. There was a war between Dyambeu and
Chirisamhuru.
Loss of population also contributed to the fall of the state
Trade in gold has declined and this contributed to the weakening of the state.
Invasion of the state by the Sotho, Nguni groups e.g. Zvangaendaba set the Rozvi capital
on fire and killed so many people then left the state for Tanzania.
i) Kagadi the leader Ngwato also invaded the state
ii) Zhou totem also invaded the state
iii) Ngwana Maseko also attacked the state
iv) Nyamazana a female warrior invaded the state and killed the last king of the
Rozvi Mambo Chirisamhuru. She remained in the sated until the arrival of the
Ndebele
v) The Ndebele finally entered the Rozvi state, attacked and brought the Rozvi
under their leadership. A number of Rozvi groups brought themselves under
Mzilikazi but some migrated to Mbire and Makoni and marked the end of the
Rozvi state.

THE ZULU STATE

The causes of Mfecane in Nguniland

Growth of population and pressure on land
Desire to control trade especially with the Portuguese at Delagoa bay
Desire to extend political influence over a wider area
Importance of cattle in society and desire to acquire more
Source of food e.g. meat, skins and to pay lobola
Desire to control the hunting grounds especially where ivory was concerned.
Desire to control the grazing lands for the increasing number of cattle
Development of advanced military tactics which proved aggression
The emergence of ambitious African leaders who desired to destroy other
Famine in Nguni land that which caused rivalry as food shortage spread. Creation of
large powerful kingdoms supported by smaller ones e.g. Mtetwa, Ndwandwe

The fighting that took place between the ethnic groups in Nguniland during the Mfecame
In 1816 rivalry of Ndwandwe (Zwide) and Ngwane (Sobhuza) began over land then latter
were defeated and pushe away north.
In 1818 Ndwandwe under Zwide attacked the Mtetwa
Dingiswayo was captured and killed and the Mthethwa were defeated and scattered.
Ndwandwe attacked the other groups in the area east Drakensburg.
Some ruminants of the Mthethwa fled giving Zwide reign in the area of Nguniland
Zwide then decided to fight the small Zulu that now under Tshaka
The Military Tactics which Tshaka developed in the early of the Mfecane gave Tshaka a
decisive advantage over the Ndwandwe. Tshaka then assembled the Mthethwa and the
Zulus into a powerful military machine
Weaker tribes ethnic groups who could not flea to seek refuge under Tshaka and become
part of the empire.
Threat of the whites from the South also made people to rally behind the most powerful
leader becoming part of an enlarged state.
Tshaka adopted new fighting methods, like horn formation and began to attack his
neighbours. His small Zulu kingdom began to expand and be a challenge to the
Ndwandwe.
In 1818 Zwide decided to crush the emerging Zulu Kingdom. In the first battle the
Ndwandwe were defeated and driven off by Tshaka
By the end of 1818 Zwide sent a full army across the Mffdozi river. Tshaka at first
withdrew his whole population and wealth. Zwide followed across deserted country with
no food. Ndwandwe army became weakened and began to retreat. Tshaka then attacked
and drove the Ndwandwe back to their capital which he sacked this the Ndwandwe were
defeated
Tshaka drove the Ndwandwe generals Zwangendaba Soshangane away. They fled
northwards after Zwide was defeated.
Zwide fled to the region of the upper Nkomali river
Soshangana left in 1821 attacking the tribes to the north and ended up in Gazaland near
modern – day Chipinge
Other small tribes fled to the west into the Sotho and Tswana area in terror and in turn
spread the terror on their way
Tshaka proceeded to attack tribes between 1822 and subdued them and incorporated to
form a large Zulu Kingdom.

Military Changes
Tshaka used ideas from Dingiswayo
Use short stabbing spears called assegai
They fought bare feated for greater speed
Young boys – baggage carriers
They used long shield and cow horn formation
Food for warriors was beef.
Made use of age regiments according to their age
Warriors who tried to run away were killed
Made uses of spies

Political Organization
Tshaka consulted councilors but the final decision came form him
He was in charge of the army
The entire army assembled at the royal barracks
This was known as the first fruit ceremony

Political Reforms
He used existing ruling lineages encouraged and exploited rivalries between them
Lineages based close to the center of the Zulu state were not absorbed but were exploited
a subject of the king
Tshaka introduced national ceremonies and using national symbols such as Inkhata
All religious ceremonies had the King at the top apex
Independent rain maker were destroyed
Tshaka took control of the economy which enabled him to accumulate

The role of woman

Tshaka place a female member of his own family in the military settlement
She had equal power with those of the military commander
From this Tshaka got a source of information and indirect control
Unmarried girls in the Zulu state formed regiment similar to those of the man
They took part in dance and did agricultural work
Women regarded as providers of food they had to submit to men at all times
Zulu girls were trained in submission.
The death of Tshaka and the decline of Zulu state
Tshaka like all the dictators became drunk by his power
Plots made to get rid of him
Succeeded in assassinating him in 1828
Mkabayi was Tshaka’s sister
Dingane and Mhlangana were his half brothers
Tshaka was killed when they were trying to defeat are rebel chief called Soshangane
Was murdered in broad day light
Dingane succeeded Tsaka
Tshaka’s army was weak to defeat Dingane

Decline of the Zulu

There was civil war after the death of Cehtswayo
The Zulu state being
British finally annexed the Zululand in June 1887
The Governor of Natal became the Supreme Chief over the Zulu people
He was assisted by the Resident Commissioner and Chief magistrate
By 1887 most chiefs of the Zulu Kingdom had died in jail or exile.

The Ndebele state

The Origins of the Ndebele state
The Ndebele were the original Khumalo group who came from Nguniland led by
Mzilikazi. Mzilikazi was accorded special treatment by Tshaka. He was Tshaka’s most
trusted and favorable Induna and general.
He was allowed to have his own army was also allowed full political control of his
Khumalo section of the Zulu nation.
He had voluntarily joined the Khumalo chiefdom to Tshka’s Zulu at the time when
Tshaka was fighting the Ndwandwe and Zwide.

Mzilikazi’z revolt and the journey to Zimbabwe

In 1821 Mzilikazi was sent on a mission to raid the Sotho people. The mission yielded a
lot of cattle which Mzilikazi decided to keep for himself instead handing them over to
Tshaka.
To worsen the situation he ill-treated the messenger sent by Tshaka to plead with him to
surrender
Tshaka viewed this as an rebellion against him and declaration of nar on the Zulu.
Tshaka sent a regiment to punish Mzilikazi. In the first attack the Zulu were eatean off
and in the second attack Mzilikazi was defeated.
Mzilikazi and many of his fighter who survived decided to leave Nguniland
In 1822 he led the Khumalo group across the Drakensburg, mountains into the highveld.
They had started a journey which finally ended in Zimbabwe.
The Khumalo’s more superior military method and strict discipline gave Mzilikazi
warriors great advantages over people whose lands they passed during the northward
march by 1822 they had reached upper elephant’s river where they settled sometime to
rest the called the area Ekupuleni.

Why the Ndebele left Ekupumuleni

It was close to Zulu land and Tshaka was still determined to punish Mzilikhazi.
Not only the Zulu the Pedi people threatened them
The Ndebele then moved to the west were Pretoria stands today
They build a capital called Mhlahlandlela in that area.
The Ndebele carried raid into communities of central northern Transvaal, Botswana,
Lesotho and Zimbabwe.

Why the Ndebele left Mhlahlandlela

It was the Dingani in 1830 the Zulu attacked the Ndebele being led by Dingani
The Ndebele were threatened by the Kora, Koison who had guns
The Graqua attacked them and took lots of cattle.
In 1832 the Ndebele moved to the head water of Marico driving the Hurutse people
In 1833 combined Tswana and Griqua force attacked the Ndebele who were aware
raiding Mashoeshoe Basotho.
In 1834 Kora dnd the Grequa groups attacked the Ndebele. The Boers formthe South also
attacked the Ndebele.
Dingani attacked the capital and totally destroy it
Mzilikazi’s enemies had increase in 1837
Porligeter’s Boers assisted by Griqua, Kora, Tokwa and Rolong struck again Mosega
Mzilikazi’s capital.

Migration Across the Limpopo

Mzilikazi decided with his group to migrate further North in 1837. They split and moved
into two groups
Main group consisted of old people, remain and the children and most of he cattle, sheep
and goats under Gundwane
It included most of Mzilikazi’s sons e.g. Nkulumane the heir, so was Lobengula
The crossed Macloutse and Shashe rivers and settled near to Matopo hill
The first settlement was establish here called Giixhegu longer route passing through
Kalahari desert and then followed a North – East ward route toward the Zambezi.
He attacked the Kobobo and moved to join the other group after they had the second
group wanted to appoint Khulumane as the king.
Gundwane Ndiweni and other generals (Indunas) were assassinated byMzilikazi and
Nkulumane fled to South Africa.

Economic Activities
1. It was based on Agriculture. It was practiced especially former members of the society
crops grown included maize, rapoko, millet
Each village had a common field for the king whose produce went straight to the King’s
granary.

2. Keeping of Cattle
It played a major role in the economy. A person’s wealthy was measured by the number
of cattle, they possessed.
Most cattle belong to the king through the Kuronzera system.
Cattle reviewed as a source of wealth
For paying lobola, sources of food

3. Trade
There was trade with outsiders were ivory, grain, gold, cattle were exchanged for cloth,
beads and guns

4. Raiding
There economy was based on raiding neighbouring areas especially the Shona.
Raids yielded wealth such as grain and cattle

5. Tribute
Wealth was also as a result of tribute paid by subjects and subdued state who paid to
avoid to be raided.

6. Mining
They mined different mineral i.e. gold ore, iron ore and copper ore.

7. Smithing
They made iron tools such as hoes, spear, arrows, etc.

Social Organization
Zanzi
They were pure Nguni or pure Khumalo groups who came from Nguniland or Zulu land.
Zanzi class provided the ruling class
They formed 15 % of the population of Zimbabwe.

Enhla
These were the Sotho and Tswana elements who were incorporated in South Africa

Hole
Theise were the elements of shona who were conquered and incorporated into the
Ndebele society to form the lowest class
A form of aciste was maintained with lower class, men prohibited to marry upper class
woman.
Some social structure was maintained in the regimental sector and lower class people
were only allowed to rise in the military ranks.
The Ndebele had four regimental town e.g. Amhlope Makanda, Nmnyama Igaba

Did the economic factors strengthen the state

Raids and payments of tribute allowed the Ndebele to maintain their hold over the area
Ndebele system of leaving some of their riches e.g. cattle in the care of helped to
maintain their authority.
The King’s control and use of cattle helped to maintain political authorities e.g. cattle for
rewarding good sub chiefs to supply the need with food and manure its supply the army
with food and for some to pay lobola.
The coming of the Missionaries in Zimbabwe between 1850 : 1900

The aims of the Missionaries

To spread Christianity
To civilize the local people
To promote legitimate trade
To end slavery
To teach people to read and write
To promote European
To teach new farming methods

Activities of missionaries in Zimbabwe

The London missionary society came to Matabeleland 1859 and established Inyathi
mission
The mission was led by J S Moffat
In 1870 the London missionary opened other mission that Hope Fountain led by Charles
Helm.
At the mission the missionaries thought and preached the Gospel
Books in Ndebele were printed
They grew food crops.

Roman Catholic Church also opened missions at Empandeni near Bulawayo

African Evangelist of Catechists from Transvaal ant Lesotho sent missionaries to
Mashonaland e.g. the Dutch Reformed church. Berlin Missionary Society, Paris,
Evangelical Mission
Some permanent mission stations were established e.g. at Chivi Mutibe and Mposi
At Chivi it was short lived.

The Anglican Church

It established the decease of Mashonaland in 1882 led by knight Bruce.
Stations were established along the Eastern borders e.g. at Mount Chirinda, mutambara
Mission, Mary Mount, St Augustine’s, Nyanga, Regina Coeli Mission.
Main activities of the missionaries included conversion to Christianity, education,
translations, medicine, technical work.
Mediating between Africans and other Europeans.

Problems faced by missionaries

Opposition of African leaders diseases e.g. malaria
Poor transport and communication.
Opposition of Moslems or Swahilis
Language barrier.
Traditional religion
Food supplies wee scarce

Success
Education developed in areas where the African Society was not tightly controlled
As technician e.g. did much even Matabeleland e.g. repairing of guns
May hospitals were opened and served Africans who where then side lined by the
government after 1890
Missionaries became many agents in the plot to colonize Zimbabwe. They promoted
trade between Whites and Africans

Failure
They opened few schools
They converted very few Africans to Christianity
They taught few people to read and write

Industrial Revolution in Britain

Why Britain was the first country in the world to Industrialize

Enclosure of land
An increase in population
Controlling of international trade.
The economy was strong.
The emergency of the middle class which had money to invest
The government was stable and country enjoyed peace.
Availability of Iron and coat in the country
Possession of colonies where raw materials e.g. where cotton could be obtained.

The result of Industrial Revolution in Britain

There were use of many machines
Good were plenty and cheaper than before
Many people began to live in urban areas.
Working class and capitalist classes became the main classes
Many invasion were made
Telephone, mouton cars, gramophones, radios etc
Working and leaving conditions were very bad.
Improvement of transports they had now tarred roads and railways, use of steam engines.
They was now need for colonies as sources of raw material and markets.
A labour bases political party was formed
Better signify knowledge was used

How important was the industrialization in the southern Africa

The need for raw materials and markets led to the colonization of South Africa
New technology enabled them to conquer more lands.
Availability of funds to invest in new lands.
To control strategic ideas for trade at the cape
The invention of steam ships made the movement easier
The white settlers were able to resettle trouble some citizens

Other factors for the scramble of South Africa

Spreading of Christianity
National prestige
Stop slavery and slave trade
To have political control of new lands
Precious minerals like gold and diamond attracted Europeans
Some wanted to hunting expeditions
Influence of explores and ambitious people also triggered the colonization fo Southern
Africa
Good climatic conditions.

The Colonization of Southern Africa

Economic reasons for scramble for territory in Southern Africa
Need for raw materials e.g. gold and diamond
They wanted to take land
Needed markets to sell their manufactured goods.
Need for investment areas.

Political reasons
Strategic reason e.g. cape town
Power to influence events in Europe
The influence of political and imperialist like Rhodes.
The National prestige
Political control of new lands
Mzilikazi and concluding the Moffat treaty of 1836. the facilitated the signing the Moffat
treat in 1888 between Moffat and Lobengula
Rev Charles Helm persuaded Lobengula to grant the Rudd concession. He was an
imperialist agent stationed at Lobengula’s court and was being paid by Rhodes for his
role

Other factors
Lobengula’s Indunas Lotshe and Sikhombo were bribed and persuaded the king to sign
the treaty.
Lobengula might have willingly signed the treaty to reap benefits promised.
Lobengula was illiterate and was taken advantage of
Lobengula knew that he was dealing with a powerful force land so had to yield.
Perhaps Lobengula wanted to play one group of whites against another.

B.S.A.C (British South African Company)

Was a company which would give Rhodes the authority to colonize and administer
Zimbabwe on behalf of Britain.
It was formed in early 1889
It took a deal of time to obtain a charter.
Christian groups, tax payers and philanthropic circles both in Africa and Britain
oppressed it
The opponents wanted Britain herself to colonize and administer Central Africa under a
system of protectorated
Rhodes argued that if his company was granted a Royal Charter it would colonize and
develop Zimbabwe on behalf of Britain but without requiring the British tax payers to
pay for these things
All expenses would be met by taxes from shareholders of the BSAC i.e. Rothschild, De
Beers and Consolidated Goldfredd.
Lord Salisbury, the British Prime Minister accepted and in October 1889 a royal Charter
was granted
The Charter also allowed Rhodes to occupy not only Zimbabwe but Malawi and Zambia
The Charter also authorized the company to raise a powerful police force to maintain law
and order in the region.
In October 1880 Rhodes sent his representatives to Bulawayo i.e. there was Dr Leander
Star Jameson, Maxwell and Doyleta asle Lobengula to let the BSAC go into
Mashonaland
If Lobengula had refuse the whites were prepared to use force

The Pioneer Column

It included English and Afrikaner elements. About 200 people were selected to move into
Zimbabwe.
They represented a wide variety of trades which would be needed in the country, e.g.
blacksmith, carpenters, builders, printers, bakers, miners, farmers and traders.
Each of the 200 men were promised 3 000 acres of land and up to 15 gold claims
Colonizing party was led by Major Frank Johnson with Heaney and Barrow as his
seconds in company.
About 400 mounted men and a thousand auxiliaries provided by Khama, was organized
to occupy Zimbabwe.
The hunter and Scout F.C Selous was to be the guide.

Reasons for the occupation of Zimbabwe

They wanted raw materials i.e. minerals, rubber palm oil, cotton.
They wanted to invest their capital
To civilize local people
Needed new markets
The pioneer grouped in Botswana to start their journey at the beginning of 1890
They got help form Khama
The Pioneer column crossed Matloutsie river in June 1890 and Shashe river in July 1890
They avoided the Ndebele regiments wanted to attack them.

Anglo-Ndebele war (1893)

Causes
1. The failure of the BSAC to find gold in Mashonaland made to believe that the
second Rand was to be found in Matebeleland.
2. the attitude towards the Shona. The Ndebele viewed Mashonaland as a hunting
ground whilst the white settlers viewed Mashonaland as a source of cheap labour
thus the two groups clashes over the Shona
3. The Victoria incident
Gomalla – state 500 yards fo telegraph wires make snares
Bere – stole Lobengula’s cattle and Lobengula armies to punish Gomalla and
Bere and thye killed Shona People
4. Tribute Question
Chief Nemakond (Lamagundi) and Chief Chive (Chibi) had to pay tribute to
Lobengula and they stopped paying it.
When Lobengula realized that they were not paying he sent armies to punish
them.
5. Boundary Question (issue)
The whites were not happy the Ndebele did not respect the boundary between the
Ndebele and the Shona which they had brought and they kept on raiding the
Ndebele.
6. Killing of Lobengula’s peace envoys in S. Africa
Lobengula started preparing for the war and both the other side the white settlers
were also preparing for the war

Six treaties signed between Lobengula and the Concession seekers

i). Tait Concession ii) Baines Treaty iii) Globler Treaty
iv) Moffart Treaty v) Rudd concession vi) Lippert Concession

Problems Lobengula faced in dealing with the Concession Seekers

Opposition from his army who wanted all foreigners kicked out.
Language problem in communication
Poor active from his councilors
Dishonest advice from whit acquaintances e.g. missionary (Helm)

Preparation of the war

Volunteers who joined the white settlers where promised gold claims in the attack
6 000 acre of land
The compact forces where divided into three groups
The first one was at fort Victoria (Masvingo) led by Allan Wilson and this was based by
27 ponder guns and 8 maxim machine guns
The third group was at Fort Tuli under captain Raaf
This group has auxiliaries for chief Lakama
Lobengula called his army from Botchwanaland
It started preparing for this war.

The first Battle

The settles dashed with the Ndebele at Shangani River
The Ndebele were defeated
The white used machine guns and seven pounder guns
Sot the Ndebele were easily defeated

Second Battle
The whites camped at Bembesi and during night
They attacked by the Ndebele during night whilst they asleep
The machine guns were brought into operation and the Ndebele were defeated
The whites advanced to Bulawayo and by the time they got there they found the town in
flames
Lobengula had fled to Zambezi
The Southern Column reaches Bulawayo on 15 November 1983
On its way it had dashed with the Ndebele at the place known as Dingueni river
On 2 November the Matebele force under the Izinduna Gano had attack the settlers and
the Ndebele were again defeated
They retired to the Matopo hills
James send Forbes and Raaf to capture Lobengula
They came across a big camp which had been abandoned hurriedly
Lobengula sent two men with a bag of gold asking that peace a massage shows to
surrender before their troops kept it
Captain Barrow and Wilson tired to capture Lobengula were overpowered and the whole
group was defeated and Lobengula died at the Zambezi valley

Why the Ndebele were defeated

Ndebele use inferior weapons e.g. axes, arrows, spears
Settlers used maxim guns, cannons, seven pounder and they fought on horse backs
The white settlers assisted by chief Khama

Results of the Anglo – Ndebele War

The Ndebele lost their land and all white volunteer were given a large piece / tracks of
land
Two reserves were created Guni and Shangani were the Ndebele were living
The Ndebele lost their cattle
The whites sheared Lobengula’s cattle among themselves some were taken to South
Africa and the few which remained where given to few Izinduna
Zimbabwe came under colonial rule
White occupation brought forced labour, taxes racism.
THE FIRST CHIMURENGA
It is a war or Liberation forught by the Shona and Ndebele in 1896 – 1897 against the
British.

Causes of Chimurnga
The Shona and Ndebele lost their land to the British
Lost of their independence e.g. long work hour
Loss of cattle
Refusal to pay tax
Their minerals were taken by the British
Police be utility
The Ndebele wanted to have their King back
Shona / Ndebele lived in reserves
Natural disasters e.g. drought, locust and Rinderpest
The role of spirit Mediums e.g. Nehanda, Sekuru Kanguvei, Mkwati, Chaminuka
Loss of trade contacts with the Portuguese
Women were raped

Course of the Chimurenga

Weapons
British Africans
Maxim guns spears
Seven pounders bows and arrows
Explosives axes
Rifles and laagers

Spirit Mediums
Nehanda – Mazoe
Chief Mangwende – Murehwa
Makoni – Manyame river
Mashayambombe – mupfure valley
Kaguvi – Chishawasha
Seke – Seke
Chihota – Chihota
Chinamhora – Chishawasha

Activities
Its started in Matebeleland in March
The attacked isolated areas
Whiteman who lived in outskirts of the city
a)shopkeepers b) mines c) farms
the war spread to Towns Bulawayo and Gweru
white men escaped to town.
The Whiteman build larger : wagons to build defensive areas
They got supplies for Khama of Botswana and South Africa
Most of the white men had gone to south Africa

James raid
Negotiations between the Indunas and Cecil John Rhodes stop the war
Africans submit their weapons
Indunas were to work for the government
The British to supply food and seeds for the planting season
The war continued in Mashonaland
The war took longer to end in Mashonaland
1. they were many shona groups
2. there was no single leader to end the war
3. the shona used Guerrilla warfare
The British had to end the war
1. Violent / brutal methods
2. Dynamites were used to blow curves
3. They burnt a) villages b) crops c) most Shona were killed e.g. Chief Makoni

Results of the first Chimurenga

Spirit mediums were killed e.g. Mbuya Nehanda and Kaguvi in 1898
The British intervened because it was their colony ant they had chromic interests
The BSAC ruled the colony
Tax was reduced
Roads, railways and telegrams were invented
Chiefs were employed by the government
Crops and homes were destroyed
The Shona and Ndebele were driven into reserves
Also forbidden to build houses near mountain and kopjes
Both Ndebele and Shona were brought more firmly under European rule

Why Africans were defeated

They used inferior weapons
They did not have a single leader to co-ordinate the war
They were told by their mediums before the bullets would turn to water
They were not united
Used poor methods of war
They had fewer guns and little knowledge on how to use them

Rise of African Nationalism

It is a movement that seeks to gain national Independence from colonial rule
The white nation participates in movements that seeks to gain national independence

National Grievances
In Mines
They worked for longer hours and were paid low wages
They did not have protective clothes
There was poor ventilation and no lighting
Child labour that is children also worked in mines
There were lots of accidents in mines
No health facilities
Mines collapsed and many people were trapped inside and died
People were beaten up for them to work harder

Poor living conditions

They created compounds
Poor sanitation
Over crowding i.e. there were lots of disease
No health facilities
Poor quality food which led to Kwashiorkor, malnutrition

In Factories
There was bitter conditions
They worked for long long hours without rest e.g. 14 hours
They did not haves protective clothes e.g. gloves and
They used machine which they could not operate that caused many accidents
There was poor ventilation
There was poor lightning
Child and woman labour e.g. a seven year old child worked not given maternity leave
They were hot stalled
Low wages
No health facilities
They used dangerous chemicals which affected their health

In Rural areas
Over crowded
Over grazing caused soil erosion
The soil was infertile
Drought
Pests like tsetse fly, render pest all affected the people
Payment of hut tax
Erosion
Forced labour
House were burnt
Crops were sold
Road and rural areas were built far away from the Shona and it was difficult to carry their
markets.

Law passed by colonial government

Native law and Court Act 1937
Cattle levy Act 1934
Native Registration Act 1936
Kaffir Beer Ordinance Act 1912
Native Reserve order in council 1920 / Rhodesia order in council 1898
Native Affair Act 1927
Maize control Act 1931 and 1934
Industrial conciliation Act 1934
Land Apportionment Act 1930
Native Regulation Act 1898
Order in council 1898 / 1902
Master and Servant Ordinance 1901
Native pass Ordinance 1902 / Native Pass Act 1937
Private Locations Ordinance 1908
Dog tax 1912
Land Husbandry Act 1951

Colonial Legislation
They were oppressive laws became they favoured the white settlers laws were passed by
whites represented in parliament.
1. The order in council 1898
They created reserves for Africans
2. Master and Servant Ordinance
Africans were servant for the whites settlers. Africans provided cheap labour to white
settlers
3. Native Pass Ordinance
It became compulsory for blacks to carry passes. The law controlled the movement of
blacks into urban areas
4. Private location ordinance
Urban areas were divided others were workers only and Europeans had their own low
density areas.
5. Order in Council: created more reserves for Africans
6. Kaffir Beer Ordinance
Africans were not supposed to drink clear beer and they had their own beer separated
from those of whites
7. Order council 1920: more reserves were created for Africans
8. Native Affair Act: Amative Department was to administer Africans
9. Land Apportionment Act
It separated / segregated Africans from Europeans, land reserved for white and Africans
were allocated land in Reserves Africans were to supply labour to factories, mines and
farms
10. Maize control Act
Separation of markets between African and Europeans African maize was bought at
lower prices and that for Europeans at higher prices
11. Industrial conciliation Act 1934: Africans were not allowed to form trade Unions
12. Cattle law Act: Africans paid fees for cattle e.g. dipping fee.
13. Native regulation: 4 controlled the movement in the town
14. Seditean Act: It banned book or speech which was against the government
15. Native law and Court Act
16. Native Urban Areas Act: Africans were restricted to live in urban areas and paid rent
to white landlord
17. Land husbandry act: Africans restricted to own 8 herd of cattle and 5 acres fo land
18. 1959 Unlawful Organizations Act sanctied all political organization
19. Preventive Detention Act 1960
20. Law and Order maintenance Act 1960

Methods used by Africans to resist colonial exploitation

As early as 1900 Africans in mines:
1. Went on strike i) worked stopped ii) reduction of production
a) workers did not report for work they in Shamva Globe and Rhinix mine
b) Destruction of property owned by capitalists
c) Demonstrations carrying placard / posters
2. Killing livestock’s which belonged to white settlers reduce production
3. Burning crops that belonged to white farmers
4. Workers stole form factories and forms
5. Pretended to be ill / sick and failed to report for work. Reduction of production
6. Formation a) Organizations b) Associations c) Trade Unions
(ICU) 1919 Industrial Commercial Workers Union
Leaders
Masocha Ndlovu
Job Dumbutshena
Charles Mzingele
Clemence Kadhali

Activities Aims Success / failure Organization

1. strike action in 1. Improvements of Methods were not (ICU) Industrial
mines for in Shamva working and living effective Commercial
–Globe Phoenix conditions of works Strike – worker workers
2. Formation of ii) Reduction of might be fired Union 1919
organizations working hours -Reduction of wages Leaders! Masocha
Trade Unions iii)wanted protective -Few educated elite Ndlovu, Job
Burial Societies clothing for workers were in involved Dumbutshena,
Chunah -increase in wages -People were Charles Mzingeli,
organization -representation in arrested during Clemence Khadhali
Demonstration parliament strikes and -reformed Industrial
Passive resistance -to buy land demonstration Comerecial Union .
-opportunities in -people were beaten leader : Chalrls
education up by police Mzingeli
-they did not want -leaders were -Bantu African
to remove imprisoned voice Association.
government form -use of violence Benjamin Burombo
power 1920 to 1945 strike -Rhodesia Railway
were the same -loss of productions African Employees
-destruction of Association.
machines Leaders : Benjamin
 Increase in wages Buromba
-African National
Congress (1934)
Aaron Jocha
-Early protest
movements

The Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland

Aim of the Federation

The settlers wanted to share profits of gold and copper (Netherlands, Rhodesia, Southern
Rhodesia and Nyasaland)
The settlers wanted to make use of labour in Zambia (NR) and Nyasaland (Malawi)
They wanted to form a strong union against possible control by the Afrikaners (Boers)
The settlers wanted to cooperate in order to control Africans
They wanted provided a big market for goods produced in the federation.
To help each other to develop transport, electricity and other infrastructure.

Steps which were taken to establish the federation

In 1930 white settlers began to discuss the idea of amalgamation Northern Rhodesia and
Southern Rhodesia
They asked the British government to have a conference on amalgamation.
The British government refused arguing that it will disadvantage Africans
The three territories set up a committee in 1945 to discuss migrant labour and agreed to
pressurize British government for amalgamation.
In 1949 a conferment was held at Victoria falls which discuss the idea of Federation and
not amalgamation
Colonial secretary Greech Jones refused to accept the idea of federation.
A new colonial secretary James Grieffith accepted the idea which he said should be a
partnership between European and Africans the visited Africa and listed a conference.
The conservative part come into power in 1951 in Britain and accepted the idea of a
federation
The government of Churchill called for a conference in London to discuss the federal
constitution but no African were invited.
A conservative politician was serial to Central Africa to find out the view of Africans. He
reported that no strong opposition was noticed except for few extremist. This
contradicted the bledisleo report which esflasised African opposition
The final conference in London was held to adapt the federal constitution and finalize
details of setting up the federation. The federation was set up in 1953.

Project which were done during the federation

There was construction of infrastructures such as the Kariba dam
The i) University of Southern of Rhodesia ii) hospital iii) colleges e.g. Gweru teacher’s
college, hillside teacher college, roads, schools

Failures
There was no equal partnership between blacks and whites
There was no equal sharing of profits in the territories.
Development favoured whites.

Grievances of the Africans

a) The federation perpetuate racial discrimination
b) It ensured white domination
c) Africans were not consulted on whatever white were doing
d) The development favoured settlers especially those in Southern Rhodesia.
e) There was not enough representation in parliament only 6.
f) Worker (Africans) were lowly paid.

Measures taken to oppose the federation

African formed political parties e.g. in Zimbabwe they had the African National
Congress, NDP, ZAPU, Malawi they had NDC (Banda). Zambia UNIP (Kenneth
Kaunda,Kapwepwe)
Africans refuse to accept the idea of federation
Africans agitated of political independence.
Trade unions formed by African staged strikes to show dislikes for the federation
They formed anti-federation committee which use publications to write against the
federation
Delegation were send to the British Government to oppose the idea of federation e.g.
people liked Nkomo, Banda, Kapwepwe and Sithole
Partition against federation were signs
In Malawi a campaign which was characterized by violence was staged.

To what extent did Africans benefit form the federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland
Benefits
Schools, health institutions were constructed
A non racial University College was constructed (University of Rhodesia)
There was availability of work especially for workers form Northern Rhodesia and
Nyasaland
There was investment

Disadvantages
There was racial discrimination
There was no adequate representation in parliament
Africans received lower salaries compared to whites
The development favoured settlers.

The Rise of Mass Nationalism

ANC – African National Congress 1957
Leadership
Joshua Nkomo James Chikerema
George Nyandoro as a secretary General

Activities which were carried out by the party.

The advocated for wages for the black majority.
The right to vote
They also carried out rallies which motivated the country

Why it was banned?

It was banned in 1959 after the state of emergency was declared through out the
federation as African protest mounted with demonstrations, rallies and strikes
In February 1959 finally was banned and 500 of its members were arrested and 300 were
detained including Chikerema and Nyandoro

NDP – National Democratic Party

It was formed in 1960
It was meant to be a democratic party with the equal number of African and European but
after 1961 when constitutional talks were held in Salisbury they decided to have 15
Africans within the party

Activities
It was supported by students, trade unionist, African trader and young men without land.
NDP encouraged resistance to the land husbandry act
They also organized mass meeting like the greed March through Salisbury (Mass
movement).

Mass Nationalism
Is when a groups of a country join together to fight against

Continuation of Activities
NDP was influenced by Marxism and by the ides of (conversation People Party (Ghana)
but its roots unlike of that of the ANC were in Zimbabwean History, In the earlier
congress and tradition.

Leadership
NDP leaders were the descendence of man who had taken part in earlier struggles, man
like George Nyandoro, Samukange, Joshua Nkomo.

Weaknesses of the (NDP)

It concentrated more on the polite of rural folk than that of the urban workers in their
struggle for higher wages this was because it was suspicious of the Zimbabwean Industry.
It succumbed to the pressure from the European to disintegrated and still could not
operate for underground

Achievement of the NDP.

For the first time there was a party that recognizes the grievances of the rural people.
The Zimbabwean grievances became internationally heard.
Patriotism was cultivated
It had planted the seed of mass nationalism so after it was banned ZAPU was born.

Why it was finally banned?

Conditions in Zimbabwe made it impossible for the NDP or any other African led party
at that a time to succeed.
The party was banned mainly because the NDP African leaders refused to comply with
the idea that a minimum of 15 African seats against 50 for European in an complex
electoral system
Europeans in Zimbabwe thoroughly crushed any form of opposition
If there was disorder the government sent the police.
If a political leader became too strong the government deported him.
If a political party looked too dangerous the government banned it.
There was no way the whites in Zimbabwe were ever going to handover political power
to the Africans
After a few years of unrewarded protest NDP followed ANC into oblivion

ZAPU: Zimbabwe African People’s Union

It was formed after ten

Leadership
Among it leaders were Joshua Nkomo, Goerge Nyandoro, James Chikerema and Leopard
Takawira

Activities
Before it was banned in September 1962 Zapu leader made two important decisions
i) this were to start smuggling arms and ammunition into the country
ii) to send young men out of the country for training.
To motivate and recruit young men to join the armed struggled.
Ghana and Tanzania were the first countries to provide training facilities.

Achievements
Started sending young men out of the country for training. This young men came back
home as trained fighters.
Also recruited young women especially nurses to join the armed struggle.
Patriotism was cultivated

Why it was banned?

Bason were similar to those that led to the banning of NDP and ANC mainly because the
Europeans brutally suppressed any form of opposition or mass nationalism
Its banning led to the detention of a number of its leaders including a young school
teacher (Robert Mugabe).

ZANU. Zimbabwe African National Union

It was formed in 1963. it was formed as a result of the conflict between ZANU and
ZAPU while many teachers had recognize that only force could achieve what the people
demanded, other remained willing to compromise, mainly believe in that the objectives
could be met through negotiation.

Leadership
It was formed by a group which decided to break with Nkomo and it and Rv. Ndabahingi
Sithole as leader and R. G. Mugabe as secretary General.

Clashes between Zanu and Zapu

They were mainly caused by the differences between the leaders e.g. Nkomo and Mugabe
Their approach to attaining independence was different hence the clash
Bitter fighting followed in township between ZANU and ZAPU supporters
Nkomo formed another party called PCC People’s Caretaker council

Achievements
They managed to set up training camps in Ghana, Zambia, Tanzania and China
Patriotism was cultivated
They fought few number battles against the Rhodesian army e.g. in Chinhoyi
Method of warfare were strong and gained more knowledge

Activities
They held meetings called pungwe in the rural areas were the people grievances were
discussed and revolutionary songs. This pungwe’s also saw the recruitment of chimbwido
which is a girl helper mujibha boy helper who helped the comrade with information.
They had young man and women to go for training outside the country
April 28 1966-7 Zanu people were killed near Chinhoyi after a day long battled with
Rhodesia

Weakness of ZANU
Their first option was war and force without trying to avoid blood shed and physical
torture by simply resorting to negotiations.
The formation of ZANU created great tension between the two races namely the Ndebele
and the Shona and ZAPU from the Bulawayo area and Zanu’s strong hold was around the
Mashonaland area.

Banned
It was banned in August 1954 when Ian Smith took over as the Rhodesian front leader.
He banned both ZANU and the PCC

Other members of Zanu

Leopold Takawira, Edgar Tekere, Edson Zvobgo, E Nkala, N. Sithole, Josiah Tongogara,
Malinanga, R G Mugabe, Robson Manyika, Kadungure, Urimbo, Tinashe Machingura,
Herbert Chitepo.

Early Strategies
On July 4 1964 a group know as the crocodile commando led by William Ndangona
stabbed to death a local Rhodesian front Chairman Petrus Oberholtzer near the eastern
boarder town of Mel setter.
Obrholtzer was the first white to die in an act of war since the 1890’s
This incident was isolated and those in charge of launching this attack had little or no
idea at all on how to carry out on armed attacks.
The second encounter was on April 28 1966, when seven ZANU guerillas fought with
hundreds of Rhodesian soldiers near Sinoa now known as Chinhoyi. All seven died after
a day long battle and after killing a considerable number of the Rhodesian forces.
This incident though considered a victory was in actual fact a fiasco which showed a lack
of organization and coordination.
The guerillas were not fully armed as compared to the enemy (Rhodesian force). They
tried a surprise attack but their number was inadequate considering that they were
fighting on open ground and also the guerilla method of warfare was not yet well
establish. However it still considered a Victory in the sense that the seven killed a
considerable number of Rhodesian forces and this instilled unmotivated the black
majority to do like wise which is to fight and die for their country.

Nationalist Imprisoned
Ian Smith took over as Rhodesian front leader in April 1964 and in August banned both
Zanu and PCC. Nationals like Nkomo, Mugabe, Sithole, Tekere, Zvobgo, Nkala,
Takawira and Milananga began a decade in detention to organize the faltering start to the
armed struggle from outside.

EUROPEANS ATTEMPT TO BLOCK

AFRICAN MAJORITY RULE
African Majority
A situation whereby the larger number of Africans rule themselves without European
Interface.

Why Europeans try to block AMR

The Europeans had always been themselves as superior, the idea of ANR was nightmare
they never wished to come true. A black president, a black ruled country was one thing
they never desmed possible.
The need to remain in power. Economy is power

Early Successes of the league

In spite of the rivalry between the poles of Germany Dazing was established as an
International free city.
In 1921 votes confirmed the division of the call rich upper Silecia between Germany.
I n 1921 a dispute between Sweden and Finland over the ownership of the Aakind Islands
was settled peacefully in favour of Finland.
In 1922 the league organized hell for the Austrian Economy which was on the point of
collapse
In 1925 the Greek invasion of Bulgaria was Halted by the league which forced the
Greece to pay compensation to Bulgaria.
The successes of the league were seen to be only when it dealt with all nations.