ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 3RD SHIFTING • Forms the roof of the mouth and the floor of nasal

REVIEWER - LAB cavity

• 2 parts:
Anatomy of Gastrointestinal and Hepatobiliary System • Hard Palate
Handouts by: Dr. Serrano • Formed by palatine process of the
maxillae and horizontal plates
- GI anatomy or the anatomy of the abdomen of the palatine bones
starts with the mouth - nasa malapit sa ngipin
- In order for you to use your digestive - pag may patient then manganganak ung patient
system or mouth, start with mouth ang tawag nila doc sa pag kuha ng baby is cath
- Yung kinakain niyo would be like literal na sasaluhin nila. Isa sa unang
absorbed/digested through your GI procedure na gagawin nila doc si to check if
tract there is a problem sa hard palate ng bata if
The Mouth maron most probably cleft palate ang tawag.
This is due by the failure of fusion of palatine
bone.
Finifinger nila doc ung bibig to
know whether may butas nga
ung hard palate.
• Soft Palate
• Mobile fold attached to the
posterior border of the hard palate
Parts of the Mouth
- Nakikitaan ng hyperemia sa
• The Lips
mga [B.J.]
• Two fleshy folds that surround the oral
• Free posterior border presents in the midline a conical
orifice
projection – Uvula
• Covered on the outside by the skin and
• Nerve Supply
lined by mucous membrane
• Greater and Lesser Palatine nerves
- Orbicularis oris
• Blood supply
- muscle that surrounds the lips
- Function: compress the lips • Palatine artery branches from maxillary,
facial and ascending pharyngeal artery
• Mouth Cavity
• Extends from the lips to the pharynx
Salivary Glands
• Oropharyngeal isthmus – entrance into
1. Parotid Gland
the pharynx and was formed from each
• Largest salivary gland and composed of
side by the palatoglossal fold
serous acini
- Yung uvula, sa gilid nun - palatoglossal
• FACIAL NERVE pass through this gland
fold
• Parotid duct is located OPPOSITE the
- Whenever you are experiencing cough,
may irritation sa pharyngeal wall UPPER 2nd MOLAR TOOTH
(hyperemic) - Facial nerve traverses to branch out to
• Vestibule external branches [cervical, Buccal,
Mandibular, Zygomatic, Temporal]
• Lies between the lips and cheeks
externally and gums and teeth internally 2. Submandibular Gland
• Lateral wall formed by the cheeks, made • Lies beneath the lower border of the body
up of buccinator muscle of the mandible
• Duct of Parotid Salivary gland opens a • Submandibular duct emerges from the
small papilla, opposite the upper 2nd molar anterior end of the deep part of the gland
teeth • Opens into the mouth on a small papilla
- Opposite to the upper 2nd molar teeth situated at the side of the frenulum of the
tongue
Palate - Frenulum ang tawag sa soft tissues na manipis
that connect part with one another
 3. Sublingual Gland
Arterial Blood Venous Blood
• Lies beneath the mucous membrane of
Supply Supply
the floor of the mouth, close to the
frenulum Proximal Inferior Proximal Inferior
• Sublingual ducts open into the mouth on ⅓ of thyroid ⅓ of thyroid
the summit of the sublingual fold esophagu artery esophag vein
- Commonly produces saliva s us
- -for digestion of carbohydrates, it has
an enzyme called amylase Distal ⅔ Left Distal ⅔ Left
- -salivary amylase- it cleaves alpha 1,4 of gastric of gastric
glycosidic bond linkages of esophagu artery esophag vein
carbohydrates s us
- Mandalas na nagproproduce ng saliva -
- Saliva has an enzyme called amylase
and has alpha 1,4 glycosidic bond
- Salivary Amylase cleaves alpha 1,4
glycosidic bond linkages of
carbohydrates.
- Green leaf vegetable has a beta 1, 4
glycosidic bond and walang pang
degrade ang mga tao ng beta 1,4
glycosidic bond
- Saliva is a lubricant for the food
-

Esophagus
• About 10 inches (25cm) long
• Begins at the level of the cricoid cartilage
at C6
• Enters the abdomen at an opening in the
Diaphragm at T10 (esophageal hiatus)
• Layers: Mucosa, Submucosa, Muscularis Stomach
propria and adventitia • Dilated portion of the GI system
• Blood Supply • Parts
• Arterial – Branches from the Left Gastric • Cardia – dome shaped projects upward, full of gas
artery - Part where it collect gas whenever you
• Venous – Left Gastric vein eat it produces CO2
• Nerve Supply • Body - produces acid to the stomach where it
• Anterior and Posterior gastric nerves degrades carbohydrates
• Sympathetic branches of thoracic - Produces HCl which degrades ??
sympathetic trunk or [Auerbach plexus] - To counteract HCl their is bicarbonate
• Function - Acid greater than lvl of bicarbonate will
• Peristalsis - wavelike contract ions of develop to abdominal ulcers. If mastart
muscular coat and propels food onward madegrade ung acid magkakaron ka ng
- Part of the esophagus responsible for peristalsis digestion ng lining of your stomach.
is your muscularis propria - Gastric ulcer is cause by imbalance of
- Pag nasa bibig pa ung food voluntary pa ung HCL and bicarbonate
action • Pyloric antrum
- Pag nag pass through sa pharynx nagiging • Pylorus – most tubular part of stomach,
involuntary papuntang stomach due sa function opens an orifice to the Small
ng esophagus which is peristalsis intestines
- • At the end of the pylorus is the pyloric
 sphincter – which controls the
outflow of gastric contents to
duodenum

- It is important to know the greater and lesser

curvature because there are people who are
dextrocardia.
• Blood Supply
• Left gastric artery – from celiac artery
• Right gastric artery – from hepatic artery
• Short gastric artery - from splenic artery
• Left gastroepiploic artery – from splenic
artery
• Right gastroepiploic artery – from
gastroduodenal branch of hepatic artery •
Stomach

● Functions
• Stores food
• Mixes food with gastric secretions forming
Chyme
• Controls rate of delivery of the chyme to
small intestine Unang branch pupunta sa left gastric artery, splenic
Borders artery papunta sa likod, hepatic artery will branch out
• Lesser Curvature to form your right gastric papunta ng liver tapos hepatic
• Forms the right border of the artery.
stomach CELIAC TRUNK (3 branches)
• Greater Curvature - Left gastric
• Much longer than the lesser - Splenic
curvature - Hepatic
• Extends from the left of the - Hepatic artery mag branches out to right gastric and
cardiac orifice over the dome of the then hepatic artery pababa.
fundus - Short gastric from the splenic artery. Branches out to
• Forms the left border of stomach supply for the fundus.
- Gastroduodenal from baba is the right gastroepiploic
artery. artery and veins
• Venous supply (kabaliktaran lang) • Lower ½ - inferior pancreaticoduodenal
• Left and Right gastric vein – drains in artery and veins
portal vein • Nerve Supply
• Left gastroepiploic vein – drains in splenic • Sympathetic and Parasympathetic vagus
vein nerve
• Right gastroepiploic vein – drains in • Small Intestines
superior mesenteric artery
• Short gastric vein – drains in splenic vein Jejunum and Ileum
• Nerve Supply • Measure about 20 feet (6 meters)
• Anterior and Posterior Vagal Trunk • Blood Supply: Superior Mesenteric Artery
and Vein
Small Intestines
Duodenum
Character Jejunum Ileum
• C – shaped tube, 10 inches long (25cm)
• Joins the stomach to jejunum Location Proximal 2/5 Distal 3/5 of SI RLQ
• Receives openings from Bile (gallbladder) of SI at LUQ
and Pancreas
● Opening in the duodenum for bile and Caliber 2-4cm; thick 2-3cm; thin and
pancreatic enzyme - ampulla of Vater Wall (kapal and heavy light
ng pinaka wall
intestine)

Plicae Large, tall Smaller and widely

circularis more separated
numerous
plica

Color and Deeper red; Pale Pink; Less

vascularity Greater

Vasa Recta Longer, few, Numerous short

(Vessels) large arcades vasa recta, many
prominent
• Parts arcades
• 1st Part begins at the pylorus and runs
upward and backward on the Fat Less More
transpyloric plane at L1
• 2 Part runs vertically downward in front
nd Lymphoid Few Many
of right kidney at L2 and L3 Tissue
• 3rd Part runs horizontally to the left on the
subcostal plane
• 4th Part runs upward and to the left to the
duodenojejunal flexure
• The flexure is held in position by a peritoneal fold
– Ligament of Treitz
● Structure that separates the duodenum
from jejunum
Makapal in real life, end of duodenum and start of
jejunum.
• Blood Supply
• Upper ½ - superior pancreaticoduodenal
 the appendix and provide for it a
complete longitudinal muscle coat
(ridges, ibig sabihin it differentiates the
large intestine)
• Blood Supply
• Anterior and posterior cecal arteries/veins
from the ileocolic artery
• Nerve Supply
• Sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves
from superior mesenteric plexus

Appendix
• Narrow, muscular tube containing large
amount of lymphoid tissue
• Measures around 3-5 inches (8-13cm)
• Attached to the posteromedial surface of
the cecum
• Blood Supply
• Appendicular artery and vein
• Large Intestines
• Ascending Colon
• Measures about 5 inches (13cm) long and
lies in the right lower quadrant
• Extends upward from the cecum to the
Large Intestines
inferior surface of the right lobe of the liver
Blood Supply
• Ileocolic and right colic arteries from the
superior mesenteric artery
• Ileocolic and right colic veins drains in
superior mesenteric vein
Transverse Colon
• Measures around 15 inches (38cm)
• Extends across the abdomen occupying
the umbilical region
• Blood supply
-since mahaba siya, may dalawa siyang blood
supply
• Proximal 2/3 by middle colic artery from
the superior mesenteric artery
• Distal 1/3 by left colonic artery from the
Cecum inferior mesenteric artery
• Part of the large intestines that lies below • 2/3 Middle colic vein drains into superior
the level of the junction of the ileum mesenteric vein
with the large intestines • 1/3 Left colonic vein drains into the
• Blind-ended pouch that situated in the inferior mesenteric vein
right iliac fossa
• Measures around 2.5 inches (6cm) Descending Colon
• Attached to its posteromedial surface is • Measures 10 inches (25cm)
the appendix • Lies in the upper left and lower quadrants
• As in the colon, the longitudinal muscle is • Bloody Supply
restricted to three flat bands called • Left colic and sigmoid arteries/veins from
teniae coli – converge on the base of the inferior mesenteric artery/vein
Abdominal Aorta

• Important branches
• Celiac Artery
- Has 3 branches
• Splenic artery
• Left Gastric artery
-pataas
• Hepatic artery
• Superior Mesenteric artery
-5 branches
• Inferior pancreaticoduodenal
artery
- upper part
- malapit sa pancreas, and
duodenum
• Middle colic artery
- gitna
• Right colic artery
• Ileocolic artery
- Malapit sa ileum and cecum
• Jejunal and ileal branches
• Inferior Mesenteric artery
-3 branches
• Portal Vein
• Left colic artery
- where most of the venous return of the lower
• Sigmoid artery
part of the body is being drained
• Superior rectal artery
- Pag nasa portal vein, ang next niyang
• Renal Arteries
pupuntahan ay inferior vena cava
• Internal and External Iliac Artery
- It is the major blood supply ng liver
- Siya yung nakakabit sa duodenum
Major Venous System - Lahat ng drainage ng nutrients na
naasbsorb sa duodenum, itdrains on
the portal vein.
- Gives blood supply to the liver
• Tributaries
• Splenic vein
 - Coming from the spleen
• Inferior Mesenteric vein
• Superior Mesenteric vein
• Left Gastric vein
• Right Gastric vein
• Cystic vein

Accessory Gastrointestinal Organs

Liver

- Has 2 parts: bigger right lobe and smaller left

lobe
• Largest gland in the body
• Synthesizes heparin an anticoagulant substance Gallbladder
and important in detoxicating function
• Basic functions:
• Production and secretion of bile
• Metabolism
• Filtration of the blood
• Blood Supply
• Arterial – Hepatic artery from celiac artery
• Venous – Portal vein

• Pear shaped sac lying on the undersurface of the

liver
• Has a 30—50ml capacity
• Has a cystic duct which is the connected to the
common hepatic duct to form the common bile
duct
• Function:
• Concentrates bile
• Stores bile
• Excretes cholesterol
• Secretes mucus
• Blood Supply
• Cystic artery and drains by cystic vein

- Kapag may imbalance within the concentrates

 of the bile, it can form stones • Parts of the pancreas
- Technically walang function but it holds on to • Head
what was made by the liver. • Neck
- Yung stones nababara sa common bile duct. • Body
Nagiging jaundice sila (yellowing of skin). • Tail
Because bile produces a pigment that colors the • Ducts of the Pancreas
urine. Dahil may blockade, yung pigment di • Main Pancreatic duct or (Duct of Wirsung)
makapunta sa kidneys kaya babalik siya sa • Accessory duct of (Duct of Santorini)
circulation and pupunta sa balat • Blood Supply
- Bile is very toxic pag pumunta sa circulation • Splenic artery /vein
(toxic sa brain) kaya nagkakaroon ng
• Superior Pancreaticoduodenal artery/vein
hallucinations etc.
• Inferior Pancreaticoduodenal artery/vein
Pancreas
Spleen

• Reddish and the largest single mass of lymphoid

tissue in the body
• Beneath the left half of the diaphragm close to 9th,
10th and 11th ribs
• Blood Supply
• Splenic artery/vein
Function: Scavenger for old red blood cells (kukuha ng
dead rbc for degradation)

• Has both endocrine and exocrine gland ANATOMY OF THE POSTERIOR ABDOMINAL
• Contains enzymes capable of hydrolyzing proteins, WALL
fats and carbohydrates Outline
● BOUNDARIES
- Enzyme for hydrolyzing:
● MUSCLES
- Proteins - pepsin ● BLOOD VESSELS
- Fats - lipase ● NERVE SUPPLY
- Carbohydrates - amylase ● KIDNEYS
- May salivary and pancreatic ● URETER
amylase.
- Ang pancreatic amylase BOUNDARIES
degrades disaccharides ● Complex musculoskeletal structure
• Endocrine portion – islets of Langerhans produces representing the posterior boundary of the
insulin (beta cells) and glucagon (alpha cells) abdominal cavity
• Elongated structure that lies in the epigastrium ● Supports retroperitoneal organs and
contains important neurovascular
 structures
● CENTRALLY (POSTERIORLY): Five
lumbar vertebrae and associated IV discs.
● LATERALLY: Posterior abdominal wall
muscles
● SUPERIORLY: Diaphragm & 12TH Rib
● INFERIORLY: Upper part of the bony pelvis

QUADRATUS LUMBORUM
● O: Iliolumbar ligament, iliac crest, tips of
transverse processes of lower lumbar
vertebrae
● I: 12th Rib
● N: Lumbar Plexus
● A: Fixes 12th rib during inspiration;
depresses 12th rib during forced expiration;
laterally flexes vertebral column same side

ILIACUS
● O: Iliac fossa
● I: Lesser trochanter of femur and capsule of
MUSCLES hip joint
PSOAS ● N: Lumbar plexus
● O: transverse processes and vertebral ● A: Flexes thigh
bodies of T12 – L5
● I: Lesser Trochanter of Femur
● N: Lumbar Plexus
● A: Flexes Hip

VESSELS
● ABDOMINAL AORTA
● INFERIOR VENA CAVA
 SUPRARENAL GLAND
● Yellowish retroperitoneal organ at the upper
pole of the kidney
● Functions: Secretes and Produces
Hormones (corticoids, steroid,
ABDOMINAL AORTA catecholamines)
● Blood supply: Inferior phrenic artery,
aorta, renal artery
● Nerve supply: Splanchnic nerve

INFERIOR VENA CAVA

KIDNEYS
● Paired organ part of the urinary tract
● Functions: Excrete waste products and
Fluid balance
● Blood supply: Renal artery
● Nerve supply: Renal sympathetic plexus

● INFERIOR MESENTERIC VEIN

○ begins halfway down the anal canal
as the superior rectal vein
● SUPERIOR MESENTERIC VEIN +
SPLENIC VEIN = PORTAL VEIN
 FALSE VS TRUE PELVIS

URETERS
● Long, narrow, muscular tubes that leave
the renal pelvis and exit the kidney
● Functions: Passageway for urine
● Clinical significance: Ureteric Stones

MALE AND FEMALE PELVIS

ANATOMY OF THE PELVIS I

Outline
● BONY PELVIS
● TYPES OF PELVIS
● TRUE VS FALSE
● MALE VS FEMALE
● HIP BONE
● NEUROVASCULAR (Nerves, Arteries,
Veins)
● PELVIC CAVITY
● SIGMOID COLON
● PELVIC URETER & URINARY BLADDER
● RECTUM, ANAL CANAL, ANUS

BONY PELVIS
● The bony pelvis’ main function is to HIP BONE
transmit the weight of the body from the
vertebral column to the femurs.
●
ILLIUM

PUBIS
NEUROVASCULAR
-LUMBAR PLEXUS
● BRANCHES:
○ Lumbosacral trunk (L4L5)
■ Enters pelvis and joins
Sacral Plexus
○ Obturator nerve (L2L3L4)
-AUTONOMICS
-SACRAL PLEXUS
● LOWER TRUNK BRANCHES:
○ Sciatic nerve (L4-L5-S1-S2-S3)
○ Superior & Inferior Gluteal nerves
○ Nerves to Quadratus Femoris &
ISCHIUM
Obturator Internus
○ Posterior cutaneous nerve of the
Thigh
● PELVIS & PERINEUM BRANCHES:
○ Pudendal nerve (S2-S3-S4)
○ Pelvic Splanchnic nerve
○ Nerve to Piriformis
● PERFORATING CUTANEOUS
BRANCHES

PELVIC DIAPHRAGM
● COCCYGEUS
● LEVATOR ANI
 superior portion of the anal canal.
○ The external anal sphincter is a
large voluntary muscle that forms a
band on each side of the inferior
portion of the canal
● URINARY BLADDER
○ Pyramidal shaped organ posterior
to pubic bones
○ Functions: Storage for urine
○ Blood supply: Superior and Inferior
vesocle (vesicle??) arteries
○ Nerve supply: Inferior Hypogastric
plexus

● ARTERIES OF TRUE PELVIS

○ Internal Iliac artery
○ Ovarian artery
○ Median Sacral artery
○ Superior rectal artery
● VEINS OF PELVIS
○ External Iliac vein
○ Internal Iliac vein
○ Median sacral vein

PELVIC CAVITY
● SIGMOID COLON
○ 10-15 inches long mobile tube
○ Becomes Rectum at level of S3
vertebrae ANATOMY OF THE PERINEUM
○ Blood supply: Branches from IMA Outline
○ Nerve supply: Inferior hypogastric ● BOUNDARIES
plexus ● OVERVIEW OF CONTENTS
○ ANAL TRIANGLE
○ UROGENITAL TRIANGLE
■ MALE
■ FEMALE

PERINEUM
● Anatomical region in the pelvis. It is located
between the thighs, and represents the
most inferior part of the pelvic outlet.
● The perineum is separated from the pelvic
● RECTUM cavity superiorly by the pelvic floor.
○ Final portion of the colon ● Contains structures that support the
○ The lower end dilates to form the urogenital and gastrointestinal systems
rectal ampulla
● ANAL CANAL
○ Continuation of Rectum at the tip of
coccyx

● ANUS
○ anal canal becomes the anus after it
passes the pelvic diaphragm.
○ The internal anal sphincter is an
involuntary muscle surrounding the
BOUNDARIES

—----------------------------------
PELVIS II
MALE & FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Model Overview
● Male Reproductive Organs
ANAL TRIANGLE CONTENT ○ Internal Genitalia
● Anal aperture – the opening of the anus. ○ External Genitalia
● External anal sphincter muscle – voluntary ● Female Reproductive Organs
muscle responsible for opening and closing ○ Internal Genitalia
the anus. ○ External Genitalia
● Ischioanal fossa – spaces located laterally
to the anus.

UROGENITAL TRIANGLE
● LAYERS (Superficial → Deep)
○ Perineal fascia
■ Superficial
■ Deep
○ Superficial Perineal pouch
○ Perineal Membrane
○ Deep Perineal pouch

MALE REPRODUCTIVE (SAGITTAL VIEW)

- Male excretory system is connected w/ male
reproductive organ through urethra
- Ibig sabhin in your excretory system through
the urine from the urinary bladder
dumadaan rin sya sa daanan ng semen
● Male: Penis and Scrotum
● Female: external genitalia and the orifices
of the urethra and the vagina.
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE (SAGITTAL VIEW)
- Posterior to urinary system
- Lumalabas sa different openings
● 15-20 cm long
MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS ● Passageway of Urine and Semen
● INTERNAL GENITALIA ● Prostatic urethra[3-4cm long]
○ Urethra*- part of urinary system pero ○ Widest and most dilatable
also part ng reproductive system sa ○ Continues at bladder neck and
lalaki passes through the prostate gland
○ Prostate gland ○ Receives ejaculatory and prostatic
○ Seminal Vesicle ducts
○ Vas (ductus) deferens ○ Continues at the neck of urinary
● EXTERNAL GENITALIA bladder
○ Penis ○ Prostate glands surrounds that part
○ Scrotum of urethra that is why t is called
○ Testis and epididymis prostatic urethra
○ Blood supplied by inferior vesical
artery

● Membranous urethra (1 -1.5 cm)

○ narrowest and least dilatable
○ Passes through the pelvic floor and
MALE URETHRA the deep perineal pouch
○ surrounded by the external urethral
sphincter
○ We can locate it near the cowper’s
gland[ helps in secretion of the
 composition of sphinter] ○ Percentage of prostatic fluid sa
○ Blood supplied by internal semen- 30%
pudendal artery ○ Testes - 5%
○ Cowper's gland - 5%
○ Seminal Vesicle - 60%
■ alkaline and helps neutralize
the acidity in the vagina as
well as your urethra
○ Consistency ng prostate ay smooth
kaya kapag stony or matigas maybe
indication ng prostate cancer

● Penile/spongy urethra
○ 15 cm long
○ divisible into two main parts: the
bulbar urethra and the pendulous
urethra
○ receives the bulbourethral glands
○ Blood supplied by internal
pudendal artery

● Digital Rectal Exam

○ to check for enlargement and
screen for cancer
● Blood supply: Inferior vesical and middle
rectal arteries.
● The veins form the prostatic venous
plexus
● Nerve supply: Inferior hypogastric plexus
● 3 o'clock to 12 o'clock Clockwise for right
hand and counterclockwise for left hand
● NEUROVASCULAR SUPPLY
○ Prostatic plexus
○ Prostatic branches of the inferior
vesical and internal pudendal
arteries
○ dorsal veins of the penis and the
pudendal veins, drain into the
prostatic venous plexus.

PROSTATE GLAND
● Walnut-shaped organ
○ Fibromuscular gland kasi may
tissues ang prostate that have
fibrous tissues, muscular tissues yan
SEMINAL VESICLE
ung nag cocontract para malabas
ung mga secretion dun ● Two lobulated organs about 2 in.(5 cm)
○ Located below urinary bladder lying on the posterior surface of the
○ Approx. 3 cm and inferior between bladder.
the neck of the bladder above ● Will combine with the structure called vas
○ Surrounds the prostatic urethra deferens to form ejaculatory duct
○ Secretes prostatic fluid and
contracts into the urethra
 ● Produce a secretion that is added to the
seminal fluid.
○ The secretions nourish the
spermatozoa
○ Composed of substances that gives
nutrients for sperm such as fructose,
citric acid, and etc.
● Blood supply: inferior vesicle and
● middle rectal arteries.
● The veins drain into the internal iliac veins. PENIS
● Male organ of copulation
● Consist of 3 erectile bodies
○ 2 corpora cavernosa - Dorsal
surface
○ 1 corpus spongiosum

● 3 parts of the penis

○ Glans - head
○ Body/ shaft - nagagalaw,
○ Root of penis - immobile, attached to
ischial pubic rami

ERECTILE STRUCTURE OF PENIS

● Corpora cavernosa
○ Proximal parts that are attached to
the ischiopubic rami, the crura
VAS DEFERENS ○ Distal ends are embedded in the
● thick-walled tube about 18 in. (45 cm) long glans penis, part of the corpus
that conveys mature sperm from the spongiosum
epididymis to the ejaculatory duct and the ● Corpus spongiosum
urethra ○ Proximal expansion is the bulb of
● The terminal part of the vas deferens is penis the distal expansion is the
dilated to form the ampulla of the vas glans penis.
deferens.
● It joins the duct of the seminal vesicle to
form the ejaculatory duct.
● Passageway where it conveys your mature
sperm papuntang prostate gland
● Starts at the tail of epididymis

SCROTUM
 ● cutaneous pouch that houses the testes deferens, which enters the spermatic
● dartos muscle contraction causes the skin cord
of the scrotum to become firm and wrinkled - The tube emerges from the tail of the
● Cremaster muscle contraction helps pull epididymis as the vas deferens, which
the testes nearer the body enters the spermatic cord.
○ Kapag malamig iaakyat papunta sa ● Contents of Spermatic Cord
taas since mas hotter yung 1. Vas deferens
temperature doon sa taas. 2. Testicular artery
● Dartos and Cremaster muscles 3. Vas deferens artery
○ Sensitive to temperature 4. Cremasteric artery
■ Contracts when cold 5. Pampiniform plexus
(tinatago yung testis) 6. Tunica vaginalis
■ Relaxes when hot (normal/ 7. Lymphatic vessels
that's why it is saggy) ● Provides storage space for the sperm cell
● Sperm cell are sensitive to temperature lalo (spermatozoa) and promotes maturation
na ang spermatogenesis it should be ● Epididymis increases the capability of
around (33° - 35°) or below 37° sperm cell to fertilize the egg
● Composed of 6 diff layers (scrotum)
1. Skin - skin
2. Dartos fascia (and muscle) -
scarpa’s fascia
3. External spermatic fascia - external
oblique fascia
4. Cremasteric fascia - transversus
abdominis muscle and aponeurosis
5. Internal spermatic fascia -
transversalis fascia
6. Tunica vaginalis and albuginea -
TESTIS
peritoneum
● Tunica albuginea
○ The fibrous capsule here that
become albuginea is the fibrous
covering of testis
○ Extends inward to form an
incomplete septum; forming different
300-400 lobules
■ Within the lobules, may
coiled tubes called
Seminiferous tubule
■ Seminiferous tubule - part
EPIDIDYMIS
na nagkakaroon ng
● Closer to testis
spermatogenesis; the coil
● coiled tube nearly 20 ft (6 m)
becomes a straight short
● 3 parts of Epidydimis
tube called Tubuli recti
1. Head - superior part connected to
■ The combination of different
testis; continue as body
tubuli recti would form net
2. Body - the head will continue as your
appearance called Rete
body
testis
3. Tail - posterior and inferior;
■ Rete testis would drain in
continuation of vas (ductus)
ductus deferens
 ● small, oval-shaped organs, each about 4–5
cm long, within the scrotum
● Both exocrine and endocrine gland
● suspended in the scrotum by the spermatic
cords, with the left testis usually suspended
(hanging) more inferiorly

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

● INTERNAL GENITALIA
○ Ovary
BLOOD SUPPLY OF TESTIS ○ Uterine Tube - or fallopian tube
● The testicular artery is a branch of the ○ Uterus
abdominal aorta; arterial supply of testis ○ Vagina - upper part
○ Kapag hindi sure sa practicals sa ● EXTERNAL GENITALIA (called as Vulva)
blood supply just answer testicular ○ Vagina - lower part
artery [same as ovary (ovarian ○ Labia Majora & Minora
artery)] ○ Clitoris
● The testicular veins emerge from the testis ○ Major & minor glands
(and the epididymis as a venous network), ○ Mons Pubis
and would drain into the pampiniform
plexus

Models of the Male Reproductive Organ

OVARIES
● Female gonads
● Produces the hormones (estrogen and
progesterone)
● Releases the matured ovum
○ Oogenesis happens sa ovary
○ Once nagkaroon ng formation ng
mature secondary oocyte,
nagkakaroon ng ovulation (lalabas
na yung egg cell from your ovaries)
which will collect sa fallopian tube
 ● Located in the lateral pelvic wall ● Located along the superior margin of the
● Hindi yung fimbriae yung nagcoconnect sa broad ligament
ovary but may ligaments that support the ● Blood supply: The uterine artery from the
ovary internal iliac artery and the ovarian artery
● 3 Ligaments: from the abdominal aorta.
○ Broad ligament
■ It gives attachment to the
ovaries, fallopian tube, and
uterus through peritoneal fold
■ Ovaries nakaconnect sa
broad ligament through
mesoovarium
■ Fallopian tube nakaconnect
sa broad ligament through
your mesosalpinx
■ Uterus nakaconnect sa broad
ligament through Parts of Fallopian Tube
mesometrium ● Infundibulum
■ May lateral extension called ○ Funnel shaped, located laterally
suspensory ligament ○ Has a hairy like projection called
○ Suspensory ligament fimbriae
○ Round ligament ■ Nagcocollect ng ovum
■ Holds ovary in its place ● Ampulla
which is connected to the ○ Most dilated portion
superior portion of the uterus ○ Common site of fertilization
● Blood supply: Ovarian artery ○ Ectopic pregnancy
■ Pag may problem sa ciliary
movement ng fallopian tube
(di nadadala sa uterus),
minsan dito nagkakaroon ng
formation ng fetus
● Isthmus
○ Narrowest portion
● Intramural part
○ Some books has another part
○ Part that pierces inside uterine cavity
FALLOPIAN TUBE
● Oviducts or Uterine Tubes
UTERUS
● Pinakamain function is to receive oocyte
● a hollow, pear-shaped organ with thick
through fimbriae papunta sa fallopian tube
muscular walls
● Receives ovum and Site for Fertilization
● serves as a site for the reception, retention,
○ Process where egg cell would
and nutrition of the fertilized ovum
combine with sperm cell to form
zygote
○ Once fertilized, ilalabas fertilized
eggs papuntang uterus
■ Magaatach sa uterine wall to
divide to become embryo
 ■
○ Cervix pierces anterior wall of vagina
Uterus

Parts of the Uterus

● Fundus - most anterior part of the uterus
(tip)

○
Layers of the Fallopian Tube

○
● Body of the uterus
○ Inferior sa fundus ay body
○ Nandito yung uterine cavity

● Perimetrium
○ Outer layer that covers uterus
● Myometrium
○ ○ Muscular layer
● Cervix ● Endometrium
○ Narrowest portion ○ Inner lying sa uterine cavity
○ Has two entrances:
■ Internal Os
■ External Os
VAGINA ○ Naiipon lang sa loob kaya
● Female organ of copulation sinusurgery
● Also serves as the excretory duct for the
menstrual flow and forms part of the birth VULVA
canal
● Muscular tube (8-10 cm) that extends
upward and backward from the vulva (labas
niya) to the uterus
● Have 2 walls: anterior wall and posterior
wall of vagina
● Fornix is attached to the sides of the cervix
○ Moon shaped

● Collectively what you see externally

● Outward appearance na makikita mo
● Collective term for the external genitalia

○ MONS PUBIS
○ May 4: ● A conspicuous, subcutaneous fat pad over
■ anterior the public bones and symphysis
■ Posterior ● It is covered with pubic hair, largely absent
■ Lateral (2) in male
● Anterior extension of labia major

● Hymen - thin mucous membrane that

covers the vaginal opening, or orifice
● More commonly, the hymen is perforated
by one or several holes

● Delikado yung sa imperforate hymen

○ Walang daluyan
○ Pag nagmmenstruate, walang
lumalabas
LABIA MAJORA / MINORA
● Labia Minora
○ A pair of thin, longitudinal skin folds
that forms a border on each side of
the vestibule.
○ Inward
● Labia Majora
○ Two longitudinal skin folds covered
with pubic hair
○ Medial border Filled with sebaceous ○
gland ○ Di daw siya paganto (pic sa baba)
○ thicker

○
Tuwa yarne
● The homolog of the penis (counterpart)

Labia majora

CLITORIS
● contains two erectile structures, the
corpora cavernosa
○ (dalawang crux)
○ Extend outward to become glans BULB OF VESTIBULE
clitoris ● Other erectile tissue
● Well supplied with sensory receptors ● Erectile tissues that is lateral to the vaginal
○ Pwedeng magerect during sexual orifice
activity ● Once stimulated, may engorgement
○ Erection is in diameter (pic sa baba) ○ Vaginal orifice ay sumisikip
○ Help interaction between penis and
vaginal orifice
 Lower Extremities – Anatomy

VESTIBULE
● Space bounded by the labia minora and
their frenulum
● In which the vagina opens posteriorly and
the urethra opens anteriorly

VESTIBULAR GLANDS
- function is to secrete mucous secretion that helps
lubricate vagina
● Greater Vestibular Glands
○ Bartholin’s gland
○ open on each side of the vestibule,
between the vaginal opening and
the labia minora
○ Located posteriorly
● Lesser Vestibular Glands
○ Skene’s gland
○ located near the clitoris and urethral
opening Gluteal Region
○ Minsan tawag ay paraurethral
glands

pakita mo kay sam

sam, nakita mo ba si mike wazowski?

-
- ang gluteus muscle daw ay deep ____
 -

- Gluteus maximus
- above niya ang gluteus medius
- malaking muscle ang gluteus maximus,
largest muscle in the body

- one muscle (quadriceps femoris) is a

combination of 4 muscles already
- Sartorius

- function:
- ganto raw position ng abducts and
laterally rotates the thigh
- abducts means palayo -

*specific daw ang pagbigay ng origin, insertion

*table based yung mga binabasa ni doc nung lesson
kaya dapat ata dun din tayo magbased
- yung nakakapa raw natin sa
- Gluteus medius tuhod yan yung tibial tuberosity (origin
- ilium - pelvic bone ng sartorius)
- function: helps glutues maximus to - functions:
abducts and medially rotates the thigh

-
flexes the knee

- -
Anterior Thigh rotates thigh laterally
 -
rotates leg medially

- Quadriceps femoris
- squatting pampalakas ng leg muscle
- Rectus Femoris -

- Patella (medical term for knee bone)

- functions:

- -
- malaking muscle na nasa gitna extends the knee
- Vastus lateralis

- flexion of the knee (fyi lang)

-
- Vastus Intermedius

-
flexing hips

- anything that theres too much?? glucose and

lactic acid can cause cramps
-
Posterior Thigh
*hindi ko ito sure kasi based sa
google at pics ni doc sa handout
is nasa ilalim sya ng rectus
femoris pero sa lecture nya
nakaturo rito
- behind the rectus femoris
- Vastus Medialis
 - Semitendinosus

- hamstring muscle
- eto daw yung part na kung saan
linalagay yung hook sa mga palengke
para isabit - sciatic nerve

- kadalasan injection nung baby sa pwert ay sa

- may outer upper part of the buttocks kasi pag sa
- Biceps femoris medial baka matamaan yung siatic nerve.
- parang biceps brachii na may Leg
dalawang head (long and short)
- most lateral part of hamstring
muscle

-
- Semimemberanosus
- most medial side
 - Plantar flexion - tiptoe

Blood Vessels
• Femoral Artery
• Enters the thigh from behind the
inguinal ligament as a continuation of
the external iliac artery
• Main arterial supply of the lower
extremities
• Branches:
• Superficial circumflex iliac
artery
• Superficial Epigastric artery
• Superficial external
pudendal artery
• Deep external pudendal artery
• Profunda femoris
- gastrocnemius is connected to the Achilles • Descending genicular artery
tendon or the calcaneal tendon • Femoral vein
• Enters the thigh by passing through the
opening in the adductor magus as a
continuation of the popliteal vein
• Ascends to the thigh lying at first on the
lateral side of the artery
• Tributaries:
• Great saphenous vein
• Superficial circumflex iliac vein
- basta yung plantaris yung muscle behind the • Superficial epigastric vein
knee • External pudendal veins –
drains to the great saphenous
vein
- yung femoral artery once umabot na sa tuhod,
magiging popliteal artery na
- vasoconstriction = high BP
- Vein can be utilized as bypassage in an artery
because vein on the lower extremities have
valves kaya pag nakatayo hindi tayo natutumba

- halimbawa yan daw ang vein sa loob

nyan may ganyan para tuwing
naglalakad tayo nagccontract sila
- kaya sa mga matatanda may mga
varicose veins kasi may collection na ng
- you can check bp on femoral artery and
blood sa mga valves ng vein unlike nung
dorsalis pedis artery
bata pa iba pa ang intensity ng valves

- O2 dissociation curve -
- shift to the right - lahat nag increase
except sa pH
- shift to the left - lahat ng decrease
except pH
- kaya naglalagay ng yelo sa mga organ na
linalabas during the surgery is to shift
the dissociation to the left para yung O2
magrremain sa cell at hindi mamatay
yung organ

Nerves of the Lower Extremities

 •Larger terminal branch of the sciatic
nerve, arises in the lower third of the
thigh
• Branches:
• Sural nerve
• Muscular branches for
gastrocnemius, plantaris and
soleus
• Articular branch of knee joint
• Common Peroneal Nerve
• Smaller terminal branch of the sciatic
nerve, arises in the lower third of the
thigh

- Tibial and common Peroneal Nerve are both

branches of the sciatica nerve

Femoral Sheath
• Sciatic Nerve
(marami daw pwedeng itanong si doc from here)
• Branch of the sacral plexus emerges
form the pelvis
• Largest nerve in the body and consist of
the tibial and common peroneal nerves
bound together with fascia
• Femoral Nerve
• Largest branch pf the lumbar plexus
• Emerges from the lateral border of
psoas muscle
• Lateral to femoral artery and femoral
sheath
• Downward protrusion into the thigh of the
Branches of the Femoral Nerve fascial envelope lining the abdominal walls
• Anterior Division • Contents:
• Medial Cutaneous nerve to the thigh • Femoral artery – lateral compartment
• Intermediate cutaneous nerves • Femoral vein – intermediate
• gitna compartment
• Posterior Division • Lymph vessel – medial compartment
• Saphenous nerve • Femoral canal
• Muscular branch to quadriceps • Small medial compartment for lymph
• vessels
• Obturator nerve • Upper opening Femoral Ring
• Arises from the lumbar plexus and • Femoral nerve not included inside the sheath
emerges on the medial border of the
psoas muscle
• Branches:
• Anterior division
• Posterior Division

- sciatic nerve is from the sacral plexus

- femoral nerve is from the lumbar plexus
together with the obturator

• Tibial Nerve
Bones of the Lower Extremities

ang metatarsal at same lang daw sa metacarpal

• Femur – longest bone
• Patella – Knee bone
• Tibia - bigger one
• Fibula - smaller one
Skin and Special Senses
• Lateral (likod) and medial (gitna) malleolus -
yung parang bilog na buto sa paa ● SKIN
• Tarsal bones (yan lang daw na tarsal bones) ● EYES
• Calcaneus ● NOSE
• Talus ● EARS
• Metatarsal bones ● TONGUE
• Digits
• Proximal, Middle and Distal Phalanx Skin
Largest organ of the human body
● 3 Layers
○ Epidermis – superficial layer
○ Dermis – middle part
○ Subcutaneous Tissue or
Hypodermis* – innermost part
● EPIDERMIS
● Stratified squamous epithelium
● Avascular
● Cells
○ Keratinocytes
• ■ Protection from UV rays,
calcaneus at talus microbial invasion and keeps
the skin hydrated
○ Melanocytes
■ Specialized cells that
contains melanin for skin
pigmentation
○ Langerhan cells
■ Immune cells, sentinel cells
○ Merkel cells
 ■ specialized epidermal cells Vascular
associated with the nerve ● 2 tissue layers:
endings responsible for ○ PAPILLARY LAYER
detecting light touch and ○ RETICULAR LAYER
superficial pressure ■ dense irregular connective
● Gives one basis to thickness/thinness of tissue
skin ■ main layer of the dermis
■ Tension lines
EPIDERMAL LAYER
Types of Collagen

Type Major Location Major Function

I Skin, Tendon, Resistance to

Bone, Dentin tension

II Cartilage, Resistance to
vitreous body pressure

III Reticulin Structural

Fibers, Skin, maintenance in
Muscle, vessels expansible organs
frequently with
type I

IV Basal lamina, Filtration and support

external lamina, of epithelial cells
Basement
Membrane

V Fetal Tissue Participates in type II

and Placenta collagen

DERMIS VII Epithelial Anchors basal

● Connective tissues predominated by basement lamina to reticular
Collagen membrane lamina

DERMIS
● also contains nerve endings, hair follicles,
smooth muscles, glands, and lymphatic
vessels
● Nerve endings
○ Free nerve endings
○ Hair follicle receptors
○ Pacinian corpuscles
○ Meissner corpuscles
○ Ruffini end organs
 FIBROUS LAYER

● Gives the eyeball its shape and provides

HYPODERMIS resistance
● Attaches skin to the underlying bone and ● SCLERA
muscle ○ opaque, white, outer layer that
● Gives blood and nerve supply to the skin surrounds the posterior 5/6th of the
● Cells eyeball
○ Adipose cells ○ attachment site for extrinsic and
○ Fibroblasts intrinsic muscles of the eye
○ Macrophages ○ Protection from mechanical stress
● CORNEA
SKIN INJECTIONS ○ Anterior 1/6th
○ circular transparent avascular layer
that covers the pupil, iris and
anterior chamber of the eye
○ Role in refractory of light

VASCULAR LAYER
● also known as the uvea or uveal tract
● CHOROID
○ Pigmented layer of connective tissue
EYES and blood vessels located between
● Responsible for Vision the sclera and the retina.
● 3 tunics/layers: Fibrous, Vascular, Nervous ○ Gives blood supply to the outer
layer layers of the retina
● CILIARY BODY
○ Ciliary muscle
■ enables the
accommodation of the eye
○ Ciliary process
■ Produce aqueous humor
● IRIS
○ contractile, heavily pigmented,
circular diaphragm
○ Many melanocytes
 EARS

NERVOUS LAYER

● EXTERNAL EAR
● Auricle
○ paired structure found on either side
of the head.
○ capture and direct sound waves
towards the external acoustic
meatus.
● External Acoustic Meatus
○ Sigmoid shaped tube extending from
● RETINA
the deep part of the concha to the
○ innermost layer of the eyeball
tympanic membrane.
○ site where the image of the
○ External 1/3 are formed by
environment is converted to the
cartilage, whereas the inner 2/3 are
neural impulses that are transmitted
formed by the temporal bone
to the brain via optic nerve
MIDDLE EAR
NOSE
● Auditory Ossicles

● Vestibule is located just inside the anterior

external opening of the nose and contains
hair follicles. INNER EAR
● Respiratory region, which is lined with ● Bony Labyrinth
respiratory epithelium.
● Olfactory region, a small area located
inside the skull at the superior apex of the
cavity, which is lined with olfactory cells and
receptors
 ● Membranous Labyrinth
○ continuous system of ducts filled
with endolymph.
○ Lies within the bony labyrinth,
surrounded by perilymph
○ Vestibular apparatus

_________________________________________
Experiment 9: Urinalysis
Urinalysis
● A series of routine test done on urine for
evaluation of urinary and systemic disorders
● Divided into 3 parts
TONGUE ○ Gross - physical appearance
● pink, muscular organ located within the oral ○ Chemical - use of dipstick method (10
parameters)
cavity proper
○ Microscopic
● Roughly 10 cm
Purpose
● For Gustation , Speech, and GI process ● Screening test for renal and urinary tract
● Divided by Sulcus Terminalis disease
○ Presulcal ● Help to detect metabolic or systemic disease
○ Postsulcal unrelated to renal disorder
● MAIN Parts ● To detect substances or metabolites excreted in
○ Apex the urine
○ Body ● Evaluation of overall body function
○ Base Preparation and Collection
● No food restriction nor fluid restriction prior to
the test (but this may affect some parameters)
● Intake of some medication could affect some
results (color, pH)
● Collect in a clean, dry container
● Examine within 2 hours of voiding
Urine Specimen
● 1st morning specimen
○ Best timing for collection
○ Most concentrated, best for protein and
microscopic examination
● Random specimen
○ More convenient for patients suitable
for screening purposes
 ● Best collection
○ Mid stream
Parameters
● General Description
○ gross appearance, color, transparency,
pH and Specific gravity
● Chemistry
○ protein & sugar WBC
● Microscopic Examination of centrifuged urinary
RBC
sediment for WBC, RBC, PUS cells, Epithelial
cells, bacteria
○ Normal to see for…
■ Male: Spermazotoa
■ Female: Lactobacilli
● Gross Examination of the Urine
○ Color – Clear, yellow, dark yellow,
orange, red, blue or green, purple,
brown, and black
■ Alkaptonuria - Coca cola urine,
yellow urine turns into black Epithelial Cells (wrong
■ Onychomycosis collection, dirty)
● Nail infection that
causes black urine
○ Odor – mildly aromatic ● Casts – hyaline, waxy, RBC, WBC, Renal tubule
casts, granular

WBC casts
RBC casts
Hyaline casts

● Crystals – urates, phosphates, oxalates

○ Odor – mildly aromatic

○ Appearance/Transparency – clear,
turbid or cloudy
○ Sp. Gravity – 1.010 – 1.030
○ pH 4.6-8.0
Chemical Examination of Urine Uric acid crystals Uric acid crystals
● Protein – Negative to 4+
● Glucose or Sugar – Negative to 4+
Microscopic Examination
Components of Urine Sediment
● Cells – RBC, WBC, epithelial cells
 testing and quantifying of ascorbic acid
excreted in the urine
● in response to testing an
individual with low reserves,
the vitamin is held in the tissues
and the total excretion is less than
Triple phosphate crystals 26% of the test dose in 24 hours
using 500-1000 mg ascorbic acid
● Using the modified titrimetric method of
Bessey
Calcium oxalate crystals
● testing Vitamin C determination in
the urine depends on
● Abnormal cells: tumor cells, viral inclusions, stoichiometric reduction of the
platelets, bacteria, fungi and parasites dye, 2,6-dichlorophenol-indophenol to
Urine Formation a colorless compound by ascorbic acid.
1. Filtration Materials and Reagents
2. Reabsorption 1. Ascorbic acid tablets 100mg and 500mg
3. Excretion 2. 10% metaphosphoric acid
Presence of Urea 3. 0.02% 2,6-dichlorophenol-indophenol
● Has oxygen A. Procedure:
● Urea oxidation Subjects
○ NH3 + oxygen reaction → ammonium 1. Experimental Subjects - given 100mg tablet of
○ byproduct is urea ascorbic acid per Orem daily for 6 consecutive days
Low urine pH starting one week prior to the experiment. One day
● Precipitation of uric acid prior to the laboratory period a 500mg tablet of ascorbic
High urine pH acid is given.
● More alkaline 2. Control Subjects - given a 500mg tablet of ascorbic
○ Leads to kidney-related disorders acid one day prior to the experiment.
3. A 24-hour urine collection done by the subjects one
Dipstick Method Parameters: day before the laboratory period using toluene as
● Leukocytes preservative.
● Nitrite 4. The total volume is measured, and 250ml of urine is
● Urobilinogen brought to the laboratory for Vitamin C content
● Protein determination
● pH - acidity and basicity B. Titration Procedure
● Blood 1. Acidify 5 volumes of urine with 1 volume of 10%
● Specific Gravity - concentration metaphosphoric acid
● Ketones 2. Pipet 1ml of 0.02% 2,6-dichlorophenol-indophenol in
● Bilirubin a 250ml Erlenmeyer flask.
● Glucose 3. Titrate by constant and dropwise addition of the
acidified urine. (Note that the blue color of the dye
Experiment 10: Excretory Capacity of the Kidneys changes to a deep red upon addition of urine) The end
(handout) color is indicated by the disappearance of the red color.
Water Soluble Vitamin Excretion 4. Calculate the amount of Vitamin C using the formula:
Objectives:
● To determine the excretory functions of
the Renal System
● To test the activity of water-soluble - V = milliliter (mL) of urine used
vitamins in the body - S = equivalent amount of vitamin C per mL of
● To determine the amount of the water the dye used (1mL of the dye is equivalent to
soluble vitamin being absorbed and excreted 0.1 amount of Vitamin C)
Study of an individual’s ability of the kidneys Vitamin C Excretion by the Kidneys (discussion)
● to excrete water soluble vitamins involves Role of Kidney
● Kidney play a big role in excretion of excess
 water, excess ions, metabolic wastes and toxic metaphosphoric acid
substances 3. 2,6-dichlorophenol-indophenol
● Regulation of extracellular fluid, Blood pH, ○ indicator
Blood solute concentrations, blood cell
synthesis and Vit D synthesis
○ Vit D undergoes a very complex
metabolism
■ Hanggang makadaan siya sa
kidneys, doon lang magiging ○
active form ○ it is a blue solution
Vitamin C ○ once you titrate it, the end point is to
● A.K.A L-ascorbic acid become colorless
○ A water-soluble vitamin that is Urine Technique
naturally-occuring/present in some food ● The excretion of vitamin C in the urine depends
● It is very essential in the body cause the body primarily on the relative degree of saturation of
cannot produce it alone since we don't have the the tissues and the immediate intake of ascorbic
enzyme that produces or catalyzes the reaction acid
for vit C ● As a state of tissue saturation is approached the
○ Need ng dietary sources quantity of ascorbic acid excreted in the urine
● Required for the biosynthesis of collagen gradually increases until a saturation a marked
○ L-carnitine and certain abrupt elevation occurs
neurotransmitters ● The quantity of ascorbic acid required to induce
● It is an antioxidant saturation appears to be a measure of the state
○ Vitamins E and C - lumalaban sa reactive of vitamin C nutrition of the patient
oxygen tissues in the body ● Through vit. C, we could also assess the function
■ pag stress, mag vit C so you of the urine
guys won’t look old ○ our kidneys are the only organ (sa
- Important physiological antioxidant and has nephron) that could secrete or magfilter
been shown to regenerate other antioxidants at mag reabsorb
within the body ○ naaassess kung ilan yung pumapasok at
History of Vit. C determination nasesecrete na vit. C
● Vit C is a reducing agent - ginagawa ng vit c is we could also access the
○ capable of gaining electrons function of the urine because in our kidneys,
○ once it has been exposed to air, it can this is the only organ (sa nephron) that could
be easily oxidized secrete or magfilter at kaya mag reabsorb
- It had been studied previously as an unknown Reaction of Titration
reducing substance in plant and animal tissues
● Titration against an indicator
2,6-dichlorophenol-indophenol
○ appears to run parallel with their
reported Vitamin C content
Methodology
1. Toluene
○ acts as preservative of vitamin C
(Ascorbic acid) in the urine
2. 10% Metaphosphoric acid
● ascorbic acid with
○ used to acidify the urine
2,6-dichlorophenol-indophenol: color blue
○ prevents rapid oxidation of vitamin C
○ pero pag acidic yung indicator, color
(due to enzymes liberated by macerated
pink
cells)
● Colorless solution is due to Leuco dye
- Extracts of plant and animal tissues for vit. C
● It is called as a redox titration
determinations are best obtained by thoroughly
What is the significance of vitamin C?
rupturing the cellular structures in
Scurvy (medical condition)
● A disease caused by a significant lack of Vitamin
C in your diet
○ Severe Vitamin C deficiency (medical
definition)
● Common signs and symptoms:
1. General weakness
2. Fatigue
3. Irritability
4. Joint pain - due to the biosynthesis of
collagen (lose and collagen, which is a
protein, pag walang vit. C)
● Disease consequences (if left untreated, more
severe symptoms may start to develop)
1. Anemia
2. Swollen, bleeding gums that may
become purple and spongy
3. Loosen teeth
4. Bleeding under the skin
5. Easily bruised skin
6. Rough and scaly skin
7. Swollen legs
8. Non-healing wounds