GOLD BEARING SKARNS

FROM THE

MOINA AREA

NORTHWEST TASMANIA

Andre C. Taylor

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment

of the requirements of the degree of
Bachelor of Science with Honours

Centre for Ore Deposits and Exploration Studies

Geology Department
University of Tasmania

1990
}

FRONTISPIECE: View along the Lea River, spectacular

scenery combined with great geology.

 (i)

ABSTRACT
Stormont, Fletcher's Adit and Ti Tree Creek are three mineralised, calc-silicate skarns

' in the Moina district, NW Tasmania. Stormont is a Au and Bi-bearing skarn, Fletcher's Adit

contains minor Cu, Au, Bi, W, Sn and Zn, and Ti Tree Creek contains small amounts of Sn

and Bi. The three skarns are hosted in the basal section of the Ordovician Gordon Limestone

and the upper portion of the underlying Late Cambrian to Early Ordovician Moina Sandstone.

Metasomatism and mineralisation occurred during the late Devonian intrusion of the ilmenite

series, Dolcoath Granite. The granite-to-prospect distance increases to the west, from Ti Tree

Creek to Fletcher's Adit, to the most distal (0.5 - 1 km) Stormont deposit.

The three skarn deposits have a similar paragenesis during the metamorphic,

metasomatic and early retrograde stages of skarn development Wollastonite and salitic

clinopyroxene were formed during the metamorphic stage of skarn development. Andradite

(and minor Cr-rich grossular) garnet, salitic clinopyroxene and minor vesuvianite were formed

during the infiltration metasomatic phase.

Epidote, actinolitic amphibole, quartz and fluorite were the major phases formed

during the actinolite replacement stage of retrograde alteration, while chlorite, fluorite,

muscovite, calcite and quartz were stable during the later mineralisation stage of retrograde

alteration. Differences between the deposits in the late retrograde and mineralisation stages

include the intensity of retrograde alteration, the abundance of minor retrograde phases, native

gold, native bismuth, bismuthinite, galenobismutite, magnetite and base metal sulphides.

Opaque minerals present in the three skarns are magnetite, pyrrhotite, pyrite,

marcasite, arsenopyrite, native bismuth, bismuthinite, galenobismutite, a Bi-Te sulphide,

I
)':
chalcopyrite, native gold, hematite and goethite. Gold is associated with bismuthinite.

Generally, Au, Bi, Pb and Sn mineralisation is restricted to the calcareous host rocks, Cu, W,

As, Ag and Zn mineralisation occurs in the skarn or the footwall lithologies and Mo

mineralisation occurs exclusively in the footwall.

Stormont is a gold skarn, having a high pyroxene/garnet ratio, a deficiency of base

n metal sulphides, abundant retrograde alteration, late stage reduced mineralising fluids,
I

statistically significant positive Au/Bi, Au/Pb and Bi/Pb metal correlation coefficients, a
 (ii)

statistically insignificant positive Au/Cu metal correlation coefficient, locally high Au and Bi

grades, very high Au(ppm)/Cu(%) ratios, and common bismuthinite and native bismuth.

The compositions of major calc-silicate phases support Stormont's status as a gold

skarn. Clinopyroxenes from Stormont belong to the diopside-hedenbergite series, ranging

from Diso to Di76· although they are occasionally anomalously manganiferous (up to J09), and

are not highly aluminous. Garnets from Stormont are grandites and range from A£49 to Ad6Q.

The observed opaque mineral paragenesis and thermodynamic modelling indicate that

gold was deposited (with bismuthinite) as a bisulphide complex late in the paragenesis, as a

result of the mineralising fluids dropping in temperature and f02. A discrete population of high

Au and Bi grades is unique to Stormont in the Moina area, indicating that the mineralising

fluids that precipitated Au and Bi at Stormont were of a different character to those at

Fletcher's Adit.

The gold at Stormont is hypothesized to have originated from underlying Cambrian

volcanics which were leached by late stage, circulating meteoric (and magmatic?) fluids.

Stormont's increased granite-to-prospect distance, fracture/fault controlled permeability and

inter-granular permeability of the skarn (due to massive actinolite replacement), as well as the

regionally high permeability of the footwall arenites may have assisted the development of an

efficient large-scale convection cell.

 (iii)

CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (i)
CONTENTS .............................................. (ill)
LIST OF FIGURES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (vii)

LIST OF TABLES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (ix)

LIST 0 F PLATES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (x)
LIST OF APPENDICES ..................................... (xii)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................... (xili)

CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 : General information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 : Aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 : Exploration history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 : Previous workers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

CHAPTER 2 : REGIONAL GEOLOGY ........................... 7

2.1 : Stratigraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 : Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 : Granite form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.4 : Dolcoath Granite contact aureole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
CHAPTER 3 : LOCAL STRUCTURE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.1 : Folding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2 : Faulting ...... ,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.3 : Jointing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
CHAPTER 4 : LOCAL GEOLOGY AND PETROLOGY ................ 17
4.1 : Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.2 : Igneous petrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.2.1 : Basaltic hyaloclastic breccia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.2.2 : Olivine basalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.3 : Sedimentary petrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.3.1 : Roland Conglomerate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.3.2 : Moina Sandstone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.3.3 : Gordon Limestone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
•
 (iv)

4.3.4 : Siliceous Conglomerate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

4.3.5 : Unconsolidated ferruginous sediments. . . . . . . . 26
4.3.6 : Basalt talus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.3.7 : Alluvium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

CHAPTER 5 : SKARN PE1ROLOGY............................ 28

5.1 : Introduction. ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.2 : Petrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.2.1 : Contact metamorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.2.2 : Infiltration metasomatism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.2.2.1 : Ti Tree Creek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.2.2.2 : Fletcher's Adit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.2.2.3 : Stormont. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.2.3 : Retrograde alteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.2.3.1 : Veining. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.3 : Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

CHAPTER 6 : MINERALIZATION.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

6.1 : Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6.2 : Opaque minerals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6.2.1 : Scheelite and powellite................... 58
6.2.2 : Magnetite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6.2.3 : Pyrrhotite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
6.2.4 : Pyrite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
6.2.5 : Marcasite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.2.6 : Arsenopyrite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.2. 7 : Native bismuth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.2.8 : Bismuthinite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.2.9 : Galenobismutite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.2.10 : Bis.sTeS3.6· . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.2.11 : Sphalerite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.2.12 : Chalcopyrite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.2.13 : Native gold. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.2.14 : Hematite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
6.2.15 : Goethite and limonite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
6.3 : Style and grade............................... 66
6.4 : Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

)
 (v)

CHAPTER 7 : FLUID GEOCHEMISTRY AND

THERMODYNAMIC MODELLING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
CHAPTER 8 : METAL ASSOCIATIONS AND SPATIAL VARIATIONS. . . . 79
8.1 : Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
8.2 : Stratigraphic variations .......................... 79
8.2.1 : Stormont . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
8.2.2 : Fletcher's Adit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
8.3 : Metal associations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
8.3.1 : Metal-metal plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
8.3.1.1 : Stormont . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
8.3.1.2 : Fletcher's Adit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
8.3.2 : Metal correlation coefficient matrices. . . . . . . . . . 86
8.3.2.1 : Stormont . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
8.3.2.2 : Fletcher's Adit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
8.4 : Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
CHAPTER 9: CONTROLS ON MINERALIZATION................. 89
9.1 : Stratigraphic controls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
9 .1.1 : Shale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
9.1.2 : Cambrian volcanics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
9.1.3 : Dolcoath Granite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
9.2 : Structural controls............................. 91
9 .2.1 : Folding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
9.2.2 : Faulting and jointing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

CHAPTER 10 : OXYGEN ISOTOPES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

10.1 : Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
10.2 : Results ............. _. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
10.3 : Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

CHAPTER 11 : IS STORMONT A GOLD SKARN?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

11.1 : What is a gold skarn?.......................... 99

11.2 : Arguments for Stormont being a gold skarn. . . . . . . . . . . 102
11.2.1 : Host sequence........................ 102
11.2.2 : Metals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
11.2.3 : Opaque mineralogy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
11.2.4 : Silicate mineralogy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
 (vi)

11.3 : Arguments against Stormont being a gold skarn. . . . . . . . 106

11.3.1 : Mineralizing pluton. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
11.3.2 : Metals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
11.3.3 : Opaque mineralogy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
11.3.4 : Silicate mineralogy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
11.4 : Conclusions................................ 109
CHAPTER 12 : DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
REFERENCES ............................................ 114
APPENDICES ............................................ 120
 (vii)

LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE Page

1: Geographic location of the 1:5000 scale mapping area at Moina. . . 6

2: Sub-surface form of the Dolcoath Granite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

3: The zonation of mineralisation in the Dolcoath Granite

contact aureole. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

4: Stratigraphic column for the Moina area.................... 19

5: Mole % uvarovite, andradite and grossular variation in a

Cr-rich zoned garnet from the Iris River area ................ 39

6: Mole % grossular, andradite and pyralspite variations in zoned

garnets from Stormont, Fletcher's Adit and Ti Tree Creek. . . . . . 40

7: Ternary diagram of the mole % pyralspite-andradite-grossular for

garnets from Stormont, Fletcher's Adit and Ti Tree Creek. . . . . . . 41

8: Ternary diagram of the mole % johannsenite-hedenbergite

-diopside for clinopyroxenes from Stormont, Fletcher's

Adit and Ti Tree Creek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

9: Mn-Mg-Fe ternary diagram for amphiboles from Stormont,

Fletcher's Adit and Ti Tree Creek. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

10: Al-Mg-Fe ternary diagram for amphiboles from Stormont,

Fletcher's Adit and Ti Tree Creek. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

11: The % pistacite variation in a zoned epidote from Stormont. . . . . . 56

12: Temperature/pressure fields for the facies of

contact metamorphism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

13: Temperature-log f02 phase diagram for calcic skarns .......... 57

14: Temperature-log 302 phase diagram for the major silicate

phases at Stormont. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

15: Gold fmeness at Stormont. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

16: Log f(h-log fS2 phase diagram for opaque phases at Stormont. . . 77

17: Log f02-pH phase diagram for opaque phases at Stormont. . . . . . 77

 (viii)

18: Log f(h-temperature phase diagram for opaque phases

at Stormont. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
19: Stratigraphic variations in metal content in SD 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

20: Stratigraphic variations in metal content in FD 6. . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

21: Poles to bedding, fa~lts, joints and veins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

2 2: Faulting and folding relationships in a concentrically

folded sequence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

23: Joint sets commonly found in folded rocks................. 94

2 4: Spatial zonations in drill hole characteristics from Fletcher's Adit. . 95

25: Spatial zonations in drill hole characteristics from Stormont. ..... 95

2 6: o18Q of hydrothermal fluids in equilibrium with magnetite

at 350°C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
2 7: Au(g/t)/Cu(%) vs contained Au (kg) graph for the major

skarn classes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

) 28: Wt% Alz0:3-mole % hedenbergite for clinopyroxene& from

Stormont, Fletcher's Adit and Ti Tree Creek................ 105

29: K20-NazO, KzO+NazO-Si(h, and Fez03+FeO-Si(h for

the Dolcoath Granite and other skarn associated granitoids ....... 107
 (ix)

LIST OF TABLES
TABLE Page

1: The paragenesis of all minerals identified in the skarn at

Ti Tree Creek. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2: The paragenesis of all minerals identified in the skarn at

Fletcher's Adit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

3: The paragenesis of all minerals identified in the skarn at

Stormont. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

4: Statistics involving metal grades from the skarn lithologies at

Stormont. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

5: Statistics involving metal grades from the skarn lithologies at

Fletcher's Adit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

6: Average ore mineral compositions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

7: Correlation coefficient matrix for metals from skarn lithologies

at Stormont. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

8: Correlation coefficient matrix for metals from skarn lithologies

at Fletcher's Adit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

9: Drill hole characteristics at Stormont and Fletcher's Adit . . . . . . . 92

10: Results from the oxygen isotope study .................... 98

11: Statistics involving gold in skarn deposits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

)
 (x)

LIST OF PLATES

)
PLATE
1: Hand specimen of a Tertiary hyaloclastic basalt breccia

2: Tertiary basalt dyke intruding a platform of hyaloclastic breccias.

3: Photomicrograph of a typical olivine phenocryst in the Tertiary basalt.

4: Hand specimen of a bioturbated homfelsic shale.

5: Hand specimen of a branched worm burrow in the Moina Sandstone.

6: Intensely jointed Moina Sandstone

7: Photomicrograph of a homfelsic shale, with a greisen vein.

8: Chert bands in the Gordon Limestone.

9: Hand specimen of a partially metasornatised limestone.

10: Photomicrograph of an echinoderm arm plate with pyrrhotite mineralisation.

11: Tertiary silicified gravel (Grey billy).

12: Quaternary alluvium and lacustrian sediments.

13: Hand specimen of typical wrigglite skarn.

14: Hand specimen of garnet-actinolite-native bismuth-bismuthinite skarn.

15: Drill core of chaotic textured garnet-pyroxene-actinolite skarn.

16: Photomicrograph of a calcified dolomite rhombic crystal.

17: Photomicrograph of wrigglite skarn.

18: Photomicrograph of a typical zoned andradite garnet

19: Photomicrograph of a green uvarovite garnet.

20: Hand specimen of coarse-grained actinolite-garnet-calcite skarn.

21: Photomicrograph of garnet breaking down to epidote.

22: Photomicrograph of a euhedral epidote included in an embayed garnet

23: Photomicrograph of a salite crystal breaking down to actinolite.

24: Photomicrograph of euhedral zoned epidotes and coarse actinolite.

25: Hand specimen of a quartz-muscovite-fluorite footwall, greisen vein.

26: Drill core of the leached, high grade Au-Bi ore.

27: Drill core of pervasive late stage leaching.

 (xi)

28: Photomicrograph of the actinolite replacement stage.

') 29: Drill core example of horizontal veining and associated mineralisation.

30: Photomicrograph of a single wrigglite band.

31: Drill core example of the delicate sulphide banding at Fletcher's Adit

32: Hand specimen of the most massive sulphide mineralisation.

33: Hand specimen of pyrrhotite mineralisation in worm burrows.

34: Photomicrograph of marcasite replacing pyrrhotite.

35: Photomicrograph of coarse bismuthinite replacing native bismuth.

36: Photomicrograph of magnetite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite and native bismuth.

37: Photomicrograph of chalcopyrite, native bismuth and a Bi-Te-sulphide.

38: Phot<;>micrograph of oxidized Au-Bi ore.

39: Hand specimen of a metasomatised interbedded shale and calcarenite.

40: Photomicrograph of native gold.

)
 (xii)

LIST OF APPENDICES

)
APPENDIX A: Electron microprobe analyses.

APPENDIX B: Thin section descriptions of major metasomatic and retrograde textures.

APPENDIX C: Estimation of salinity and pH.

ThermodynarIiic calculations.

APPENDIX D: Stratigraphic variations in metal content for SD 3, FD 7 and FD 8.

APPENDIX E: Metal-metal plots for Stormont and Fleteher's Adit

APPENDIX F: Oxygen isotope calculations.

APPENDIX G: Departmental rock catalogue, and drill hole locations.

APPENDIX H: Surface mapping.

MAP 1: A 1:5000 scale factual and interpreted geological map of the entire field

area.

MAP 2: A 1: 1000 scale factual geological map of the Fletcher's Adit area.

MAP 3: AI: 1000 scale interpreted geological map of the Fletcher's Adit area.

MAP 4: A 1:1000 scale factual geological map of the the Ti Tree Creek area.

MAP 5: AI: 1000 scale interpreted geological map of the the Ti Tree Creek area.

MAP 6: A N-S and a NE-SW cross-section of the 1; 1000 scale Ti Tree Creek

map sheet.

MAP 7: A N-NW cross-section of the 1:5000 scale map sheet, and a NE-SW

cross-section of the 1:1000 scale Fletcher's Adit map sheet.

 (xiii)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
-,
I would like to extend my sincere thanks to my supervisor Dr. J.B. Gemmell, Dr. D.

L. Huston and Dr. R.F. Berry, for their help with ideas, thin section problems, microprobe

work, isotopes, thermodynamic calculations and assistance with phase diagram construction.

The cheerful assistance of Mr. Mike Power (with oxygen isotopes), Mr. Simon Stephens and

Miss Naomi Deard (with thin section preparation) was especially appreciated.

At Renison Goldfields Exp. Pty. Ltd., the help of Mr. Carlos Castro was invaluable,

concerning organisation during the field season and general encouragement. Discussions with

Scott Halley also proved to be extremely helpful, especially in regard to skarn petrology.

Thanks must also go to Renison Goldfields Consolidated and the Tasmanian

Government for supporting my studies in the form of financial assistance.

The arduous task of proof reading was cheerfully (?) done by Mr. Rogan Brown, Dr.

Bruce Gemmell and Dr. Max Banks with my kindest thanks. The mandatory last few days of
')
complete panic were made much easier by the assistance of Rachel and Mr. Rogan Brown.

On a personal note, I express gratitude to my friends and family, especially Mr. Keith

Wildman for his photographic assistance and Rachel for putting up with a lot of over-

enthusiastic ranting and raving during the year.

 1

CHAPTER 1
J INTRODUCTION
u GENERAL
Moina is situated 25 km NNE of Cradle Mountain in Tasmania's North West. The

location of the I :5000 scale mapping area which lies 2-4 km west of Moina is shown in Figure

I.
) Access to the mapping area is via the Cradle Mountain Road initially, then along a poor

gravel road to the Iris River Bridge. From there, four-wheel drive vehicular tracks lead to the

Stormont Bismuth Mine and most of the way to the Ti Tree Creek Prospect. Access to

Fletcher's Adit involves branching off the road to Stormont and following a foot track west to

the Lea River. See Appendix H, Map I for prospect locations.

Vegetation in the area is predominantly mature rain forest, with areas of very thick fern

growth and some dense horizontal scrub. As a result, the majority of the mapping was

performed using cut grid-lines, roads and the excellent river and creek sections. The grid
)
covering the Ti Tree Creek area (Appendix H, Maps 1,4, and 5) is extremely overgrown.

The 1:5000 mapping area (Figure I and Appendix H, Map I) contains three

mineralised skarns. These deposits include the Stormont Bismuth Mine (referred to from now

on as Stormont), Fletcher's Adit and the Ti Tree Creek Prospect.

Appendix H contains a 1:5000 scale geologic map of the whole field area, 1:1000 scale

geologic maps for the Fletcher's Adit and Ti Tree Creek areas and relevant cross-sections for

these maps (see List of Appendices).

All three skarns have been formed from the inftltration metasomatism of the basal
)
portion (20-35 m) of the Middle Ordovician Gordon Limestone, soon after the emplacement of

the Late Devonian Dolcoath Granite. These deposits are, along with numerous hydrothermal

veins in the Moina area, part of the contact aureole of the Dolcoath Granite.

The Moina district has great potential for detailed studies in skarn petrogenesis for the

following reasons:

j
 2

1) The Dolcoath Granite plunges shallowly to the west but steeply in all other

I directions. This flat topped ridge extends underneath five mineralised skams that lie along an

E-W trend. The five skarns being, from east to west are:

- Shepherd and Murphy (Sn-W-F)

- Moina (Sn-W-F)
- Ti Tree Creek (Fe-Cu-Sn-W-Pb)
- Fletcher's Adit (Bi-Au-Cu-Pb-Sn-Zn)
)
- Stormont Bismuth Mine (Bi-Au)

Thus, this sequence represents the change in one fundamental variable - depth to the

mineralising granite.

2) All five skarns are hosted in the same protolith and mineralised by the same

granitoid.

3) The five deposits show distinct differences in calc-silicate compositions, ore mineral

type and abundance, texrures and intensity of alteration.

4) There is no post-Devonian metamorphic or structural over printing.

)
The deposit at Stormont has many of the characteristics of a rare class of skam, known

as gold skams. Meinert (1989) stresses that gold skarn research is still in its infancy, and that

more detailed studies need to be performed to add to the accumulating data set involving gold

skams and therefore to increase the certainty of the characteristics of this class of skarn. This

request is part of the rationale for this study.

1.2 AIMS
The aim of this study is to fulfil the following tasks:
)
- To map the Fletcher's Adit and Ti Tree Creek areas on a scale of 1:1000 using

nomenclarure consistent with the recent 1:1000 mapping of the S tormont area performed by

R.G.C. Exp. Pty. Ltd.

- To map an area encompassing the three skarn deposits on a 1:5000 scale.

- To sample the available diamond drill cores for Stormont (SD 1-6), Fletcher's Adit
. ) (FD 1-9) and Ti Tree Creek (OOM 1 and 3) for detailed petrological studies, and in particular

to establish a paragenesis for these three skarns.

 3

- To discover in what ways the three skams are similar and/or different, and discover

) why these similarities and/or differences exist.

- To distinguish whether Stormont is a genuine "gold skam", by comparing it to

better known North American examples.

lJ. EXPLORATION HISTORY

)
In 1925 Richard Magee found bismuthinite in alluvial sediments along the banks of the

Lea River, and traced the source of this bismuthinite back to the skarns now known as

Fletcher's Adit and the Stormont Bismuth Mine (Reid, 1927). The Stormont Bismuth Mine

operated from 1928 to 1934, during which time 6.3 tons of Bismuth concentrate were

produced, having a grade of 51-67 % Bi, 164-1234 gjt Au and 214-360 gjt Ag (Bums, 1958).

Minor workings at Fletcher's Adit in the late 1950's concentrated on vein deposits,

usually on the crests of anticlines (due to the predominance of tensional jointing). These veins

reportedly contained sphalerite-galena-chalcopyrite-pyrite-wolframite with minor gold and

)
silver (Burns, 1958).

The history of the Ti Tree Creek Prospect is obscure. It seems that minor magnetite

skarn was mined for Wand Sn when the larger W-Sn producing mines at Moina and

Shepherd and Murphy were in operation, which was intermittently between 1893 and 1957

(Collins, 1979).

The Dolcoath Granite contact aureole has been of interest to numerous prospectors and

companies for the last hundred years. Significant exploration activities during this time are

outlined below:
)
- Geological mapping has been performed by Cordwell (1961), McKibben (1971),

Flemming (1987) and White (1989).

- Geochemistry involving B-horizon soil sampling, trench sampling, chip sampling,

and stream sediment sampling has been completed by Reid (1967), Foster (1969), Dandy

(1970), McKibben (1971), and R.G.C. Exp. Pty. Ltd. recently. These surveys resulted in the

recognition that Stormont has the greatest potential for high grade Bi-Au in the Moina area.
 4

Soil sampling completed by C.R.A.E. in the late seventies over the Ti Tree Creek Prospect

) failed to identify an anomaly, and no company holes were drilled in this area.

- Geophysical exploration has involved V.H.E.M. (McKibben, 1971), resistivity,

gradient array I.P., and S.P. (Dandy, 1970), scintillometry and, in the last year, regional

gravity and detailed ground magnets by R.G.C. Exp. Pty. Ltd. I.P. detected NW-SE trending

(?)shear zones, regional gravity defined the shape of the Dolcoath Granite on the regional
)
scale, while ground magnetics confirmed the position of the magnetic skarn bodies and

indicated that the thickness of the basalt is generally less than 50-70 m (Flemming, 1988;

Castro, 1989).

- Diamond drilling by R.G.c. in 1987 at Fletcher's Adit (FD 1-9) and Stormont (SD

1-6), again confirmed that Stormont was the more encouraging of the two deposits, with SD I

returning l3.0m@ 4.12 g/t Au and SD 3 returning 2.1m@ 12.77 g/t Au (Roberts, 1987).

These grades were enough to support further drilling at Stormont in early 1990, but

eventually the skarn proved to contain only patchy high grade mineralisation and does not
o represent a profitable mining venture.

.lA PREVIOUS WORKERS

Jennings (1958 and 1979) has been the most significant contributor to the

understanding of the stratigraphy, petrology and structure of the Late Carnbrian to Late

Ordovician rocks in the Moina area.

Kwak and Askins (l981a) published a comprehensive paper on the F-Sn-W (-Be-Zn)

"wrigglite" skarn at the Moina skarn deposit, which lies only 2 km east of the Ti Tree Creek
o
Prospect The essential points to note from this research are:

- "Wrigglite" is a textural term, describing alternating bands of magnetite with fluorite-

vesuvianite ± cassiterite and scheelite.

- The Dolcoath Granite lies only 200 m below this deposit.

- Primary F-rich skarns are enriched in F-Fe-Sn-W-Be-Li-B-Bi.

o - Secondary alteration introduced Zn-Pb-Cu-S.

- When LFeO is approximately less than 9 wt %, "wrigglite" does not form.

 5

- "Wrigglite" is formed by replacement at diffusion fronts, moving outwards from

() fractures, and is at least partially produced by a boiling, high temperature, saline solution.

Webb (1974) concentrated on the Ti Tree Creek skarn, with a very brieflook at

Stormonl. Salient points to arise from this study include the following:

- The recognition of a second.stage of metasomatic fluids which transformed the initial

calc-silicate skarn into a magnetiferous skarn.

() - During this second stage Fe-F-K-Rb-Y-Cu-Zn-W were enriched, while Si was

depleted.

- Beneath Ti Tree Creek, the granite is at a depth greater than 324 m.

- The pyroxenes at Ti Tree Creek are slightly manganiferous salites.

- Garnets are members of the grossular-andradite series.

- Garnet zoning indicates that Fe/AI ratios fluctuated during the growth of skarns in the

Moina area, without showing a particular trend.

Thus, the outstanding questions that needed to be addressed at the Stormont,

o Fletcher's Adit and Ti Tree Creek deposits are:

- What is the petrography of the three skarns?

- What effect does the westward increase in "prospect-to-granite" distance have on the

mineralisation and petrology of these skarns?

- What is the source of the gold?

- Why is a Au-Bi bearing skarn associated with an ilmenite series granitoid?

•
 6

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{) LOCATIONOFMAPpmGAREA
9

if ... a f ' 'IRUENORlH t

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FIGURE 1: Location of the 1:5000 scale mapping area at Mama, NW Tasmania.
 7

CHAPTER 2
REGIONAL GEOLOGY
2.1 STRATIGRAPHY
Twenty kilometres south of Moina, in the Cradle Mountain region, the Precambrian

Tyennan Block consists of strongly deformed phyllitic and schistose pelitic rocks belonging to

the Fisher Metamorphic Complex.

The Cambrian Mount Read Volcanics are represented by Tyndall and Dundas Group

correlates. The volcanics closest to Moina are the Bull Creek Volcanics, which outcrop one

kilometre to the south of Stormont T have been intersected in drill core one kilometre NE of

Fletcher's Adit and most probably underlie Stormont. These volcanics consist of quartz­

feldspar-biotite ± hornblende porphyries, quartz phyric tuffs, quanz-feldspar-biotite phyric

crystal lithic tuffs, and quartz-feldspar ± biotite phyric crystal tuffs (Pemberton and Vicary,

1989).

Lying unconformably on top of the Mount Read Volcanics are the siliciclastics of the

Late Cambrian to Early Ordovician Denison Group (which is the basal member of the

Wurawina Supergroup). The thickness and lithology of the earliest unit, the Roland

Conglomerate (an Owen Conglomerate correlate) varies greatly in the Winterbrook-Moina

area. This observation is consistent with the nature of such alluvial fan deposits which show

channelling, lensing and abundant lateral variation in fades. The Roland Conglomerate

consists of thickly-bedded conglomerates, sandstones, and siltstones and contains some

horizons of fine grained basalt The characteristic feature of the Roland Conglomerate is the

abundance of hematite in the siliceous matrix, again consistent with an oxidising, terrestrial,

alluvial fan environment of deposition. Clasts are composed of volcanic fragments at the

conglomerate's base, but elsewhere are almost entirely siliceous (Le. quanzites, cherts, reef

quanz, and quartz schists) and set in a siliceous matrix which is frequently recrystallized

(Jennings, 1979). The majority of clasts are derived from the Precambrian rocks of the

Tyennan Block to the south (Banks and Baillie, 1989).

The upper section of the Denison Group is called the Moina Sandstone. This formation

lies conformably on the Roland Conglomerate and is characterised by clean, grey, moderately
 8

well-sorted, silicic arenites of variable bedding thickness. The Moina Sandstone is in places

) intensely bioturbated and, around the Moina area, it'exhibits silicic and sericitic alteration

associated with the intrusion of the Dolcoath Granite. The top of the Moina Sandstone locally

consists of bioturbated, interbedded shales and calcareous arenites, which are correlates of the

Florentine Valley Mudstone (Pembenon and Vicary, 1989). Body fossils are rare with only

minor occurrences of costate brachiopods, gastropods and trilobite fragments being recognised
)
(Banks and Baillie, 1989).

The transition from the terrestrial, unfossiliferous, alluvial fan conglomerates and

sandstones of the Roland Conglomerate to the bioturbated shallow marine clastic sequence

called the Moina Sandstone represents a gradual reduction in topographical gradient (from

continuing erosion), and therefore a reduction in the amount of sediment supplied to the sea. It

also represents a movement of the shoreline. The result is a gradual fining upwards in

sediment grain size from very coarse conglomerates through sands to silts (and eventually to

limestones in the Mid to Late Ordovician).

)
Conformably above the approximately 245 m thick Moina Sandstone, the Gordon

Group is represented by the Gordon Limestone. This Mid Ordovician carbonate unit contains

minor shale horizons, chert bands, stylolites and is fossiliferous in many places (Pemberton

and Vicary, 1989). The basal part of the Gordon Limestone represents a rranquil environment,

initially below the wave-base, which progressively shallows to become intertidal in the upper

section.

The Denison Group and the Gordon Group represent a textbook example of a syn­

and post-orogenic sedimentary sequence (Banks and Baillie, 1989). The base of the Gordon
)
Limestone (and the very upper part of the Moina Sandstone) hosts five skam deposits in the

Moina area.

The Dolcoath Granite is an ilmenite series leucocratic granite of earliest Carboniferous

age (340-360 ma). This granite contains quartz, perthitic microcline, plagioclase and biotite,

with minor apatite, zircon fluorite, topaz, cassiterite and disseminated molybdenite and pyrite

, ) (Williams, McClenaghan and Col1ins, 1989; Webb, 1974). The Dolcoath Granite outcrops as
 9

a small (lIan radius) circular stock, 4 km east of Moina and has a well-defmed contact aureole

extending out to the west.

)

The only possible Silurian sedirnents recognised in the SheffieldIMoina area can be

seen at Gunns Plains, where a small amount of white sandstone confonnably overlies the

Gordon Limestone (Jennings, 1979).

There is a large temporal gap in the geologic record from the Late Devonian to the

) Tertiary in the Moina area. The top of the Gordon Limestone often shows evidence of an

extensive period of erosion, with deeply penetrating leached zones and the formation of thick

paleo-soil profiles.

The first Tertiary sediments are massive to thickly bedded units of siliceous

conglomerates, breccias and unconsolidated gravels C'greybilly"). On top of the "greybilly",

there exist extensive flows of Tertiary basalt and hyaloclastic basaltic breccias.

The Quaternary sedirnents in the Moina area are varied, but generally consist of

alluvium and talus/scree slope deposits.

2.2 STRUCfURE
The only deformation event which has any bearing on mineralization hosted in

Ordovician lithologies in the Moina area, is the Mid Devonian Tabberabberan Orogeny. The

intrusion of the Dolcoath Granite itself is considered to have been only a passive event with

minor local folding and doming (Williams, McClenaghan and Collins, 1989).

There are two major structural trends in the Moina area, an early E-W trend and a later

NNW-SSE trend.

) The E-W structural trend is called the LoonganaIWilmot Trend, and is characterised by

shallowly plunging, symmetrical folds that are generally open and have limb dips of

approximately ZOO. In the Stormont region wavelengths are in the order of 500 m. This earliest

trend is thought to have resulted from the N-S convergence of the Precambrian Tyennan and

northern Blocks (Jennings, 1979; Williams, McClenaghan and Collins, 1989).

Superimposed upon the early E-W folds is a NNW-SSE structural trend called the

DeloraineIRailton Trend. This deformation phase is the dominant trend in the Moina area.
 10

Axial surfaces as well as small thrust faults which are associated with this fold phase dip to the

NE, which indicates a NE transport direction. Folding associated with this phase is

characterised by gentle plunges (up to 2(0), wavelengths of 50-200 m, slippage along

bedding planes and break thrust development. Associated thrusts generally dip at 30-35° to the

NE or less commonly to the SW, with displacements reaching lOO's of metres in only a few

places. The shallow plunge of folds produced by this fold phase represents the dips of the

limbs of the earlierE-W folds (Jennings, 1979; Williarns, McClenaghan and Collins, 1989).

From an economic perspective the NNW-SSE structural trend is the most significant,

as the smaller wavelength folds produce locally intense jointing which, together with the

associated faults, provided excellent pathways for granitic fluids to penetrate the thick, silicic

Denison Group sediments which underlie the Gordon Limestone. It may be no coincidence

that the position of the Dolcoath Granite and therefore the Moina mineral field coincides with

the intersection of two structural domains (one dominated by an E-W trend and another by a

NNW-SSE trend). This location may represent a structurally weak zone where a magma could

penetrate to shallower levels most effectively.

2.3 GRANITE FORM

The position of mineralized prospects, the zonation of metals and the extent of

alteration in the Moina area has long been thought to indicate that the Dolcoath Granite

batholith has steep eastern, northern and southern margins, while the western margin is gently

plunging (Gee, 1966; Collins, 1979). Leaman and Richardson (1988), in a "geophysical

interpretation of granites", confirmed these original ideas through the use of a regional gravity

survey. 'The interpretation of the Dolcoath Granite's sub-surface form is shown in Figure 2.

Salient observations from this survey and another report for R.G.C. Exp. Pty. Ltd.

(Leaman, 1989) are that:

- The southern face is very steeply dipping.

- The northern face dips more shallowly towards the Housetop Granite (the two

batholiths cannot yet be proved to be distinct or connected geophysically due to poor

resolution).
 11

- The western and north-western faces dip gently.

- The southern face appears to be shelved, but overall steeply dipping.

- The roof of the granite is nearly horizontal.

- Irregularities in the roof of the batholith are attributed to fractures controlling

emplacement

It has also been suggested that the areas of intersection between the flat roof and steep sides

coincide with areas of mineralization. These intersections are seen as areas of tensional stress

with the opening of tensile fractures allowing "roof spines" to intrude into the overlying rocks.

and to channel mineralizing fluids. Leaman (1989) also does not rule out the possibility of

cupolas existing on the batholith roof which dips gently to the west

The depth to granite below Stormont is poorly constrained. The regional gravity

survey indicates that the flat-topped ridge in this region is less than 1km and probably less than

500 m. Diamond drilling at the Moina Sn-W skarn intersected granite at approximately 200 m.

while a Department of Mines stratigraphic drill-hole (D.O.M. 1) only 200 m WNW of the

Moina skarn. failed to intersect granite at 324 m! It seems likely therefore that the roof of the

Dolcoath Batholith includes cupolas.

The only other moderately deep holes west of Moina are FD 6 (drilled at Fletcher's

Adit, which reached a depth of 184 m but only just intersected the Roland Conglomerate) and

DDH 1 (a Comalco hole, situated 1 km NE of Fleteher's Adit, which intersected the Moina

Sandstone above the Cambrian volcanics, and these continued to the end of the hole at 253 m).

Thus, the granite-to-prospect depth in the Stormont and Fletcher's Adit areas could be

anything from 250 to 1000 ID.

2.1 DOLCOATII GRANITE CONTACT AUREOLE

An attempt to define a zonation of the mineralization around the Dolcoath Granite is

given in Figure 3. These zones (starting from the zone closest to the granite crop on Dolcoath

Hill) are:
 12

Vein style Mo-Sn-W

Vein style W±Sn-Bi Skarn style [significant W-Sn±Bi]

Vein style Au ±Ag Skarn style [moderate W-Sn]

Vein style Pb-Zn Skarn style [minor W-Sn-Au-Ag-Bi]

Skarn style [significant Au-Bi±Ag]

This zonation is consistent with the proposed form for the Dolcoath Granite (Leaman

and Richardson, 1988). The relationship is clearest to the west of Dolcoath Hill, where the

granite ridge plunges shallowly under the Moina, Shepherd and Murphy, Ti Tree Creek,

Fletcher's Adit and Stormont deposits. The metal zonation is simply a function of the

increasing prospect-to-granite distance, while the style of mineralization is con trolled

principally by the lithology of the host rock. To the south, the east and to a lesser extent the

north, mineralization is extremely limited due to the steep dip of the sides of the granite

batholith.

It has been reported that there is also a zonation in the attitude of vein deposits in the

area. The high temperature Sn-W veins proximal to the granite occupy E-W trending veins,

while the lower temperature, more distal Ag-Pb veins occupy NW-SE trending fracture

~-1j
:~~~;~ ~~~42~- --~'~4-~ ((l
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FIGURE 2: The Dolcoath Granite's sub-surface fonn. Depth contour interval is I km. Mineralisation sites

are indicated. From Learnan and Richardson, 1988, p. 76.

 ,, ,
,,,
. .,,, ,
,
- 1
,'­

,
, I ,
~ , ,,,.,--,,
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.' .. ~ .' ,,
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VEIN STYLE MINERALISATION Irb, Znl ,
, • ,. •,
,,I ,
VElNSTI'LEMINERAUSATION{AlIotAtJ \
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TI TREE CREEK

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DOLCOATII GRANl1E AUREOLE

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FIGURE 3: Mineralisation zonation associated with the Dolcoath Granite contact aureole, Prospect data
from Pemberton and Vicary, 1989. .....
w
 14

CHAPTER 3
'J LOCAL STRUCTURE
li FOLDING
Structural measurements of poles to 253 bedding surfaces from Ordovician lithologies

throughout the mapping area are plotted in Figure 21 a. This stereographic projection indicates

that the Roland Conglomerate, Moina Sandstone and Gordon Limestone are only gently folded
)
in this area, with dips rarely exceeding 20-250. The poles to bedding readings are concentrated

around the horizontal orientation, but show a slight trend consistent with a fold axis at

approximately 3160. This NW trend corresponds to the DelorainelRailton Trend discussed in

Chapter 2.

In the field, the rocks belonging to the Denison and Gordon Groups can be seen to

have been subjected to two episodes of folding during the Devonian Tabberabberan Orogeny.

The main evidence for this is the presence of a dome in the Lea River valley four hundred

metres NE of Fletcher's Adit. This style of dome is typical of two interfering fold phases at
)
approximately 900 (Hobbs et. aI., 1976). This second, more obscure fold phase corresponds

to the earlier E-W LoonganalWilmot Trend. The broad spread of poles to bedding seen in

Figure 21a is a result of the interference between the E-W and NW-SE fold trends.

The early E-W fold phase is difficult to recognise due to its longer wavelength

(approximately 500 m according to Jennings, 1978) and the dominance of the later phase.

Only the vergence folds associated with this phase are obvious when interfering with the later

NW trending folds. Dips on the later NW trending folds may be directly attributed to this

phase.

The later NW-SE fold phase plays an important role in the structural control on

mineralization. Folds associated with this phase are parallel (or class 1B from Ramsay's 1967

classification), short wavelength (10-100 m), shallowly dipping (0-100), upright and are open

style. Common features associated with these folds throughout the mapping area are slippage

along the bedding planes (indicated by striations and quartz rods), locally intense jointing,

break thrusts and normal and reverse faults. Folding during this latter phase involved
 15

substantial amounts of brittle deformation, implying a low ambient temperature (i.e. shallow

depths) and/or rapid NE-SW compression.

3.2 FAULTING
Poles to 18 fault planes are,plotted in Figure 21b. This sample space is small but does

indicate a NW (~3200) trend consistent with the NW (~3200) fold trend. The steep reverse

faults are found on the steepest limbs of the NW trending folds, while the thrust faults are

found on the more open folds. Normal reverse and thrust faults are present throughout the

field area and their occurrence is explained in Figure 22. This diagram indicates that for an

antiform, thrusting and high angle reverse faulting can occur in the core while, in the outer

regions of the fold, normal faulting and jointing are favoured.

The NW trending faults play a major role in providing fluids with access to carbonate

horizons. Stormont has a large normal fault bounding the skam to the NE, and Fletcher's Adit

has a small thrust and two small near-vertical reverse faults at the NE skam/hornfelsic shale

boundary. No major faults were recognised in the vicinity of the Ti Tree Creek skarn.

3.3 JOINTING
Figure 21c is a plot of poles to 302 joint surfaces from Ordovician sediments in the

mapping area. The contoured stereographic projection depicts the existence of two major

orientations. The dominant joint orientation in the field area strikes at ~3350 and dips 80-90 0

NE, while the secondary orientation strikes at ~73° and dips ~850 N. The dominant joint

orientation corresponds to radial joints from the dominant NW-SE trending fold phase. The

second population of joints corresponds to the first E-W trending phase of folding, or are "a­

c" joints (Hobbs et. al., 1976) associated with the later NW-SE trending fold phase. This latter

suggestion is preferable as the data for this joint population represent a restricted range of

orientations which indicates that this population has not been deformed by a later fold phase.

If, however, the minor joint population does represent radial joints from the first fold

generation, later folding along a fold axis at ~9()o to the first fold axis theoretically would not

change the orientations of these joints.

 16

It is most likely that the majority of the joints in the area are associated with the second

phase of folding due to the second phase folds being tighter and having a shorter wavelength.
)

If we assume therefore that all the data in Figure 2lc are associated with the NW-SE fold

phase then the major joint population corresponds to radial joints. the secondary population

corresponds to either "a_c" (transverse) joints or oblique joints. Figure 23 describes the types

of joints typically present in intensely jointed rocks such as those at Moina.

) Plate 6 indicates the intensity of jointing that can occur in the hinge regions of

anticlines and synclines in the footwall arenites. Such jointing. if penetrative. would provide

excellent hydrothermal fluid pathways to the overlying skarn. Veining is common in joints and

to a lesser extent faults in these areas. Poles to 28 vein orientations are plotted in Figure 21d.

These orientations coincide with both the fault and the radial joint orientations which are

associated with the NW-SE trending fold phase.

)
 17

CHAPTER 4
LOCAL GEOLOGY AND PETROLOGY
1,1 INTRODUCTION
The local stratigraphy is schematically presented in Figure 4, however it must be noted

that this is an idealized section, incorporating all rock units seen in the mapping area in their

correct stratigraphic position.

Here, rock units are described and discussed according to their relative age (starting

from the oldest), except for the metasomatic lithologies which are described separately in

Chapter 5.

Silicic, sericitic, and pyritic alteration associated with the intrusion of the Dolcoath

Granite show erratic spatial variations, and are generally weak (except for immediately below

the skarn/quartzite transition, where silicic ± pyritic and sericitic alteration is locally intense).

Whenever a sample is referred to in any form in the text, a corresponding field number

and grid reference (of the location where the sample was collected) are available for reference

in Appendix G.

4.2 IGNEOUS PETROLOGY

4.2.1 BASALTIC HYALOCLASTIC BRECCIA

This Tertiary breccia is extremely uniform in character throughout the mapping area. It

consists of angular fragments of olivine basalt, generally surrounded by a rim of glassy

material. Fragments usually range from 0.5 to 20 = in diameter, but can reach 1m. In the

field this unit has an intimate association with the voluminous Tertiary basalts.

The breccias co=onIy occur at the base of the Lea River valley and are unusual in

that they are sub-horizontal in outcrop, except for the occasional 50-100 cm, near-spherical,

basalt bomb or fragment which protrudes from this surface. The other most striking feature of

this unit is the large quantity of zeolite acting as a cement to this breccia (plate 1).

Under the microscope this rock contains glasses ranging from black through to a light

amber in colour, with alteration fronts defining these colour variations. The pinky brown
 18

glasses are the freshest varieties of glass. The olivine basalt rock fragments commonly display

"splinter" forms. The olivine basalt is indistinguishable from the massive Tertiary basalts

nearby.

There are two pore-filling minerals present in this very porous and permeable rock

type. The earliest of these accounts for 20% of the rock, while the later one comprises 10%.

These minerals have been precipitated from meteoric waters, which leached Na, K, Si, Al and

Ca from the adjacent basaltic rocks.

The earliest cementing mineral is a zeolite, which is clear, is prone to abundant

spherulite development (the spherulites nucleate on the corners of angular rock fragments), has

a granular fabric, is anisotropic, has a relief <1.54, a birefringence < 0.004, has a moderate

2V (approximately 5()o) and has a negative biaxial figure. It appears optically to be chabazite
(Deer et. al., 1980) and the composition for this mineral given in Appendix A (i.e.

Ca[AI2S40I2l.6H20) is consistent with this identification.

The later pore-filling mineral is white, is prone to form spherulites with "snow flake"

forms, develops a brown alteration rim, is isotropic and has a relief <1.54. It looks optically

like the zeolite faujasite (Deer et. al., 1980), but the electron microprobe analysis for this

mineral given in Appendix A (Le. CaoAISig.XH20) indicates that the AI:Si ratio is 0.125.

Zeolites have AI:Si ratios greater than 2 (Deer et. al., 1978) which indicates that either this

mineral is not a zeolite, or the grain analysed was contaminated by impurities.

The hyaloclastic basalt breccias are most likely to have been formed by Tertiary basalt

flowing into the large Lea River valley. The subsequent contact with water (in the Lea River

valley) would cause violent brecciation, analogous to phreatic eruptions.

4.2.2 OLIVINE BASALT

Large amounts of Tertiary basalt exist in the Moina area and partially cover all three

skarn deposits in the 1:5000 scale mapping area. The basalt is commonly vesicular and

amygdaloidal, with chabazite filling vesicles. Outcrop is only consistently obtained in the river

sections, where flows can be seen to exhibit columnar jointing and are fed by dykes usually of

1-2 m width (Plate 2).

 19

STRATIGRAPHIC COLUMN
Alluvium and basalt talus [Qa and Qtbs]
Poorly consolidated sediment [Ts]
Palaeo-soils
? ., .. ';t.,
, , ", ,......
~.,

...... , ,,,
.. .. .. ..
..., ... ... ... ... ... ,...,
..., ..., ...,... , ..., ...,, ,
... ., ..., ..., ...,..., ..., , ,
... ... ... ... ... ... , Basalt and hyaloclastic breccia
, , , , , , ,,,
.I"""
..................
.................. [Tb and Tbb]
,,,,",,
.....................
,',../,,',',','
, , , , ...',
... ... ... ... ... ... ...
,.1"",
~ Siliceous conglomerate /Greybilly [Tg]

Gordon Limestone [Og]

Massive and chaotic garnet- pyroxene- magnetite­

actinolite- epidote skarn (Lower Gordon Limestone)

200 Thin, intensely silicified quartzite (upper

[111] part of the Moina Sandstone) [Oqt]
Alternating shale / sandstone, commonly hornfelsic
(upper part of the Moina Sandstone) [Osh/hf]

Quartz arenites, commonly bioturbated, variably

siliceous and contain minor amounts of feldspathic
micro-conglomerate (Moina Sandstone) [Om]
t.~Mtiffl¥.Wi1ft~,

"' "' "'."' ...

-'~''''''''''''.~ ..
............................. Hematitic sandstone and pebble conglomerate
,
,
"'i"';"'j"'j"'j"';"'j
.
",.",.",.",.",.",.",.",
(upper part of the Roland Conglomerate) [Or]

.~- ----_. -------­

FIGURE 4: Schematic stratigraphic colunm for the Moina area. The Rowland Conglomerate continues
below· the base of this section.
 20

Sample NO 73919 [168] was taken from a dyke which cuts through the hyaloclastic

breccias and contains visible olivine phenocrysts. Under the microscope, this rock can be seen

to be an olivine basalt, with olivine phenocrysts up to 3 mm long.

Modal abundances:
- Olivine phenocrysts = 30% - Titan augite = 20-25%
- Plagioclase laths =40-50% - Opaques = 5%

The clinopyroxene occurs as small, elongated, mottled crystals with opaques. The

plagioclase laths average 0.3 mm in size and are labradorites to bytownites (Deer et. aI.,

1980).

The most striking of features in this rock type is the olivine phenocryst forms. The

majority of these phenocrysts are classic skeletal olivines which may have formed via rapid

growth. The olivine phenocryst was able to lose heat at the corners of the crystal more

effectively, which leads to promoted growth in these areas, finally giving rise to a skeletal

phenocryst such as the one portrayed in Plate 3.

4.3 SEDIMENTARY PETROLOGY

4.3.1 ROLAND CONGLOMERATE

This Late Cambrian to Early Ordovician rock unit is seen in a small number of

outcrops in the south of the 1:5000 scale mapping area (Appendix H, Map 1) and in the last

few metres ofFD 6 and SD 1. The Roland Conglomerate intersected in FD 6 consists of a

quartzite pebble conglomerate, with a silica-hematite matrix which gives this unit the typical

pink-purple colour. In the outcrops seen in the southern portion of the mapping area the clasts

contained in the top of this unit are of sand size.

This unit can be seen to fine-up considerably towards the upper boundary. The section

exposed along the Ti Tree Creek exhibits a gradation in grainsize from a coarse to a fine

arenite, as well as bedding thickness which decreases up the sequence (from 0.4 m to 2 mm).

The fine hematitic arenite represents the waning of the very high energy, terrestrial, oxidizing,

alluvial fan environment of deposition, as a response to the topographical gradient being

gradually reduced via processes of erosion.

 21

The characteristic features that are constant throughout this laterally discontinuous

alluvial fan sequence are the abundant hematite disseminated in the matrix, and the domination

of silicic clasts.

The only contact visible. between the Roland Conglomerate and the Moina Sandstone

can be seen in FD 6, where there is.an abrupt and irregular contact between a basal hematitic

conglomerate and an upper white conglomeritic sandstone. It seems that this contact at

Fletcher's Adit represents a disconformity, but in the south the gradation of grainsize suggests

a conformable transition.

4.3.2 MOINA SANDSTONE

The Moina Sandstone is a thick sequence (approximately 140 m in the Fletcher's Adit

area) of arenitic and argillaceous shallow marine clastic semments. The basal sediments consist

of coarse sandstones which grade into the major rock type, which is a grey siliceous arenite

that is commonly bioturbated. The upper section of the Moina Sandstone (approximately the

top 20 m) consists of interbedded shale and sandstone, which is again commonly bioturbated

(Plate 4). The proportion of shale to sandstone varies vertically and laterally, with the

shale/sandstone ratio increasing up the sequence consistent with the overall trend of the

grainsize fining upwards.

In drill core, the basal coarser sandstones and gravels contain only quartz and quartzite

rock fragments, but at a number of locations over the field area a distinctive arkosic micro­

conglomerate occurs (only as float) near the basal contact Bioturbation is rare in these coarser

sediments.

The thickly bedded (5Q.-300 cm) arenites which occur in the middle section of the

Moina Sandstone are often strongly bioturbated, with worm burrows being 0.6-0.8 mm in

diameter and up to 0.3 m long (plate 5). The arenites are extremely consistent in clast

composition, but become increasingly silicified up the stratigraphic section resulting in intense

silicification just below the skarn horizon.

Due to the high permeability of these moderately to well-sorted, wave-washed and

often intensely jointed sediments (plate 6), there is invariably some evidence of hydrothermal
 22

fluid activity originating from the underlying granite. Silica, pyrite, sericite and calc-silicates

are the most common alteration mineralogies. No large-scale zonation of alteration

assemblages was recognised in this area. Veining is abundant throughout the Moina Sandstone

and common assemblages include quartz-muscovite-pyrite or quartz-muscovite-fluorite.

Typically the grainsize of the arenites (e.g Sample N° 73922 [254]) varies from 0.05

to 3.0 mm, and averages 0.3 mm in diameter. Commonly clasts consist of:

- Monocrystalline, weakly undulose, large, plutonic quartz (=75%).

- Monocrystalline, strongly undulose, small, metamorphic quartz (=10%)
- Highly strained cherts and quartzite rock fragments (=7-8 %)
- Monocrystalline, pseudo-hexagonal volcanic quartz (=5%).
- Detrital zircon, tourmaline and sphene(=2-3%)

The provenance of the arenites is therefore most likely to be the Cambrian Dove Granite, with

a lesser component from Cambrian volcanics and Precambrian metamorphics to the south.

Typically the matrix consisting of <0.05 mm diameter quartz grains and contains 2-3%

sericite. The sericite may be a product of hydrothermal fluid activity or simply part of the

matrix composition. The sericite is concentrated along grain boundaries and in areas where the

average grainsize is low. Minor silica cementation often occurs (=1-2%) and seems to have

originated from the annealing of the [me grained quartz clasts. This annealing and

redistribution of silica is concentrated in areas where the average grainsize is small, as these

areas have a higher grain boundary energy component This process may be due to contact

metamorphism.

Some arenites have a spotted appearance (sample N° 73922 [254]) due to 0.5 mm

patches of magnetite-pyrite-hematite. The paragenesis is magnetite + pyrite initially being later

replaced by hematite in equilibrium with more oxidised fluids. The isolated "clots" of

mineralization tend to coincide with areas of greater inter-granular porosity. Hematite also

coats the rims of larger grains giving the impression that mineralizing fluids permeated quite

easily through the arenites via pore spaces. This may help to explain why there are a number

of small patches of skarn in the Ti Tree Creek area, and very little in the way of faults.

Occasionally an isolated, brown, isotropic, mottled substance acts as a cement to the

arenites (Sample N° 73907 [215]). In areas where this cementing agent is present, the
 23

- Very well-soned and moderately well-rounded quartz grains (=90%)

- Hydrothermally introduced biotite and sericite (=4%)
'I
- Chlorite replacing biotite (=4%)
- Blebs ofpyrite>chalcopyrite>pyrrhotite>magnetite with hematite rims (=2%)
- Detrital tounnaline (trace)

Additionally, quartz grains (which average O.lmm in diameter) are often annealed locally, as

indicated by triple point junctions. These burrows seem to be acting as miniature aquifers,
o allowing mineralizing fluids to penetrate the impermeable hornfelsic shales (Plate 35). There is

also considerable lateral fluid movement in the porous sandy layers, as indicated by laterally

extensive presence of disseminated mineralization and actinolite, chlorite, biotite and

muscovite (Plate 41).

This rock type is commonly cut by Imm wide quartz-fluorite-muscovite-bismuthinite­

chalcopyrite-pyrrhotite-pyrite veins (Plate 7).

The environment of deposition for this rock type is most likely to have been an

intenidal mud flat Current conditions alternated from quiet (when the muddy units were
o deposited) to a higher energy environment (when sands could be transponed and soned).

4.3.3 GORDON LIMESTONE

Un-metasomatised limestone is only seen along the Iris River and Ti Tree Creek

sections (Appendix H, Maps 1 and 5 ) due to its susceptibility to weathering. The limestone is

commonly interbedded with 1-3 cm thick chen bands, 5-10 cm apan (Plate 8). The chen

bands are often more resistant to surface weathering, and thus give this rock type a "ribbed"

appearance in the field.

The Gordon Limestone in this area has been described by Webb (1974) as
10
unfossiliferous and non dolomitic, but thin section examination reveals that this unit can be

highly fossiliferous and is locally a dolomite. The limestone often appears totally unaltered and

not recrystallized only tens of metres away from small "pods" of metasomatic minerals, which

may suggest that the movement of granitic fluids was often very focused.

Limestone from a position just above the skam/limestone contact (or in the "marble
• front") at Fletcher's Adit, has been partially recrystallised, but some original textures are still
 24

visible. Here the limestone comprises areas of 0.05-0.1 mm diameter calcite rhombs, which

) grade out into a sparite (Sample N° 73893 [I]). These rhombs represent dolomite crystals

which have been calcified or de-dolomitized by meteoric waters. In areas where these rhombic

pseudomorphs are abundant, there is also an abundance of carbonaceous material. These

wispy carbonaceous layers may represent algal laminae. The initial presence of dolomite in the

lower portion of the limestone in this area suggests that the environment of deposition was
) supratidal, analogous to the sabkhas of the Persian Gulf.

A very rare texture which was only seen at one location along Ti Tree Creek (Sample

N° 73929 [302]), is where the limestone has been partially replaced by fine grained silica and

pyrrhotite in an extremely irregular fashion (plate 9). Original sedimentary features are well­

preserved in the unreplaced limestone. The rock depicted in Plate 9 is an echinoderm-bearing

sparite (the average calcite crystal size being approximately 0.25 mm), with 5-8% of the rock

consisting of 0.4-1.2 mm arm and stem plates of stalked echinoderms (Plate 10). These plates

are variable in shape (due to the presence of a number of different species and types of plate)

and each consists of a single calcite crystal which can be porous in the central region. As a

result of this porosity, anhedral grains of pyrrhotite are concentrated in these regions.

The environment of deposition for this limestone horizon was probably subtidal, above

the wave-base, and exposed to the open sea. Justification for this hypothesis is that stalked

echinoderms are dominantly subtidal organisms and are attached to the substrate, making areas

that are turbulent accessible for habitation, whereas non-attached organisms are not favoured

in this environment.

)
4.3.4 SILICEOUS CONGLOMERATE

Typically this Tertiary sediment is a coarse, white, variably silicified, lithic

conglomerate or breccia (plate 11). Clastsare rounded to angular, 2-200 mm in diameter, and

very poorly sorted. The clasts are maiuly quartzites and sandstones. Bedding was only

observed at two locations over the whole field area, and where it does occur it is characterised

by variations in the pebble/sand ratios. In the rare sandy beds, grading can be seen to be fining
)
upwards.
PLATE1: Teniary hyaloclastic basalt breccia (Sample N° 73897 [13]). The marrix
consists of two varieties of zeolite, one clear and one white. Scale indicated by
a I It coin (l7mm in diameter). J

PLATE 2: Tertiary basalt dyke in011ding hyaloclastic breccias in the base of the Lea River
valley. This dyke strikes at 12()O and dips 820 to the nonh. Note the irregular
boundaries, created as it intnided a pile of porous, unconsolidated breccias.
Scale indicated by the geology pick in the centre of the plate.

PLATE 3: A photomicrograph of a skeletal olivine phenocryst hosted in an olivine basalt

dyke (Sample N° 73919 [168]), similar to the one depicted in Plate 2.
Transmitted polarized light, long axis of the plate = 2mm, mag. 50x.

PLATE 4: A bioturbated and metasomatised, interbedded hornfelsic shale and calc arenite
(Sample N0 73916 [148]). This unit lies immediately below the limestone. The
green layers are arenites that contain actinolite and pynhotite. Note the white
rim that often borders the green and purple/brown units. Scale indicated by a
lit coin.

PLATE 5: A branching, 12 cm long worm burrow cast from the middle portion of the
Moina Sandstone (Sample N° 73918 [158]). This burrow is positioned
perpendicular to bedding. Scale as shown.

PLATE 6: Intense jointing in the footwall arenites at Fietcher's Adit, in the Lea River
valley. Jointing is invariably concentrated in the hinge areas of the tightest
anticlines and synclines. Scale is indicated by the 10 cm wide compass in the
centre of the plate.

PLATE 7: A photomicrograph of an interbedded homfelsic shale/calc arenite hosting a

muscovite-quartz-fluorite vein (Sample N° 73900 [23]). Note the development ,
of a weak cleavage at approximately 600 to the fine scale bedding. Transmitted
polarized light, long axis of the plate = 4mrn, mag. 25x.

PLATE 8: Chen bands (with a minor clastic component) in unaltered Gordon Group
limestone along the banks of the Iris River. These siliceous bands may have
contributed to the growth of wollastonite and clinopyroxene in the limestone
during the metamorphic stage of skam development. Scale indicated by the 15 ;J
cm long magnet.
 26

Across the field area the siliceous conglomerate occurs as small patches which may

")
reflect restricted deposition or, more likely, the patches represent areas that have been well-

silicified (presumably by the overlying Tertiary basalt) and are therefore resistant to processes

of denudation.

This poorly sorted conglomerate typically contains clasts ranging from 1-10 mm,

which consist of:

-)
- Reworked silicified Moina Sandstone rock fragments (=80%).
- Monocrystalline undulose quartz (=10%).
- Chert rock fragments (=5%).
- Vein quartz (= 3%).
- Sphene and tourmaline (=2%).

All of these clasts could be derived from local sources, namely the Moina Sandstone (although

in a few places the conglomerate can be seen to contain large quantities of magnetite indicating

that the skams have been reworked also). The matrix is a poorly sorted mixture of

monocrystalline quartz, rock fragments and vein quartz, and is generally less than 0.1 mm in
) diameter (Sample N° 73911 [65]). The clasts on average have a roundness of 0.3 and

sphericity of 0.5, using the classification of Powers (1953).

The environment of deposition for these sediments is most likely to have been a steep

gradient fluvial system or an alluvial fan. Only these environments could account for the

enormous range in clast size, the very poor sorting, the poor sphericity and rounding, the

massive bedding, the local provenance, and the restricted occurrence in the field area.

4.3.5 UNCONSOLIDATED FERRUGINOUS SEDIMENT

This rarely oUlcropping sediment is a massive limonitic and hematitic clay with variable
)

clastic content Weathered clasts of basalt (often altered to kaolinite) are the major constituent,

with minor amounts of fragmented carbonaceous material with a woody (or cellular) texture.

Clasts of altered basalt are poorly sorted, and range in size from 1 to 20 mm. The unit may

represent a Tertiary soil profile or a lacustrine sediment.

" )
 27

4.3.6 BASALT TALUS

Basalt talus is a "group name" used in field mapping to describe the basalt and basaltic

breccia float which covers almost 40% of the field area. The age of this mapping unit ranges

from Tertiary to Quaternary. Generally the basaltic breccia blocks are much larger (up to 3m

in diameter) than the basalt blocks(lO mm to 1 m) and usually well-rounded. This difference is

likely to be a function of the intensity ofjointing in the two rocks from which the talus is

derived, with the basalt being strongly jointed (from post-eruptive cooling) and the basaltic

hyaloclastic breccias being well-cemented by zeolites and relatively un-jointed.

4.3.7 ALLUVIUM

Along the large Lea and Iris Rivers, Quaternary alluvium is commonly concentrated on

the insides of major bends and often takes the form of a flat topped bench or flood plain. The

sedirnents are poorly sorted and often crudely stratified gravels and sands (Plate 12). Placer

gold hosted in these sediments has been worked on a very small scale operation at the Lea

River Alluvial Prospect 500 m NE ofFietcher's Adit (Appendix H, Map I).

CIasts are well-rounded, have a high sphericity, locally derived, imbricated in places,

range in size from 5 mm to 0.5 m, and are matrix supported. The matrix comprises sandy and

silty material, derived principally from the Moina Sandstone.

 28

CHAPTER 5

1 SKARN PETROLOGY
II INTRODUCTION
When mapping it was essential to break down the metasomatised limestone (or skarn)

into units that were readily identifiable in the field. One of the aims of the project was to

complete maps of the area (of varying scale) using internally consistent nomenclature, and thus
)
the following mapping units were used as they had recently been defined in a I: 1000 scale

mapping project around the Stormont Mine area recently completed by R.G.C. Exp. Pty. Ltd.:

- Magnetite skarn: commonly exhibiting a "wrigglitic" texture, and containing

minor fluorite, pyrite and actinolite (Plate 13).

- Garnet actinolite skarn: usually red or brown euhedral garnets with voluminous

fibrous actinolite, with minor quartz and carbonate (Plates 14 and 20).

- Transitional skarn: highly silicious light green hornfelsic skarn containing a

variety of calc-silicates and sulphides.

) There are two schools of thought in skarn literature, one which emphasises the spatial

zonations in metasomatites, and the other which stresses the importance of temporal zonations

or sequences (Einaudi et. aI., 1981). The three skarns discussed here exhibit poor spatial

zonations "down-hole" and laterally. The reason for this poor spatial zonation is that the

limestone has been metasomatised along numerous fractures, resulting in the formation of

complex vein networks often in "stockwork" patterns, "wrigglite" textures (Plate 13), pods

and patches of an equilibrium mineral assemblage surrounded by a totally different assemblage

(plate 15) and generally a chaotic appearance.

At Fletcher's Adi!, in the drill core from FD 1, FD 6 and FD 9 especially, a very broad

vertical zonation can be recognised but cannot be consistently traced laterally to other nearby

drill-holes. This broad spatial zonation is as follows:

 29

TOP Light brown-yellow skarn with Gt>Act>Pyx, with common Mag + Cal
veins.
)

Green (Act>Pyx) and brown-red (andraditic Gt >>Cal+Qtz) uniformly banded,

and rarely veined skarn.
---------------------
Magnetite skarn, displaying very distorted banding (similar to "wrigglitic"
banding), vuggy calcite development and grades from massive to fmely banded
towards the top of the unit.

)
-------------------
Massive Gt>Act>Cal sleam, with minor veining and iron-rich garnets.
-------------------
Magnetite, garnet and actinolite in equal proportions, quartz-muscovite-pyrite
greisen veining, and some large pink carbonate veins (possibly due to a Mn
impurity, or intergrown K-feldspar).
--------------------
BOTTOM Silicious, dark green to black sleam containing abundant quartz-
muscovite-pyrite-chalcopyrite veins and disseminated sulphides increasing in
abundance towards the base.

Temporal zonations are much easier to identify and correlate extremely well between

the three skarns being studied. As a result this chapter will describe the skarn rock types in a
)
temporal sequence, starting from isochemical metamorphism then infiltration metasomatism

and fmishing with retrograde alteration. The sleam mineralogy paragenesis for Ti Tree Creek,

Fletcher's Adit and Stormont is shown in Tables 1,2 and 3 respectively. Associated

mineralization will be discussed in Chapters 6 and 8.

5.2 PETROLOGY
5.2.1 CONTACT METAMORPHISM
Evidence for contact metamorphism within the skarn itself is difficult to prove due to
J
extensive overprinting by later infiltration metasomatism. Wollastonite (CaSi03) is almost

certainly a product of contact metamorphism as patches of wollastonite from the "marble front"

in Sample N° 72893 [1] (from Fletcher's Adit) are not associated with any introduced silica in

the form of veins. The host limestone has enough silica in the form of chert bands and

disseminated clastic content (abundant in the basal portions) to enable wollastonite to form
)
without introduction of additional elements.
 30

)
TI TREE CREEK

PHASE

GARNET

) I QUARTZ
CALCITE

VESUVIANITE

EPIDOTE

ACTINOLITE

FLUORITE

BIOTITE

K-FELDSPAR

CHLORITE

1-----------
SCHEELITE

POWELLITE

MAGNETITE

PYRITE

NATIVE BISMUTH

BISMUTHINITE
) GALENOBISMUTITE

CHALCOPYRITE
~
HEMATITE
\mJ
GOETHITE + LIMONITE I
F
)

TABLE 1: Summary of the paragenesis of minerals identified in skarn lithologies at Ti Tree Creek. Dark
hatching indicates common minerals with a clear paragenetic position. Intennediate hatching indicates minor
phases. No hatching indicates an uncertain parageiletic pcsition, and/or very low abundances.
 FLETCHER'S ADIT
~- RETROGRADE ALTERATION - -...,.
PHASE CONTACT
METAMORPHISM
METASOMATISM ACTINOLITE
REPLACEMENT~ - MINERALIZATION -...,.
)
I
~
I I I
WOLLASTONITE
I I I I
CLINOPYROXENE I I I I
GARNET I I I I I
QUARTZ -JS'''~'ii§''''¥fui§SSSSS§;; §si ~~"i
CALCITE ~~~~~~ I I
) VESUVIANITE f'~~'Si I I I
EPIDOTE ~~~~ I I
~,,~ I I
ACTINOLITE
FLUORITE
I
I
~):#§*''<h'''''**~~
I I
I
I
I
APATITE
I I I I
ZOISITE
BIOTITE
I ®"'*\%j
I I
, I
I
I
I
CHLORITE I f&-.~~,~""%\~'~'§\,\\\,,,*,"$

GREEN MICA I I I I I I
I I I I
ALBITE
) ~"~\"""~
I I I
SERICITE I MUSCOVITE
I f'''''').\''''''''''''''''i''~»'''''*l
.... ---------_. I I I I
SCHEELITE I I I I I
POWELLITE I I I I I
MAGNETITE ~'*SS&,~~~W&"~

CASSITERITE b I I
PYRRHOTITE ~,'$I I
I I I
PYRITE
JS'-.~~"."~~''''~
MARCASITE
t I
I I
ARSENOPYRITE
I j I
NATIVE BISMUTH I I P'\'''''\'''l
SPHALERITE I I I
BISMUTHINITE j
I I •
Bi S.8 Te S 3.6
CHALCOPYRITE
I I ~I
I I -,....--
GOETHITE + LIMONITE
• • I I

TABLE 2: Summary of the paragenesis of minerals identified in skarn liihoIogies at FIetcher's AdiL Dark
hatching indicates common minerals with a clear paragenetic position. Intermediate hatching indicates minor
phases. No hatching indicates an uncertain paragcnetic position, and/or very low abundances.
 32

STORMONT
~_. RETROGRADE ALTERATION - -
l CONTACT METASOMATISM ACTINOLITE
PHASE
METAMORPffiSM REPLACEMENT~ - ' MINERALIZATION -

CLINOPYROXENE

GARNET
"'''""""""""""" """""'%
QUARTZ ~"~~'-'''\$~~\1.r..'''',",,,,,,",\l&..~''~''~~,'~,'~''~~

) I CALCITE ~""""""""'~~~"1!l- I I

RUTILE I , I I
I I I
SPHENE
I I I I
VESUVlANITE N:,~y~ I I

EPIDOTE
~~~i*-~"i :
ACTINOLITE f%."~~~ I
FLUORITE I~"~~

I I
I
BIOTITE
I I
)
I FELDSPAR ~'b.'''''~ I
CHLORITE
I I _
~~¥\~~
-------
SCHEELITE b,~,,'\,'%~'';'!
I I
POWELLITE 10,,~~~~

&-~~~,'&.~~~~~
MAGNETITE
I I
PYRRHOTITE
I I
PYRITE I I I
)
I NATIVE BISMUTH ~,~~
I I

CHALCOPYRITE I I I

BISMUTHINITE '3'1

I I
NATIVE GOLD I t§..~~''''J

HEMATITE
)
I GOETHITE + LIMONITE

TABLE 3: Summary of the paragenesis of minerals identified in skam lithologies at Stormont Dark
hatching indicates common minerals with a clear paragenetic position. Intermediate hatching indicates minor
phases. No hatching indicates an uncertain paragenetic position, andlor very low abundances.
 33

The reaction is: CaC03 + Si02 = CaSi03 + C02

[Deer et. al., 1980]

Clinopyroxene is abundant at Ti Tree Creek (with rocks containing up to 50%

clinopyroxene),less so at Fletcher's Adit and rare at Stormont (with a maximum modal

abundance <10%). This does not mean that when the skarns formed the abundances were any

different, but the amount of retrograQe alteration increases markedly towards the west, and

thus Stormont's clinopyroxene is almost completely broken down to form amphibole.

The clinopyroxene's chemistry allows that it may at least have been partially formed in

an isochemical system. Electron microprobe results for clinopyroxenes (from each deposit) are

shown in Appendix A but, in general clinopyroxenes from Ti Tree Creek are Mg-rich and Mn-

poor in comparison to the other two deposits, while those at Stormont have occasionally

anomalously high amounts of Mo. The clinopyroxenes show much less variation in

composition in comparison to the garnets which are strongly zoned and differ greatly between

deposits.

The salitic clinopyroxenes are generally low in Fe 2+ and Mn 2+ but high in MgZ+ This

can be explained by the isochemical growth of clinopyroxene in a limestone which has

sufficient Fe (Webb, 1974) and once contained zones of coarse grained dolomite, as indicated

by the presence of calc-silicate and calcite pseudomorphs of dolomite crystals. In Sample N°

73899 [21] (from Fletcher's Adit) large rhombs of dolomite have been pseudomorphed by

quartz and clinopyroxene (plate 16). Therefore it appears that the clinopyroxene "scavenged"

Mg from the dolomitic portions of the protolith through the reaction:

CaMg(COJh + 2Si02 = MgCaSiz06 + 2CQz

(Dolomite) (Diopside)

Additional evidence for the clinopyroxene being at least partially formed by contact

metamorphism is that the clinopyroxenes are not zoned, in contrast to the garnets which are

nearly always zoned in colour and composition. The zonation in the garnet can be attributed to

metasomatic fluids fluctuating in Fe, Ca, ± Ti, Mg, AI, Cr and Mo concentration (Figure 6),

but if the clinopyroxenes are also metasomatically derived why do they lack similar zonations?

In a metasomatic fluid which is co-crystallising garnets and clinopyroxenes, Fe can be

 34

partitioned into the garnet, which can explain the co-existing Fe-rich garnets and Mg-rich

clinopyroxenes but not the lack of chemical zonation.

In Sample N0 73924 [283] (from the Iris River area), clinopyroxene occupies areas

that once contained a calcareous (and probably dolomitic) matrix to a calcarenite (or dolo-

arenite). Its texture and location throughout this sample is totally umelated to fractures, unlike

the later zoned and obviously metasomatic chrome-rich grossular garnet, which also is hosted

in this rock type.

5.2.2 INFILTRATION METASOMATISM

Tables 1,2 and 3 summarise the paragenesis of the three skarns, but it must be noted

that the many textural interpretations needed to construct such tables are often open to debate

and thus these types of tables should always be viewed with some caution. For this reason

paragenetic relationships that are obvious are shown in different shades from those that are

more obscure.

Despite differences in mineral abundance, major calc-silicate compositions and the

occurrence of some minor phases, the paragenetic sequence of mineral growth in the three

skarns is nearly identical. The major difference between the three skarns is the degree of

retrograde alteration and type of mineralization.

5.2.2.1 Ti Tree Creek

Characteristic metasomatic textures seen at Ti Tree Creek include massive and

wrigglitic magnetite, granular garnet-pyroxene skarn, complexly veined pyroxene dominated

skarn, pervasive epidote retrograde alteration, and massive and fibrous actinolite-chlorite

retrograde alteration.

Ti Tree Creek contains more magnetite (both the massive and "wrigglitic" varieties)

than the other two deposits. An example of classic "wrigglite skarn" from the Shepherd and

Murphy deposit in the Moina district is shown in Plate 13. "Wrigglite" is a metasomatic

textural term which describes a distinctive rock type consisting of [me and usually contoned

bands of alternating fluorite <± other fluorine-bearing mineralogies) and iron-bearing

mineralogies (usually magnetite) or rarely berillium-rich minerals (Kwak and Askins, 1981a).
PLATE 9: A partially metasomatised and mineralised, echinoderm-bearing limestone
(Sample N0 73929 [302]). The light areas represent extremely fine-grained
quartz, pyrrhotite, and relict calcite grains. The dark area is the unreplaced J
limestone. Scale indicated by a 1i coin.

PLATE 10: A photomicrograph of a stalked echinoderm's monocrystalline arm plate,

hosted in the unmetasomatised limestone from plate 9 (Sample N0 73929
[302]). The dark patches in the centre of the arm plate are grains of pyrrhotite
infilling biogenic cavities. Transmitted plane light, stained section, long axis of
J
the plate = Imm, mag. l00x.

PLATE 11: An example of the silicified breccias and gravels known as "greybilly", from
the Stormont area Note the variation in clast size and general high angularity.
Clasts are derived principally from the Moina Sandstone. Scale is indicated by
the 15 cm long pencil.

PLATE 12: Quaternary alluvium and lacustrine sediments along the Iris River. The height
of the river bank is approximately 3m.

PLATE 13: A typical example of "wrigglite" skarn from the Shepherd and Murphy
prospect (Sample N0 73917 [150]). The light layers consist principally of
fluorite-actinolite, with many rarer F-bearing phases. The dark layers are
comprised primarily of magnetite. Scale is indicated by a 1i coin.

PLATE 14: Garnet-actinolite-calcite ± quartz skarn from Stormont (Sample N0 73925

[291]). Note the patchy nature of this lithology. Native bismuth and
bismuthinite occur in the permeable, actinolite-rich (green) areas. Coarse calcite
occurs interstitially to the red andradite garnets. Scale is indicated by a 1i coin.

PLATE 15: "Chaotic" garnet-actinolite-salite-calcite-quartz-magnetite skam from Fletcher's

Adit (FD 6 @ 24.8-24.95m). Note the variability of garnet colour from red to
cream, and the complexity of metasomatic textures. Scale as shown.

PLATE 16: A photomicrograph of a dolomite rhomb which has been pseudomorphed by

clinopyroxene and quartz, in fme-grained skarn which has not been affected by
retrograde alteration (Sample N° 73893 [21]). Transmitted plane light,long
axis of the plate = 0.25mm, mag. 4OOx.
_~J
 36

Kwak and Askins (l981a) suggest that granitic fluids must contain greater than 9 wt %

.! fluorine, and emanate from high level crustal intrusions of ilmenite series granitoids to

facilitate wrigglite formation.

Wrigglite forms from the movement of Fe, F, Si, Sn, Be and W-rich fluids through

areas of greatest permeability (mainly along fractures in the skarns at Moina), where

components in this fluid replace and diffuse into the calcareous host in response to activity and
)
diffusion gradients (Kwak and Askins, 1981a; 1981b). In the calcareous environment fluorine

is the first element to become supersaturated so that fluorite (and other F-bearing minerals such

as fluoro-vesuvianite, cuspidine, fluoro-margarite, fluoro-biotite and fluoro-tounnaline)

precipitates to form the first layer. The nucleation ofF-rich minerals to form the so-called

"light layer" drastically changes the chemistry of the remaining fluid. This residual fluid

continues to diffuse through the host until supersaturation (typically in iron) promotes the

nucleation of Fe-rich minerals (such as magnetite, pyrrhotite and pyrite) to fonn a "dark layer"

(Kwak and Askins, 1981a; 1981b). This process continues for many cycles until a rock such
)
as the one depicted in Plates 13 and 17 results.

It is significant that the quantity of wrigglitic magnetite decreases to the west, as Kwak

and Askins (1981b) conclude that the formation ofwrigglite skarn is promoted by high

temperature, boiling and saline solutions. Obviously the more distal the deposit, the more

likely that temperature and salinity will decrease. The decrease in quantity of magnetite (and

overall iron content) to the west is likely also to be a function of granite-to-prospect distance,

as the further the granitic fluids have to travel' the lower their ability to transport iron

complexes.

The proportion of fine grained pyroxene dominant skarn is the highest at Ti Tree Creek

compared to the other two skarns. This is more likely to be a function of the lesser amounts of

retrograde alteration (which increases to the west) than original pyroxene formation.

In the Ti Tree Creek area, the calcarenites immediately below the skarn can be seen to

contain up to 4 modal percent apple-green coloured, zoned and occasionally sector-twinned

Cr-rich grossular garnets (Sample N0 73924 [283]). The garnet can be seen to be intimately
 37

associated with fractures and is later than the laths of clinopyroxene which make up
~! approximately 35-45 modal % of this metasomatised calcarenite.

These ugrandites (uvarovite-grossular-andradite series) contain approximately 20-30

mole % uvarovite, 40-60 mole % grossular, 10-20 mole % andradite and 2-4 mole %

pyralspite (pyrope-almandine-spessartine series) (Appendix A). The core and rim

compositions have been plotted on a ternary graph in Figure 5. From core to rim the grossular
)
mole % decreases substantially, while the uvarovite/andradite ratio only decreases slightly.

Additionally, the mole % pyralspite decreases by a factor of =2.3 from core to rim (Appendix

A).

In the coarse grained garnet-pyroxene-magnetite skarn at Ti Tree Creek (Sample N°

73935 [317]) the garnets show a very interesting zonation in colour and isotropy. There are

two distinctly different types of garnet present, which are:

1) A canary yellow, isotropic variety which comprises the cores of the large euhedral

garnets, as well as thin bands situated approximately halfway between the rim and the core
,J (Plate 18).

2) A creamy brown, anisotropic and sector-twinned variety, which comprises the

majority of the rims of the large garnets.

An electron microprobe analytical traverse was performed across a garnet showing the same

zonation as the one in Plate 18, and the results are plotted in Figure 6c:The canary yellow,

isotropic garnet is approximately 98 mole % andradite, while the creamy brown, anisotropic

garnet is 40-50 mole % grossular. The mole percent of pyralspite fluctuates between 2 and 3.5

mole %, with the near-pure andradite having a smaller pyralspite component. The conclusion

that can be gained from Figure 6c is that the iron content is fluctuating enormously during the

growth of these garnets and surprisingly the first garnets to form are Fe-rich.

Why the andradites are isotropic while the grossulars are anisotropic is problematical,

largely because variations in isotropy are at present poorly understood. A possible explanation

may be that the anisotropic garnets represent garnets that have grown at a faster rate than the
) isotropic ones, and thus have been able to incorporate elements into their lattice that are the
 38

wrong size and/or charge (such as Ti, Al and Mn which are enriched in the grossular-rich,

anisotropic garnets).

The coarse grained garnet-pyroxene-magnetite skarn at Ti Tree Creek also has a very

high pyroxene/garnet ratio (approximately 60:40), in comparison with Fletcher's Adit

(approximately 80:20), which indicates one of three possibilities:

1) that the protolith at Ti Tree Creek had a higher Mg content (Le. there was more Mg

available to crystallise metamorphic salites)

2) that Ti Tree Creek is either more distal to the granite than Fletcher's Adit (as

garnetiferous skarn is usually positioned proximal to the granitoid while pyroxene dominated

skarn forms at a more distal position) or, more likely comma the fluids at Ti Tree Creek were

at a lower temperature

3) that the metasomatising fluids at Ti Tree Creek were simply Mg-enriched in

comparison to those forming the skarn at Fletcher's Adit (Le. there was more Mg available to

crystallise metasomatic salites).

The composition of garnets from Ti Tree Creek (Sample N° 73935 [317]) have been

plotted on a pyralspite-andradite-grossular ternary diagram (Figure 7). The compositions of

garnets from Ti Tree Creek are extremely varied in comparison with examples from the other

three skarn deposits, ranging from nearly pure andradite to equal amounts of grossular and

andradite. The iron-rich garnets do not plot in the fields defmed by Meinert (1989) for gold

skarns or copper skarns. However these garnet compositions are consistent with those from

British Columbian iron skarns such as Iron Hill (Meinert, 1984).

Clinopyroxene compositions from Ti Tree Creek (Sample N° 73935 [317]) have been

plotted on a diopside-hedenbergite-johannsenite ternary diagram (Figure 8). The Ti Tree Creek

salites are very consistent in composition, being approximately 80 mole % diopside, 18 mole

% hedenbergite and 2 mole % johannsenite. These compositions plot within the gold and

copper skarn fields (Figure 8) and also the iron skarn field (Meinert, 1984). Thus, the only

class of skarn that has similar garnet and clinopyroxene compositions to those at Ti Tree Creek

is an iron skarn.
 39

UVAROVITE
+ RIM
o CORE

+
o

GR055ULAR ANDRADITE

er RICH GROSSULAR

FIGURE 5: Electron microprobe analysis (mole %) of the core and rim of a zoned, green, Cr-rich,
grossular garnet from the Iris River area.

)
 40

GARNET 331 , :I b) GARNET 214 \ c)

GARNET 317
a) 48 20 I 1 50
I
er.: 46 er.: 40
er.:
<
...:l
< <
...:l
;J
VJ
44 ;J
VJ
;5
VJ
30
VJ VJ 10 VJ
0 0
er.: 42 er.: ~ 20

)
"
~ 40 ~ "
~
"'--­ "
~ 10

38 [ [ , [ . , . T----'
0' I . I . , . I ,
0
CORE 2 3 RIM CORE 2 3 RIM CORE 2 3 RIM
LOCATION LOCATION LOCATION

GARNET 331 GARNET 214 GARNET 317

60 100 I I 100

58 90

)
-
,...
"'Q"
<
er.: 54
Q
56
-
,...
"'Q"
<
er.: 90
"'Qt::"
<
er.: 70
80

Q Q
Z Z Z
< 52 < < 60
~ ~ ~
50 50

48 80 40
CORE 2 3 RIM CORE 2 3 RIM CORE 2 3 RIM
LOCATION LOCATION LOCATION

GARNET 331 GARNET 214 GARNET 317

51 I 1.71 I 4
)

-
,...
"'"
c.
VJ
...:l
<
4
-
,...
"'"
c.
VJ
...:l
< 1.5
1.6
-
,...
"'"
c.
VJ
...:l
<
3

er.: er.: er.:

>c 3 >c >c
c. c. c. 2

)
~ ~ 1.4
~ ~

2'
, , , . . . , , ,. 1.3 ' I , , , , , , ,
1
CORE 2 3 RIM .s-....... 'I
,­ CORE 2 3 RIM CORE 2 3 RIM
LOCATION LOCATION LOCATION

FIGURE 6: Electron microprobe core 10 rim analysis (mole %) of garnets from a)Slonnonl, b)Flelcher's

AWL and c)Ti Tree Creek.

 41
PYRALSPITE
TI TREE CREEK
+
D FLETCHER'S ADIT
o
STORMONT

Cu and Zn skarn freId

GOLD SKARN FIELD

GROSSULAR ANDRADITE

GARNETS FROM THE MOINA AREA

FIGURE 7: Electron microprobe analysis (mole %) of garnets from Stormont, Flereher's Adit and Ti Tree
Creek. Fields for gold, copper and zinc skarns are included (from Meinert, 1989, p. 544). Grossular =
Ca3Al2Si3012, andradite = Ca3F~Si3012, and pyralspite = (Mg,Mn,Fe)3Al2Si3012.

JOHANNSENITE
+ TI TREE CREEK
D FLETCHER'S ADIT
o
STORMONT

Cu skam field

GOLD SKARN FIELD

DIOPSIDE HEDENBERGITE

CLlNOPYROXENES FROM THE MOINA AREA

FIGURE 8: Electron microprobe analysis (mole %) of clinopyroxenes from Stormont, Fletcher's Adit and
Ti Tree Creek. Fields for gold and copper skarns are included (from Meinert, 1989. p. 544). Diopside =
CaMgSi206. hedenbergite = CaFeSi206. and johannsenite ~ CaMnSi206.
 42

5.2.2.2 Fletcher's Adit

) Fletcher's Adit has an enonnous number of complex texmres and mineral

assemblages. The skarn's appearance is "chaotic", as it consists of ovoid patches, lenses,

laminae, swirls and concentric bands of a variety of mineral assemblages. The dominan t

minerals at Fletcher's Adit are garnet .cwhich ranges in colour from light cream to dark brown

and deep red), actinolite, magnetite (massive and wrigglitic), epidote, pyroxene and massive to
") finely laminated sulphides. Table 2 summarises the paragenesis of all the minerals identified at

Fletcher's Adit.

In the coarse grained garnet-pyroxene-quartz-calcite-actinolite-magnetite skarn at

Fletcher's Adit, garnets are up to 12 mm in diameter (Sample N0 73920 [214)) and are

euhedral when crystalising against calcite or quartz and subhedral when crystallising against

other garnets. Retrograde alteration is restricted to the salites, and is more pronounced here

than at Ti Tree Creek.

The garnets from Fletcher's Adit show the sarne trends as those at Ti Tree Creek, in
:J that they have isotropic cores and anisotropic rims. In addition to the zonation of anisotropy,

there is a zonation in the amount of salite inclusions in the garnet. The isotropic cores have

only minor clinopyroxene inclusions and zoning is not obvious. The anisotropic garnets which

comprise the rims have an abundance of clinopyroxene inclusions as well as obvious,

narrowly spaced bands of alternating colour and chemical composition. These observations are

consistent with the hypothesis that the anisotropic garnet represents a rapid growth period.

A core-to-rim compositional traverse of a garnet that shows the type of zonation

described above is shown in Figure 6b. The gamet overall is andraditic in composition,
o varying from approximately 94 to 97 mole % andradite. The isotropic core corresponds to an

extremely Fe-rich andradite, while the rim represents a grossular enriched andradite. Thus, in

a similar fashion to the Ti Tree Creek garnets, it is the grossular enriched andradite that is

responsible for the anisotropism.

The mole percentage of pyralspite is less than half the value seen at Ti Tree Creek and

<0 Stonnont (Figure 6). The mole percentage of pyralspite in garnets from Fletcher's Adit shows
 43

a sympathetic relationship with the grossular mole percentage and an antipathic relationship to

the andradite mole percentage.

:J
The analysis by electronprobe of the compositions of garnets from FIetcher's Adit that

were analysed by electron microprobe are plotted in Figure 7. These compositions can be seen

to be consistently and extremely iron-rich and are lower in Mn, FeZ+ and Mg in comparison to

garnets from the other two deposits. The garnet compositions for FIetcher's Adit plot mostly
n outside the fields defined by Meinert (1989) for gold, zinc and copper skarns, and do not

resemble compositions found in Canadian iron skarns (Meinert, 1984).

Clinopyroxenes from FIetcher's Adit are salitic in composition and are distinct from

those at Ti Tree Creek and Stormont, in that they are very low in aluminium (Appendix A).

The compositions of four clinopyroxenes from this sample are plotted in Figure 8. From this

ternary diagram, the salites from FIetcher's Adit can be seen to be lower in Mg, higher in Mn

and higher in Fez+ than those at Ti Tree Creek. The only significant difference between the

pyroxene compositions at FIeteher's Adit and those at Stormont is the occasionally

\]
anomalously high johannsenite mole percentage in pyroxenes from Stormont.

From the salite compositions plotted in Figure 8, it seems unlikely that FIetcher's Adit

is a copper skarn. Although these compositions do plot within the gold skarn field the

clinopyroxenes contain virtually no Alz0:3, which is totally uncharacteristic of gold skarns.

The clinopyroxene compositions at FIetcher's Adit do not resemble those found in iron skarns

either (Meinert, 1984) which raises the question: What class of skarn is Fletcher's Adit? This

question is made harder to answer by the fact that FIetcher's Adit is a very low grade,

polymetallic deposit, making classification by metal content inconclusive. The most probable
)
answer is that FIetcher's Adit is a very low grade copper or iron skarn that has had its fluids

modified by wall-rock reactions, so that fluid compositions differed from those which

rnineralized/metasomatised high grade Cu and Fe skarns. This could account for the slightly

atypical calc-silicate compositions and low metal grades, and the unusual combination of

metals at FIetcher's Adit compared with the classic exarnples.

 44

5.2.2.3 Stormont
The early metasomatic stage of Stormont's paragenesis is difficult to characterise

because of extensive retrograde alteration and late stage leaching. Clinopyroxenes are relatively

rare, with fresh, large and euhedral clinopyroxenes being virtually non-existent. The skarn at

Stormont displays many "chaotic" textures that are similar to Fletcher's Adit, such as: ovoid

pods, irregular laminae and bands of cream, brown and red garnet, massive actinolite and

epidote alteration, and oxidised leached zones. The main differences between the two deposits

are that Stormont has less garnet, more actinolite, more cWorite and epidote alteration, more

numerous and extensive leached zones, and very little base metal sulphides, but has an

elevated abundance of visible bismuth minerals and has minor sphene and rutile.

Plate 14 is an example of the ore-bearing skarn at Stormont, consisting of dark brown

to red garnets, fibrous to coarsely crystalline actinolite, coarse grained calcite and some quartz

that is inter-granular to the garnet, and often native bismuth and bismuthinite grains are

present. Stormont does contain most of the features that characterise the skarns to the east,

i.e. wrigglitic magnetite, garnet dominated zones, base metal sulphides and "stockwork" vein

networks, but in lesser proportions.

The least altered skarn at Stormont consists of garnet, clinopyroxene, clear vesuvianite

and the retrograde assemblage actinolite-quartz-calcite-opaques (Sample N° 73942 [331]). The

garnets here are yellow to light brown, zoned, euhedralto subhedral and relatively small

(being on average 0.6 mm in diameter). Clinopyroxenes are included in the cores of garnets

and occasionally in the rims, but rarely in between. Clinopyroxenes in the cores seem more

susceptible to retrograde alteration, possibly implying a different composition to the later

clinopyroxenes. These two generations represent an early metamorphic and a later metasomatic

population.

Clear vesuvianite is included in the rims of the larger garnets implying a relatively early

paragenetic position. In areas interstitial to garnet masses, clinopyroxene can be seen to be

breaking down to actinolite-calcite-quartz and opaques. Maximum salite/actinolite ratios are in

the order of 30:70.

 45

The textures and mineral relationships of the early fonned minerals at Stonnont are

almost identical to those at Ti Tree Creek and Fletcher's Adit, but are overprinted in most cases

by extensive and pervasive retrograde alteration. For example, in areas interstitial to garnet

clusters at Ti Tree Creek, the skarn would usually consist of granular clinopyroxenes with

minor quartz and calcite, but at Stonnont these areas are usually represented by just fibrous or

crystalline actinolite (plate 20), or occasionally by actinolite with clinopyroxene relicts.

Stonnont also commonly contains garnets that have corroded margins and atoll textures,

which are textures not present at Ti Tree Creek or Fletcher's Adit.

Electron microprobe analyses of garnets from Stonnont are given in Appendix A. The

compositions obtained from a core-rim traverse across a zoned garnet from Stonnont are

plotted in Figure 6c. This single traverse shows a very different garnet composition trend in

comparison with Ti Tree Creek and Fleteher's Adit. The garnet at Stonnont is of andradite

composition, but is much less iron-rich (being =49-60 mole % andradite) in comparison with

the other two deposits that have andradite mole percentages in the high nineties. From core to

rim the grossular mole percentage drops overall instead of rising, although it does fluctuate

nearer the rim.

Similarities between Stonnont and the other two deposits include an antipathic

relationship between the andradite and grossular mole percentage, as well as the high similarity

of the pyraIspite mole percentage trend to that seen at Fletcher's Adit despite the differences in

AI and Fe 3+ zonation (Figures 6a and 6b). The pyraIspite mole % is much higher than the

garnets from Fletcher's Adit and on average higher than those at Ti Tree Creek. The

sympathetic relationship between the grossular and pyraIspite mole percentages is less

pronounced at Stonnont than at the other two deposits.

Six garnet compositions have been plotted on a grossular-andradite-pyralspite ternary

diagram (Figure 7). As with garnets from the other two deposits the Stonnont examples

belong to the grandite series, having only minimal pyraIspite content. Six garnet compositions

from Stonnont plot in the centre of the gold skarn field and are more grossular-rich than most

of the garnet compositions from the other deposits except for one microprobe analysis from a

garnet from Ti Tree Creek (Figure 7).

 46

The clinopyroxene compositions (Appendix A) indicate that Stormont's pyroxenes are

salites, but vary greatly in Mn content. The AlZ03 content ofpyroxenes at Stormont is

generally much higher than at Fletcher's Adit, but lower than at Ti Tree Creek. The ternary

diagram for clinopyroxene compositions in Figure 8 indicates that salites at Stormont contain

Mg:FeZ+ ratios that are similar to those at Fletcher's Adit and lower than those at Ti Tree
-"
Creek.

The unusual feature of clinopyroxene compositions at Stormont is the Mn content, or

johannsenite mole percentage (Figure 8). Three out of five analyses have a Mn content that is

similar to those reported for gold skams; one is fractionally high and the remaining one

contains more than three times the accepted levels of Mn concentration. Manganese

concentration in pyroxenes is an indicator of a distal position in a skam forming system, and

therefore the clinopyroxene compositions shown in Figure 8 are consistent with the hypothesis

that Stormont is the most distal of the skams in the Moina area. As well as the Mn content of

pyroxenes rising as the granite-to-prospect distance increases, the FeZ+/Mg ratio is known to

increase also (Meinert, 1987). Stormont clinopyroxenes do show a FeZ+/Mg enrichment with

distance from the granite in comparison to those at Ti Tree Creek. However, Stormom

clinopyroxene cannot be distinguished from that at Fletcher's Adit.

At Stormont some of the epidote displays inclusion relationships that imlicate that at

some time gamet and epidote were co-precipitating (Sample NO 73940 [329]). Typically gamet

breaks down to epidote and other minor retrograde phases such as calcite, quartz and

magnetite (plate 21), but occasionally euhedrallaths of epidote are included in the rims of sub

to euhedral gamets (plate 22).

Appendix B contains descriptions of thin sections representing the major types and

styles of metasomatic rocks in the Moina area.

5.2.3 RETROGRADE ALTERATION

Minerals associated with retrograde alteration include actinolite, epidote, fluorite,

biotite, K-feldspar, zoisite, apatite, green mica (possibly fucsite), sericite/muscovite,

magnetite, quartz, calcite and chlorite. Opaque mineralogies will be discussed in Chapter 5.
 47

Retrograde alteration increases in intensity towards the west, which may be a function of

granite-to-prospect distance, fluid access, skarn permeability, the creation of a convecting

meteoric water cell or the abundance of easily altered minerals (such as clinopyroxene). The

major retrograde minerals and textures are consistent over the three skarns involved in this

study and will be discussed in paragenetic order.

The earliest retrograde reactions form epidote and actinolite. Actinolite is produced

J from the breakdown of clinopyroxene and epidote from garnet. Euhedral epidotes are pre-,

syn- and (very rarely) post-actinolite (using inclusion and textural relationships as evidence)

but are generally less abundant than actinolite, due to the pyroxenes breaking down much

more readily than the garnets during the retrograde alteration phase.

Actinolite first develops as small fibres rimming tabular salite crystals (Plate 23), then

as pseudomorphs of salite crystals (plate 22) and finally as the pyroxene-dominated zones

become increasingly altered the actinolite becomes coarsely fibrous (Plate 14) or crystalline

(Plate 20). During the last stages of this sequence, the actinolite replacement may become so

) intense that no pre-retrograde textures are preserved. The equation governing the breakdown

of salite to actinolite is:

5Ca(Mg,Fe2+)Si206 + 3C02 + H20 = Ca2(Mg,Fe2+)sSig022(OHh + 3CaC03 + 2Si02

[Salite] [Actinolite] [Calcite] [Quartz]

(Modified from Deer et. aI., 1980).

Actinolites from all three deposits have been analysed using the electron microprobe

(Appendix A). All arnphiboles analysed, except one from Stormont, are within the

compositional range of actinolites, having values for [100Mg/(Mg+Fe+2+Fe+3+Mn)] between

_J 20 and 42. The amphibole from Stormont had a [100Mg/(Mg+Fe+2+Fe+3+Mn)] value of 18

and is therefore classed as a ferro-actinolite (Deer et. al., 1980).

Amphibole compositions have been plotted on Mg-Fe-Mn and Mg-Fe-Alternary

diagrams in Figures 9 and 10, respectively. Actinolites from all three deposits are similar in Al

and Mn content, with a single sample from Stormont being slightly enriched in AI. The most

)
obvious trend is an increase in Fe2+:Mg ratios from Fletcher's Adit to Ti Tree Creek to
 48

Stonnont. The reason for this compositional variation is not obvious as the Fe2+:Mg ratios of

salites from the three deposits increase from Ti Tree Creek to Stonnont then to Fletcher's Adit.

There is a distinct lack of amphibole compositional data from skarn deposits. which

makes comparisons between different classes difficult Nevertheless the actinolites from

Moina show no compositional resemblance to actinolites from Au-rich copper skarns (Figure

10), and are not as aluminous as amphiboles from high grade gold skarns (Meinert, 1989).

Epidote is more common at Stonnont, due to a greater intensity of retrograde alteration

being required to start to break down the garnets (in comparison to only small amounts of

lower temperature fluid activity being required to alter clinopyroxene to actinolite). Given the

paragenetic position of epidote at Stonnont, the most likely reactions for the breakdown of

grandite to epidote is:

3Ca3(Fe+3,AlhSi3012 + 7C02 + H20 =

[Grandite garnet]
2CaFe+3AI20.0H(Si207)(Si04) + 7CaC03 + 3SiOz + Oz
[Epidote]
[From equations synthesised from Bennan et. al.'s (1988) "Geo-calc" program].

The above retrograde reaction occurs as epidote rimming and replacing grandite garnets (Plate

21), and areas of large (up to 12 mm in length) epidotes containing small embayed relicts of

garnet.

Large euhedral epidotes are commonly zoned and are pre-actinolite development (Plate

24). An electron microprobe traverse (Appendix A) of one of the zoned epidotes from

Stonnont (plate 24) is shown in Figure 11. The amount of AI and Fe+ 3 substitution in

epidotes is measured by the percentage of pistacite (ps = 100Fe+3j[Fe+3 + Al]). Pistacite is a

theoretical Fe-rich end member (Ca2Al2FeSi3012[OH]) of the epidote family. Although some

confusion exists in the nomenclature of epidote, it is generally accepted that epidote contains

15-33 mole % pistacite (Deer et. al, 1978). Mole % pistacite increases from 23.7 at the core to

27.1 at the rim for epidote from Stonnont (Figure 11). Thus, this epidote is becoming

progressively more iron-rich as it continues to crystallise. This trend indicates that the fluid

composition is progressively becoming more Fe-rich with time.

PLATE 17: A photomicrograph of "wrigglite" skam from Fletcher's Adit (Sample N°
73898 [20]). Light layers are chlorite-actinolite-fluorite, while the dark layers
consist of magnetite-pyrrhotite-pyrite. Transmitted plane light, long axis of the
plate = 4mm, mag. 25x.

PLATE 18: A photomicrograph of a zoned andradite garnet from Ti Tree Creek (Sample N°
73935 [317]). The yellow core .of this garnet (and one band towards the top of
the plate) is isotopic and andradite-rich. The cream portions of this garnet are
anisotropic and are grossular enriched. Transmitted plane light, long axis of the ")
plate = 2mm, mag. 50x.

PLATE 19: A photomicrograph of two green uvarovite garnets hosted in footwall calc
arenites at Fletcher's Adit (Sample N° 73904 [28]). Note the inclusions of
small salite crystals in the core of the garnet on the left hand side of the plate.
Transmitted plane light, long axis of the plate = 2mm, mag. 50x.

PLATE 20: Crystalline and fibrous actinolite amongst euhedral andradite garnets and
calcite, from Stormont (Sample N° 73925 [291]). Scale is indicated by a lit
coin.

PLATE 21: A photomicrograph of an anisotropic, zoned, andradite garnet being replaced

by epidote, as a result of the intense retrograde alteration phase of skarn
development present at Stormont (Sample N° 73939 [326]). Transmitted
polarized light, long axis of the plate = 1mm, mag. 100x.

PLATE 22: A photomicrograph of an embayed andradite garnet with an included, large,

euhedral epidote (Sample N° 73940 [329]). Note also the two included,
tabular, clinopyroxene pseudomorphs (now actinolite, quartz and calcite), and
the rim of retrograde quartz around the garnet in the lower right hand corner of
the plate. Transmitted plane light, long axis of the plate = 1mm, mag. 100x. ~

PLATE 23: A photomicrograph of a salitic clinopyroxene being broken down to form

actinolite, quartz and calcite (Sample N° 73920 [214]). Note the presence of
dissemin,ted magnetite in association with actinolite. Transmitted plane light,
long axis of the plate = 2mm, mag. 50x.

PLATE 24: A photomicrograph of zoned euhedral epidote crystals from Stormont (Sample
J
N° 73938 [325]). These large epidotes pre-date the fibrous actinolite.
Transmitted polarized light, long axis of the plate = 4mm, mag. 25x.
 Mn 50
+ TI TREE CREEK
o FLETCHER'S ADIT
o STORMONT
)

Whitehorse Copper Belt

(Au-rich copper skarns)

~-

Cl" +0dJ)
"

Mg Fe

AMPHIBOLES FROM THE MOINA AREA

FIGURE 9: Electron microprobe analysis (Mg vs Fe vs Mn) of amphiboles from Stormont, Fleteher's
Adit and Ti Tree Creek, The Whitehorse Copper Belt's field has been constructed from data in Meinert, 1986,

AI
+ TI TREE CREEK
o FLETCHER'S ADIT
o STORMONT

Whitehorse Copper Belt

(Au-rich copper skarns)

... ------- o
"fit, +06'
Mg Fe

AMPHIBOLES FROM THE MOINA AREA

FIGURE 10: Electron microprobe analysis (Mg vs Fe vs AI) of amphiboles from Stormont, Fleteher's
Adit and Ti Tree Creek. The Whitehorse copper belt's field has been constructed from data in Meinert, 1986.
 51

Shortly following the growth of epidote, a phase involving abundant magnetite is

) formed. Magnetite is stable over much of the retrograde alteration stage (Tables I, 2 and 3).

Magnetite occurs as disseminations and is commonly intimately associated with actinolite.

After epidote and actinolite have incorporated as much of the iron released from the breakdown

of the salites and grandites as possible, magnetite appears to be the retrograde mineral that

incorporates the excess Fe (Fe2+ and Fe3+). Magnetite also exists as wrigglite skarn with
) fluorite, actinolite and chlorite (plate 17). Wrigglitic magnetite occurs after the disseminated

magnetite and usually just before (or occasionally with) the start of the Fe-sulphide

mineralization phase.

Fluorite is common in all three skarns. Fluorite occurs as the dominant constituent of

, veins containing sulphides (plate 29), as granular fluorite-epidote-actinolite-magnetite

retrograde skarn, as the light bands in wrigglite skarn, and as coarse green crystals in quartz-

muscovite-fluorite greisen veins (Plate 25).

Chlorite occurs as chlorite-calcite veins and as an alteration product of actinolite and

) epidote. The chorite that occurs in late stage veins is commonly Mg-rich. The transition of

epidote and actinolite to chlorite coincides with the change from the epidote-amphibolite facies

to greenschist facies. The equation is as follows:

3(Mg,Fe)SAI2Si30lO(OH)g + IOCaC03 + 21Si02 =

[Chlorite]
2Ca2AI3Si3012(OH) + 3Ca2(Mg,Fe)SSig022 + IOC02 + 8H20
[Clinozoisite] [Actinolite]

(Deer et. al., 1980).

Minor retrograde phases include:

.) - boitite (which is commonly chloritised)
- a green mica (which is possibly fucsite and which forms tabular crystals and is
associated with fluorite and actinolite)
- apatite (which occurs as small laths associated with quartz and fluorite)
- zoisite (which is intimately associated with actinolite and epidote)
- K-feldspar (which occurs as late stage veins and usually is pink in colour possibly
due to disseminations of hematite).
 52

5.2.3.1 Veining
Veining is common in all three deposits, especially towards the base of the skarn. The
1
majority of veins are orientated horizontally implying significant lateral movement of fluids.

Lateral movement of late hydrothennal fluids was likely to have been promoted by the

presence of relatively impenneable garnet and pyroxene skarn. The fractures that the veins

infill may be either joints and small fractures that have retained their fracture penneability

) throughout the skarn forming process, or more likely are fractures produced by volume

changes during the early stages of metasomatism.

Veining occurs throughout the entire paragenesis but is concentrated (or simply best

preserved) during the retrograde alteration stage. Early garnet-quartz-calcite veins and late

chlorite-calcite veins are rare, unlike the fluorite-feldspar-quartz-opaques, fluorite-muscovite-

quartz-magnetite or epidote-fluorite-quartz-actinolite veins which represent the "actinolite

replacement" stage of the paragenesis (Tables 1,2 and 3). Quartz-muscovite-fluorite-opaques

greisen veins are very abundant beneath the skarns (plate 25) and often are surrounded by a

)
halo of disseminated magnetite.

Very late stage leaching and oxidation of the skarn is nonnally restricted to intensely

jointed and faulted areas (Plates 26 and 27). In these areas limonite (especially goethite) is

widespread. The leaching of actinolite firstly results in the fonnation of a brown amorphous

mixture of calcite, magnetite and silica. As oxidation continues this magnetite convens to

hematite and fmally to goethite, to give the skarn an orange colouration (plate 26).

Appendix B contains descriptions of thin sections representing the major types and

styles ofretrograde alteration and vein zonations.

.J

5.3 DISCUSSION
Metamorphic, metasomatic and retrograde rock types from all three skarns indicate the

major calc-silicate phases are similar petrographically and occur in similar paragenetic

sequences. Compositional differences occur in the metasomatic and retrograde phases, where

the garnet, clinopyroxene and amphiboles from the three deposits can be seen to differ in
 53

chemistry. The degree of retrograde alteration, mole % grossular in garnet and mole %

johannsenite in clinopyroxene increases westWards.

The difference in clinopyroxene, arnphibole and garnet compositions from the three

deposits is highly significant in the classification of skarn deposits. Differences in the intensity

of retrograde alteration are important for the style, type and grades of mineralization, due to the
~.

increase in permeability as retrograde alteration continues.

From reactions identified in each skarn's paragenesis (such as salite to actinolite and

calcite to wollastonite), temperature estimates can be made by using internally consistent

experimental data (such as Powell and Holland, 1988) or by comparison with skarn studies

which utilise fluid inclusions and stable isotope geothermometry (such as Kwak and Askins,

1981a; 1981b).

To obtain a temperature estimate via the above methods, first! y an approximate

pressure must be obtained. The skarns from the Moina area are hosted in Middle Ordovician

sediments and were formed in the Late Devonian; therefore the only sediments that could have

been stratigraphically above the Gordon Limestone during metasomatism are Eldon Group

correlates. There are no Siluro-Devonian sediments in the Moina area now but thicknesses of a

couple of kilometres most probably were present, as the DoIcoath Granite could not have

intruded to extremely shallow levels without exploding (R.F.Berry, pers. comm., 1990).

Kwak and Askins (1981a) tentatively suggest intrusion depths for the Dolcoath Granite of <3

km. Thus, confining pressures of 0.5 to 1 kb would seem reasonable.

The activity of CO2 also strongly affects the construction of phase diagrams involving

metasomatic phases associated with skarns. Workers in the field of skarn research assume

very low values for XC02, usually 0.1 (Einaudi et. al., 198 I).

Figure 12 displays the fields for contact metamorphism. The existence of wollastonite

at Fletcher's Adit supports a hornblende-hornfels contact metamorphic facies. The formation

of wollastonite from calcite and quartz is:

CaC03 + Si02 = CaSi03 + C02

 54

This reaction occurs at =610 CC at 0.5 kb (Turner, 1981) which is in the high temperature

region of the hornblende-hornfels facies stability field. This field can be seen to have an upper

temperature limit of =630 QC at 0.5 kb (Figure 12).

The metamorphic crystallisation of Mg-rich clinopyroxene from dolomite and quartz at

O.S kb occurs at =490 0C (Turner, 1981). The equation for this reaction is:

CaMg(C0:3h + 2Si02 = CaMgSi206 + 2CQz

(Dolomite) (Diopside)

The andradite-salite assemblage that characterises the early metasomatic stage of all

three skarns is typical of the hornblende-hornfels facies temperatures and pressures (3S0-

600°C at O.S kb) (Webb, 1974). Kwak and Tan (1981), Shoj (1971) and Zharikov (1968)

give optimal temperatures for the stability of andradite and diopside in skarns as

approximately 5S0°C. Vesuvianite has been reported by Shoji (1971) and Sobelov (1972) to

be stable at approximately S(}()Oc.

Epidote can exist from 200-6(}()OC but its optimal temperature of formation in epidote

skarns is 300-S0QOC (Sobelov, 1972). Since some of the epidote can be seen to co-precipitate

with the grandite and by far the majority of the epidote is pre-actinolite, temperatures are most

likely to have been approximately 500°C.

The retrograde alteration of salite to actinolite occurs' when water starts to enter the

system and temperatures are less than 55QOC (Turner, 1981; Kwak and Tan, 1981; Taylor and

O'Neill, 1977). Actinolite can still be produced at temperatures down to 4000C, which

accounts for the abundance of actinolite in a later paragenetic position than epidote.The

formation of muscovite (or sericite) in the late greisen veins most likely occurred at

temperatures in the range of 300-4(}()OC, based on associated iron sulphide/oxide stabilities

and optimal temperature as ranges defmed by Sobelov (1972).

An fQz-temperature phase diagram, at 0.5 kb of fluid pressure and XC02 = 0.1, for
the system Ca-Fe-Si-C-O-H is given in Figure 13. The paragenesis of the earliest minerals

formed in the Moina district (Le. wollastonite, grandite, salite, quartz, calcite and magnetite) is

represented by the bold arrow. The stable temperatures indicated in this diagram for each

assemblage conform with those given above.

 ss

From Figure 13 it can be seen that f02 decreases with temperature (at least during the

early stages of metasomatism) from approximately 1O-Z3 to 1O-Z6 over the fIrst lO00C drop in

temperature. An attempt was made to improve on Figure 13, by constructing aT -£Oz diagram

for P = 0.5 kb, XCOz = 0.1 but using the system Mg-Fe-Ca-Si-C-O-H, and considering the

additional phases actinolite, epidote and grossular. The phase diagram was constructed using

the PowelJ. and Holland (1988) data base and the Berrnan et. al. (1988) "Geo-calc" program.

Unfortunately the program appears to have difficulty in computing these compositions at such

low oxygen activities. Nevertheless Figure 14 supports the notion that as temperature

declined, the oxygen fugacity also declined. There are eleven possible metasomatic reactions

that follow this trend defining a fIeld where the fluid was most likely to be evolving (see

Figure 14 for this field's position in T-£Oz space).

The rationale for constraining the skam forming fluid's chemical evolution with time

is that the retrograde stage includes the mineralization stage. By understanding how the

metasomatic, retrograde and mineralizing fluids (Chapter 6) change in chemistry with time,

hypothesises can be synthesised concerning why Storrnont is a gold-bearing skarn in a tin-

tungsten skarn forming granite system (Chapter 12).

 56

EPIDOTE
')
28

27
t;;l

-....<
U 26
....
r.n
~. 25
0
~
24

23
CORE 2 3 RIM
LOCATION

FIGURE 11: Electron microprobe core to rim analysis (mole % pis tacite) of a zoned epidote from

Stormon~ % pistacite = 100Fe3 +/lFe3 ++Al] (Deer e~ al., 1978, p. 3).

Albite-epidote-hornsfels ..
~ InCIPle~t melting ~f quartz-orthoclase-albite

4 f- / / / ••.• /:"'-Muscovite melts

I , ./;. I
/ ' '.' ,: I
o Walra
· k'ne //'
, i,
." 11
M 3 I a , ,', I J
I /. od'

J"'I
I •• 1 I
Cl.. I I 1 ' ' I ,
11 I, '2 ' ' " C : I

~ II /' I 3 .,I,
Ie . {
I,
• 2 I' b
• Cl..
1
1
1
1
/'
,
I
I' ' ,
" I ,

/
'
'
,
, ' I I ' ',1
I Hornblende-hornfels ,,'
/, I I "
1I I I ,','
I I ( .
, / Pyn?xene-hor~fe.'s
/ • l .• •. 4
o ~ Sanidinite
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
• T,·C
FIGURE 12: Temperature-pressure fields offacies of contact metamorphism, From Turner, 1981, p. 296.
 '57

-15
Hm Czlwo
I 01 lAd Cc

I
I
,
I Cc
~ '&
-, -20 I .C~
r ~Y~b

j 6i I
\11\
~
I
.2'" ,
I
,,"/
-25
0- ~\"oo~~
S! -_ .to~
./
\ I ,- I'ICI~:'~
~
l "rO·~"
)
/~ ~
<.."1 ~
cil.:t:j YI\
~C;

/ \c.O.H P , 500 bars

1
" HO fluid . _ 0 1
' WO' Xco,- .
• Fo
Co. /
Cc
Ad \Fe M1.Hm,Sd

300 400 500 600 700

1EMPERATURE I'C)

FIGURE 13: Log FOz-temperature phase diagram at 500 bars fluid pressure, Xc02 = 0.1, for the system
Ca-Fe-Si-C-O-H. Standard abbreviations used. From Einaudi et. al., 1981, p. 373.

Xco:!. = 11.1 p = 3011 b;lrs

SOl}
" '.,.. /.'".

F\;;lyf
I·~
",
- - • ./."'/

.I SI)
/l:;k~"
I.. . .... #/ r
TE:'-lI'£R;\ Tt.:R£ ) .. '~//'
,.
" ::~t/ ,1~
/1,./
,.. l'....
,"U
r'"
1/

'
, /<,-.. /

/
tUe) ;---..
".',4 ----
./;,~~'
/';:~".'I'I p~
I,,;ij~;·,n.~(l~nl~qu:lllnn.~.
p'"nt
HO

'" / ..,
-.
0
',':'
.. "

.. ~ ,',:./
,.;;''}:....
'
,_
:
• I
~.,

.". ;

JUU '. ",

:?;'V·
' ..
Y.": ; ". I'
. ~

,..
'r <L 'I

:!.so
·JS . )1 .)0 ·18 .16 .:!..\ .:!= ·:0

LOG :lo:!.
)

FIGURE 14: Log am-temperature phase diagram at 500 bars fluid pressure, XC02 = 0.1, for the system
Ca-Fe-Mg-Si-C-O.H. Reactions that are plotted involve phases present at Stormont. Stippled area is a zone
which contains 11 reactions relevant 10 skam formation at Stonnont. Reactions in this zone occur at all stages
of the paragenesis, and therefore the stippled area is a good indication of the metasomatising fluid's evolutionary
path (i.e. as T decreases, FOZ decreases). Graph calculated via Berman et. a1.'s (1988) "Geo-calc" program,
using the Powell and Holland (1988) data base.
 58

CHAPTER 6
MINERALIZATION
o
Q,1 INTRODUCTION
Tables 1, 2 and 3 summarise the paragenesis of the opaque minerals in each deposit. In

a similar fashion to the silicates, the major opaque minerals can be seen to have a paragenetic

sequence that is consistent across the three deposits.

• Apart from very small amounts of disseminated scheelite and powellite, the opaque

mineralogies were introduced during the retrograde phase of the three skarns' evolution. The

mineralization field in the paragenesis tables (Tables 1,2 and 3) has been divided into three

sectors. The earliest of these divisions corresponds to the first appearance of an Fe sulphide

phase, either pyrrhotite or pyrite. The intermediate division starts when native bismuth

becomes abundant. The latest division corresponds to the end of native bismuth, chaicopyrite,

sphalerite, pyrite, pyrrhotite and magnetite precipitation, and the start of hematite, goethite and

supergene native gold formation. Obviously these divisions vary slightly in timing between the

• deposits, but they seem to fall into distinct stages and make paragenetic comparisons more

comprehensible.

6.2 OPAOUE MINERALS

6.2.1 SCHEELITE AND POWELLITE
Scheelite (CaW04) and powellite (CaMo04) were identified with the use of an

ultraviolet lamp. This technique must be used with caution due to the abundance of fluorite in

these deposits. Generally scheelite fluoresces to a bright white, powellite to a bright yellow

• and fluorite to a purple-white. Minor amounts of scheelite and trace amounts of powellite were

found in all three skarns as disseminated specks interstitial to garnets and in calcite veins.

Scheelite is [mer grained than the powellite. Powellite forms isolated crystals up to 1 mm 3 .

6.2.2 MAGNETITE
Magnetite first appears very early in the paragenesis as small disseminations associated

• with the breakdown of Fe-rich calc-silicate phases (plate 28). Precipitation of massive and

wrigglitic magnetite followed the formation of the disseminated variety. Wrigglitic magnetite
 59

(Plates 13 and 17) originates from fractures and often is overprinted by massive magnetite,
~ ., possibly due to later remobilisation. The magnetiferous rocks often have large (up to 2 mm in

diameter) hexagonal crystals of magnetite at the contact between the massive magnetite and the

calc-silicate skarn.

At FIetcher's Adit (Sample !'l0 73898 [20]) the opaque bands of wrigglite skarn consist

of alternating assemblages of magnetite>pyrrhotite, pyrite, pyrrhotite>magnetite, pyrrhotite

')
and pyrite+magnetite. The bands that contain pyrrhotite often have small amounts of late

chalcopyrite replacement. Magnetite displays textural stability over most of the retrograde

alteration stage defmed in Tables 1,2 and 3, but by far the majority of the magnetite is formed

in the late "actinolite replacement stage" and early "mineralization stage". The abundance of

magnetite decreases westwards, as does the proportion of wrigglite giving way to massive and

disseminated magnetite.

Large euhedraI crystals of magnetite commonly nucleate on andraditic garnets at

Fletcher's Adit (Sample N0 73894 [4]). This phenomenon can be explained by a lack ofFe 3+
) and/or oxygen in the hydrothermal fluid. The Fe3+ and/or oxygen is scavenged from the Fe-

rich garnets (up to =98 mole % andradite at FIetcher's Adil) to form magnetite (Fe2+Fe3+204).

6.2.3 PYRRHOTITE
Pyrrhotite is not present at Ti Tree Creek, is a major sulphide phase at FIetcher's Adit

and is rare at Stormont. Pyrrhotite is commonly the earliest of the iron sulphides. Pyrrhotite

occurs with magnetite in the wrigglite skarn and as massive sulphide replacement (plate 32).

Pyrrhotite is present in the footwall hornfelsic shales/arenites and as disseminations and pods

of sulphide in permeable horizons. Pyrrhotite grains are often concentrically surrounded by

)
actinolite, then (?)WollaslOnite and then biotite in altered argillaceous arenites (Plate 33). More

massive pyrrhotite can be seen to have been replaced by marcasite (plate 34) and pyrite.

6.2.4 PYRITE
Pyrite occurs as disseminations in the footwall, skarn and marble front, as grains in

greisen veins especially towards the base of the skarn and in the footwall (Plate 29), and

) occasionally as a massive sulphide replacement of limestone. Pyrite is the most common

sulphide phase at Ti Tree Creek occurring as disseminations in the magnetite skarn, as

 60

euhedralto subhedral crystals in fluorite-quartz-epidote-calcite veins and more rarely in

actinolite-quartz-calcite veins. Pyrite crystals are typically situated in the centre of zoned veins,

being intimately associated with fluorite and quartz.

At the old workings at Fletcher's Adit, large veins of actinolite-quartz-fluorite-

sericitised K-feldspar-muscovite intrlXiuce pyrite with magnetite, pyrrhotite, marcasite,

bismuthinite and native bismuth (Plate 32). Pyrite here is either syn- or post- pyrrhotite.

Occasionally pyrite occurs as delicate laminations in a wrigglitic texture (Plate 31).

6.2.5 MARCASITE
Marcasite is a rare mineral in the Moina area being found only in one sample from

Fletcher's Adi!. Here marcasite replaces pyrrhotite (Plate 34). The large marcasite grains

contain lunate or crescentic fractures which are orientated in different directions throughoUlthe

slide. This texture is typical of marcasite (or pyrite) replacing pyrrhotite which results in a

change of the unit cell's volume and therefore facilitates fracturing (R.R. Large, pers. comm.,

1990).

6.2.6 ARSENOPYRITE
Small amounts of arsenopyrite occur at Fleteher's Adit as small bladed crystals

associated with native bismuth and a Bi-Te-sulphide.

6.2.7 NATIVE BISMUTH

Thirteen bismuth-bearing minerals from all three deposits were analysed by electron

microprobe (Appendix A). Table 6 is a summary of these compositions. In general the Bi-

bearing minerals occur where inter-crystalline and/or fracture permeability is high (either in

fractures or in areas of massive actinolite replacement). They usually occur as discrete disc-

shaped grains or as replacements of earlier Fe-sulphides. A consistent replacement texture is

bismuthinite replacing native bismuth.

Native bismuth is rare at Ti Tree Creek, occurring as isolated anhedral masses, and is

commonly positioned interstitially to magnetite euhedra (or less commonly garnet). Associated

minerals include bismuthinite and galenobismutite.

PLATE 25: An example of themuscovite-quartz-fluorite veins hosted in the footwall
arenites and argillites (Sample N° 73896 [10]). These veins commonly infill
joints that are abundant in the hinge regions of folds (see Plate 6). Scale is
indicated by a 1It coin.

PLATE 26: The leached, high grade Au-Bi ore from Stormont (Sample N° 73937 [322]).
This oxidised sample assays,approximately 12 ppm of Au, over a Im interval.
Scale as shown.
)
PLATE 27: An alteration front associated with the late stage oxidation and leaching at
Fletcher's Adit (Sample N° 73905 [32]). The light green skam is comprised of
actinolite and pyroxene. Fluids are able to easily penetrate the actinolite-rich
areas. Scale is indicated by a 1It coin.

PLATE 28: A photomicrograph of an example of the early stages of actinolite replacement

(Sample N0 73920 [214]). Granular clinopyroxenes are surrounded by
actinolite and disseminated magnetite, while the small euhedral gamets are
unaltered. Note the large areas of calcite and quartz, with fibrous actinolite.
Transmitted plane light, long axis of the plate = 4mm, mag. 25x.
)

PLATE 29: An example of the near-horizontal fluorite veins at the base of the skam at
Fletcher's·Adit (Sample N° 72903 [27]). These veins cut skam which is
predominantly gametiferous, but contains some massive magnetite and
disseminated pyrite. Scale is indicated by a 1It coin.

PLATE 30: A photomicrograph of a single opaque band from "wrigglite" skam (Sample
N° 73894 [4]). Fluids moved in the direction from the top of the plate to the
bottom, precipitating fluorite and then magnetite ± pyrrhotite. Note the late
stage brown-coloured oxidation of the actinolite ± chlorite. Transmitted plane
light, long axis of the plate = Imm, mag. l00x.
:J

PLATE 31: Fine laminae (could be classified as wrigglite) of pyrite in chlorite-actinolite-

clinopyroxene skam from Fleteher's Adit (Sample N° 73898 [20]). Note the
abundance of micro-veins and complex textures. Scale is indicated by a 1It
coin.

PLATE 32: The most mineralised sample collected from the Moina area (Sample NO 73929
)
[292]). Pyrrhotite, magnetite, bismuthinite, marcasite, pyrite and chalcopyrite
are associated with several generations of veins containing fluorite, K-feldspar,
quartz and muscovite. Scale is indicated by a 1It coin.
 62

At Fletcher's Adit native bismuth occurs with bismuthinite and rarely with a Bi-Te-

sulphide. Native bismuth is found in portions of the skam that have a high fracture or inter-

crystalline permeability. At Fletcher's Adit bismuthinite is more abundant than native bismuth.

Stormont has an abundance of native bismuth. Plate 35 depicts a 2 mm wide,

white/cream, cleaved grain of native.pismuth. Commonly native bismuth is replaced by

bismuthinite (plate 35). The large grains of native bismuth and bismuthinite are found in areas

of intense actinolitic replacement (plates 14 and 20) but are interpreted to be later than the

actinolite replacement process. This association with actinolite is due to increased permeability

in these rock types.

6.2.8 BISMUTHINITE
Bismuthinite at Ti Tree Creek exists in close association with galenobismutite and to a

lesser extent native bismuth. Bismuthinite also occurs interstitially to magnetite grains. At

Fletcher's Adit the bismuthinite occurs as grains associated with other sulphides. Commonly

small amounts of bismuthinite replace the edges of pyrrhotite.

Stormont has an abundance oflarge bismuthinite grains (up to 5 mm in diameter)

which are either syn- or post-native bismuth (plate 35). At Stormont bismuthinite occurs in the

same rock types as native bismuth. Bismuthinite from Stormont and Fletcher's Adit on

average contains small amounts ofCu and Pb (Table 6). This substitution (Cu and Pb with Bi)

probably accounts for a significant proportion of Stormont's Cu and (to a lesser extent) Pb

contents.

6.2.9 GALENOBISMUTITE

Galenobismutite (pbBi2S4) is a very common bismuth mineral in metasornatites from

Ti Tree Creek, but has not been identified in samples from the other two deposits. Metal

correlation matrices for Stormont and Fletcher's Adit suggest that this mineral (or another type

ofPb-Bi sulphide) is present in these deposits. Galenobismutite has not been identified west

of Ti Tree Creek primarily because this mineral is ~ similar in appearance to bismuthinite,

and only thirteen bismuth minerals were analysed during this study.
 63

Galenobismutite occurs in voids between magnetite octahedra and in fractures passing

through areas of massive magnetite. Table 6 indicates that on average the galenobismutite is

very pure with only trace amounts of gold.

6.2.10 Bis.sTeS3.6
Only one grain of this mineral was analysed (Table 6) which may mean that this

analysis does not represent a discrete phase, but an intergrowth of two minerals that cannot be
)
distinguished optically. If this analysis does represent a discrete phase then it is either a new or

very rare mineral, as its molecular formula does not correspond with any of the bismuth

minerals known to a specialist in bismuth minerals, Dr. G. Mummy at the C.S.I.R.O in

Melbourne (pers. comm., 1990).

The one occurrence of this mineral from Fletcher's Adit is shown in Plate 37. It occurs

paragenetically after native bismuth and is either syn- or (more likely) pre-chalcopyrite.

6.2.11 SPHALERITE
Only minor sphalerite was identified at Fletcher's Adit (Sample N° 73920 [214]),
)
where it exists as small anhedral grains and is associated with pyrrhotite.

6.2.12 CHALCOPYRITE

Chalcopyrite is present in all three deposits and decreases in abundance to the west. At

Ti Tree Creek, chalcopyrite is the latest of the base metal sulphides commonly replacing

pyrrhotite, magnetite and rarely galenobismutite, or occurring in veins with pyrite, magnetite

and galenobismutite. At Fletcher's Adil, chalcopyrite commonly replaces pyrrhotite (Plate 36),

magnetite, co-precipitates with and replaces bismuthinite, replaces the "BiS.gTeS3.6 mineral",

but rarely replaces pyrite.

)
At Stormont chalcopyrite is not common as indicated by the average grade of Cu in

skarn rock types of 38 ppm (Table 4). Chalcopyrite occurs as small anhedral grains and

replaced rims of larger grains of pyrrhotite.

6.2.13 NATIVE GOLD

Native gold has only been identified in this study in the very oxidised and leached

zones associated with faults and major joints. Plate 26 depicts a sample of highly oxidised and
 Au-rich skarn (averaging 12 ppm over a metre) associated with areas of intense and focused
~--\
leaching.

Sample N° 73937 [322] is an example of the high grade leached Au-Bi ore at

Stormont. This sample consists of sub to euhedral epidote (=30 modal %), poikiolitic quartz

(=40%), goethite and limonite (=28%), and small grains ofbismuthinite and native gold (=1-

2%). The native gold is not intergrown with bismuthinite, but occurs as rounded, discrete
)
anhedral grains which are up to 0.1 mm in size. The gold is associated with bismuthinite

(rather than native bismuth) and with the larger areas of quartz in this rock type (Plates 38 and

40).

Electron microprobe analysis offive gold grains (from Stormont) are given in

Appendix A and summarised in Table 6. The five analyses indicate that these grains have a

very consistent fineness, with the average fineness (defined as 1000Au/(Au+Ag)) being 822.1
(

(Figure 15). All grains are therefore native gold by definition containing less than 20 wt% Ag.

6.2.14 HEMATITE
)
Hematite at Ti Tree Creek can be found in the weathered portions of the magnetite-

pyrite skarn. A sample from the Ti Tree Creek area (Sample N0 73923 [256]) is an excellent

example of hematite rimming pyrite cubes and filling fractures which anastomose through

areas of massive pyrite and magnetite.

At Stormont minor hematite occurs in the Au-rich leached zones as "boxwork"

pseudomorphs, presumably after magnetite or possibly pyrite. This association is consistent

with the hypothesis of late, low temperature (and/or oxidised) Au-rich fluids passing through

these areas of high, fracture-controlled permeability.

)
6.2.15 GOETHITE AND LIMONITE

Within the leached Au-Bi ore, acicular actinolite crystals have been replaced by

limonite. The dominant constituent of the limonite is goethite. Goethite pseudomorphs the

actinolite fibres and replaces most of the hematite "boxwork" textures.

PLATE 33: A mineralised wonn burrow in the footwall calc arenites (Sample N° 73930
[305])~ These burrows are consistently mineralised in the same concentric
sequence from centre to margin, Le. from pyrrhotite to actinolite to
(?)wollastonite to biotite. Scale is indicated by a I rt coin.

PLATE 34: A photomicrograph of marcasite replacing pyrrhotite at Fletcher's Adit (Sample

N° 73929 [292]). Note the Crescentic fracrures which are a common texture
resulting from this type of replacement. Reflected plane light, long axis of the
plate = Imm, mag. 100x. )

PLATE 35: A photomicrograph of bismuthinite (blue) and native bismuth (white) at

Stonnont (Sample N° 73936 [320]). Small quantities of native bismuth is
preserved in the centre of the later bismuthinite grain. Reflected plane light,
long axis of the plate = 2mm, mag. 50x.

PLATE 36: A photomicrograph of pyrrhotite, magnetite, native bismuth and chalcopyrite at

Fletcher's Adit (Sample N0 73903 [27]). Reflected plane light, long axis of the
plate = 0.5mm, mag. 200x.

PLATE 37: A photomicrograph of a Bi-Te-sulphide (blue) intergrown with native bismuth )

(white), from Fletcher's Adit (Sample N° 73906 [35]). Chalcopyrite is either

syn- or postonative bismuth. Pyrite and magnetite are early phases. Reflected
plane light, long axis of the plate = 0.25mm, mag. 400x.

PLATE 38: A photomicrograph of the oxidised Au-Bi ore sample from Stonnont shown in
Plate 26 (Sample NO 73937 [322]). The small yellow/white specks are native
gold. Note the "boxwork" textures on the left hand side of the plate, fonned by
progressive oxidation of pyrite to fonn hematite, and finally goethite. The bulk
of the Au mineralisation is interpreted to be associated with the pyrite to
hematite stage. Reflected plane light, long axis of the plate = 1mm, mag. 100x. )

PLATE 39: Metasomatised, interbedded homfelsic shale and calc arenite from the Iris River
area (Sample N° 73916 [140]). The green units consist of actinolite, pyrrhotite
and quartz. The white reaction rim is (?)wollastonite. The pink units are
metamorphosed shale containing some biotite. Units like this provide strong
evidence for lateral fluid migration. Scale is indicated by a 1rt coin.

)
PLATE 40: A photomicrograph of native gold associated with goethite and quartz from
Stonnont (Sample NO 73937 [322]). Note the partially fibrous narure of the
goethite. Reflected plane light, long axis of the plate = 0.25mm, mag. 40Ox.
 66

6.3 STYLE AND GRADE

Tables 4 and 5 contain the statistics for metal grades from Stormont and Fletcher's

Adit, respectively. These statistics were obtained by taking all the assays from skarn rock

types intersected in drill holes SD I-SD 6 and FD I-FD 9. Analyses that were below the

detection limit for each element were_recorded as zero values. For Stormont 75 samples were

assayed, while at Fletcher's Adit 165 were analysed.

Very small amounts of scheelite and powellite were found as isolated disseminated

grains in the garnetiferous portions of all three skarns, and abundances decrease westward.

No wolframite was identified in either of the deposits, indicating that the tungsten

present in the metasomatic rock types originates from scheelite. Similarly no molybdenite was

identified, so the Mo content (albeit extremely low) of each skarn most likely reflects the

quantity of powellite present.

Some of the W 4+ could substitute for Fe3+ or Ti4+ into the lattice of the andradite

garnets, perhaps explaining why Fletcher's Adit (with its high modal percent of garnet and

mole percentage of andradite in these garnets) has higher W grades than Stormont.

Table 5 indicates that the W content of Fletcher's Adit is substantial in comparison to

other metals present in this skarn. Stormont however contains very little W. The Mo content of

both skarns is virtually negligible, although Mo grades tend to peak in the footwall vein

systems (Chapter 8).

Tin occurs rarely as cassiterite, with only a few grains of cassiterite found in wrigglite

skarn from Fletcher's Adit. Tables 4 and 5 indicate that Sn grades can be as high as 0.3% at

Fletcher's Adit, but average approximately 540 ppm. Stormont has less Sn, averaging

approximately 12 ppm. Kwak and Askins (198Ia) reported that garnets from the Moina skarn

to the east contained up to 0.7 wt% Sn in solid solution. It is likely therefore that the majority

of the Sn at Stormont and Fletcher's Adit is incorporated in the andradite garnet (especially at

Fletcher's Adit where the andradite mole % of the garnets reaches =98). It is unlikely that Sn

occurs in sphene, as Stormont has the highest proportions of this mineral and also the lowest

Sn grades. No malayaite was identified.

 67

Pyrrhotite and pyrite are the first of the base metal sulphides. They occur as small

anhedral grains associated with wrigglitic magnetite and occasionally as massive sulphide

pods. The more massive variety occurs at Fleteher's Adit, where the sulphide mineralization

stage is more voluminous, commonly consisting of massive pyrrhotite, pyrite, marcasite,

chalcopyrite and arsenopyrite as well as magnetite (Plate 32). The massive sulphide patches

are confined to areas that are intensely jointed or faulted, such as the small workings at

Fleteher's Adit where there is an obvious fault, and base metal sulphides (with magnetite)

comprise up to 90% of the skarn.

Tables 4 and 5 show arsenic to be in low abundance in both deposits, reflecting the

low quantities of arsenopyrite. The lack of As at Stormont is significant in that most large

grade, North American gold skarns have anomalous amounts of this element (Meinen, 1989).

Zinc content is quite high in both deposits considering only a small number of grains

of sphalerite were identified. Webb (1974) postulates that Zn (and Cu) may substitute into the

clinopyroxene lattice (for Fe2+), but this suggestion seems unjustified as electron microprobe

analysis reveals no such substitution and the paragenetic positions of salite and the late

sulphide stage are distinctly separated (Tables 1,2 and 3). It is a strong possibility however

that Zn (and Cu) are substituting for Fe2+ in actinolite.

Average Pb grades are less than half the average Zn grades at both deposits. Galena

was not observed in any of the three skarns. The Pb present in these skarns is found in

galenobismutite and in solid solution in bismuthinite (Table 6).

Cu occurs principally as small inclusions of chalcopyrite and replacement relation ships

indicate that chalcopyrite occurs late in the paragenesis. Cu grades are over three times as large

at Fleteher's Adit when compared to Stormont, which is consistent with the modal abundance

of chalcopyrite from these two deposits. Minor amounts of Cu also substitute into the lanices

of native bismuth, bismuthiuite and probably actinolite (a common feature of actinolites from

the gold-rich skarns from theWhitehorse copper belt [Meinen, 1986]).

Bismuth occurs as native bismuth, galenobismutite, bismuthinite and rarely as Bi and

Te sulphide(s). The majority of the bismuth minerals occur late in the paragenesis and are most

abundant at Stormont. Bismuth grades at Stormont reach 1.15% and average 0.101 %, while
 68

at Retcher's Adit the grades are much lower, averaging only 0.026%. The Bi-bearing minerals

occur as replacements of early iron sulphides, as discrete phases, as intergrowths with other

Bi ± Te-bearing minerals and commonly replace other late stage Bi-bearing minerals.

Bismuthinite and native bismuth at Stormont are found as large "flakes" in actinolite-garnet

skarn or in heavily oxidised and lirnonised leached zones (plate 26). This later association

produces the highest Bi and Au grades and most probably represents at least partial supergene

enrichment.

Silver abundance is generally low in these skarns, averaging only 0.6 ppm in both

Stormont and Retcher's Adit. Silver contents reach 18 and 8 ppm for these two skarns

respectively. Apart from native gold at Stormont (which contains on average 17.8% Ag), no

significant Ag-bearing mineral was identified.

Native gold occurs principally as isolated grains in the leached zones at Stormont. In

small zones Au values are as high as 21.2 ppm over a one-metre assay interval, but over the

whole skarn the gold grade averages only 1.08 ppm. Retcher's Adit has negligible amounts of

Au, averaging only 0.07 ppm, but elevated grades (up to 2.61 ppm) occur in isolated leached

zones. Metal correlation coefficients suggest that Au is associated with bismuthinite and/or

native bismuth and/or Bi-Pb sulphides (Tables 7 and 8). Later low temperature hydrothermal

fluids and/or supergene processes concentrated the Au and Bi into isolated fracture zones

forming the oxidised, goethite-rich, high grade ore as seen in Plate 26.

Although no native gold was identified in (or with) the large grains of bismuthinite

present in other skarn rock types at Stormont, the metal correlation coefficient matrix for

Stormont strongly indicates that Au and Bi are associated on the deposit scale. This association

may represent either discrete but associated Au and Bi phases, intergrowths and solid solution

series involving these phases, or the existence of Au-Bi C± Te, Pb) minerals such as maldonite
(AuZBi) or aurobismuthinite ((Bi,Au,Ag)SS6).
 69

MEAN I STD. DEV. VARIANCE I MINIMUM I MAXIMUM

Au 1.081 3.14 9.841 0.00 21.2
Cu 38.11 107 114001 5.00 910
Pb 1271 364 1330001 90.0 2200
Znl 2831 163 264001 0.00 1250
Aol 0.6101 1.581 2.511 0.00 8.00
Si 10301 23501 55400001 0.001 11500
Mol 1.071 4.52 20.51 0.00 20.0
As 14.21 "36.5 13301 0.00 266
Sn 12.01 97.1 94201 0.00 456
wl 17.11 31.21 9701 0.00 176

TABLE 4: Statistics involving the metal assays from all skam lithologies analysed at Stonnont N= 75,
each sample was analysed for 10 metals, and assays represent averages over a Im interval. All assays are in
ppm. Values below the detection limit for each metal have been recorded as a zero value. Assay data from
R.G.C. Exp. Ply. Ltd..

1 MEAN I STD. DEV. 1 VARIANCE 1 MINIMUM I MAXIMUM

Aul 0.071 0.23 0.051 0.01 2.61
Cui 1301 2101 .45001 0.01 1300
Pbl 92 1301 170001 1 01 1300
Znl 1901 1500 230001 501 1750
Aol 0.601 2.50 6.01 0.01 18.0
sil 260 4201 1800001 0.01 3000
Mol 34 351 12001 0.01 330
Asl 10 16 2401 0.01 150
Sn 540 490 2400001 251 3100
w 150 2801 800001 0.01 2630

TABLE 5: Statistics involving the metal assays from all skam lithologies analysed at Fleteher's Adit N=
165, each sample was analysed for ID metals, and assays represent averages over a Im interval. All assays are
in ppm. Values below the detection limit, for each metal have been recorded as a zero value. Assay data from
R.G.C. Exp. Ply. Lld..
 NATIVE B1S~IUTII (IliJ Bis.N Te SJ.(i
EI.E~IENT A \' ATOMIC COr-;C EI,EI\IENT ATOMIC CONe
lIi 1)'),61) ni 55.27
Cu 0.16 S 34.70
S 11.05 Au 0.02
An 0,0$ I'h 0.44
A~ 11. 04 '1'(' 9.57
'I'()TAI. I) !1,l.I') IN = J I TOTAl. 1)9.9) IN = 11

IlIS~IUTIIINlTE (lli2S.\) NATlVI, (;OL!J (All)

EI.E~IENT A V ATOMiC coNe EI.EI\IENT A V ATOMiC CONC'
ni 36 ..\7 An In.IN
ell I).RI) AI.! 17.R I
s 611.00 TOTAL IIIO.lJ9 IN = SI
All O.OJ
AI-: o.n I
Ph II.S9 FINENESS OF GOLD:
Te 0,02 11 Fim'lIcss" = IUlIlIAu/(Au + Ag)
TO'rAJ, 97.94 IN = 61 An'r:ll!c = R22.IO IN = 5)

EI.Ei\IENT AV ATOi\lIC CONC

Hi 27.70
ell 0.02
s 57.70
An 0.15
Ph I ~.56
T(, 11. 01
TOTAl, 100.14 IN = 2J

TABLE 6: Average compositions of ore minerals from S!ormon~ Fletcher's Adil and Ti Tree Creek.
Averaged from data contained in Appendix A. Analyses attained via a Cameca electron microprobe.
6.4 DISCUSSION
The basic paragenesis of the opaque minerals in all three deposits is magnetite to

pyrrhotite to pyrite and, at the end of this sequence, the bismuth minerals are introduced.

Bismuthinite and native bismuth are never pre-pyrrhotite, and are usually post- to syn-pyrite.

The gold is deposited with bismuthinite which often replaces native bismuth. Hematite follows

gold deposition in the very leached areas. Therefore the basic sequence is:

Magnetite ----> pyrrhotite ----> pyrite

native bismuth ----> bismuthinite/native gold ----> [hematite]

Major differences between these deposits include the abundance of sulphides in

general, wrigglitic magnetite, pyrrhotite, galenobismutite and the gold and bismuth grades.

Additionally, the abundance of limonite (especially goethite) and the presence of some rarer

Bi-Te-Pb-S phases differs between the three skarns.

Wrigglitic and massive magnetite occurs at a later paragenetic position than the

disseminated magnetite associated with the fIrst stages of actinolite replacement. After this

early disseminated magnetite stage, hot saline Fe-bearing (and possibly boiling) fluids

permeated the system (aided by the increased permeability caused by the increased retrograde

alteration) and resulted in the precipitation of the massive and wrigglitic magnetite. Magnetite

in general and wrigglitic magnetite decreases in abundance to the west. The skarn forming

fluids at Stormont being the more distal may have been cooler, less saline and possibly more

reduced (Chapter 7), resulting in less magnetite deposition especially of the wrigglitic variety.

At FIetcher's Adit bismuthinite is more abundant than native bismuth and iron

sulphides are common, while at Stormont bismuthinite and native bismuth are in equal

proportions and iron sulphides are not abundant. This may indicate a higher sulphur fugacity

of the mineralizing fluids at FIetcher's Adit in comparison with those at Stormont.

Table 6 indicates that the BiS.8TeS3.6 phase contains only minor amounts of Pb. If this

is an intergrowth of two minerals, and not a very rare or previously unidentifIed mineral, the

obvious question is: of which two minerals? No other Te-bearing minerals have been

identifIed in any previous work in the DoIcoath Granite contact aureole. Additionally, there is

too much Te present to suggest Te substitution into a co=on bismuth sulphide (D.L.
 72

Husten, pers. comrn., 1990). Another puzzling aspect is that if the Bi and S contents originate

l from bismuthinite (intergrown with a Te mineral), then why is there no Cu impurity as in all

the bismuthinite grains from the three skarns?

The oxidised Au-Bi ore at SlOrmont (Plate 26) is often referred to as a fault gouge or

pug. Under the microscope however, this rock type is just intensely oxidised with rio evidence

of strain, indicating that the associated fracturing was a brittle event with no ductile
) deformation. These oxidised zones are intensely jointed and faulted areas which have been the

conduits for late low temperature Au-Bi rich fluids which precipitated gold in a very late

paragenetic position.

The anomalously high Au and Bi grades in these spatially restricted regions may be

partially the result of supergene enrichment, as similar oxidation occurs at the upper weathered

and leached contact of the skarn. However, the weathered top of the skarn unit at Stormont

does not have the consistently high Au and Bi grades that characterised these oxidised fracture

zones, and therefore supergene enrichment is not considered to be the primary reason for the

anomalously high grades. The very late high grade gold was most likely deposited from a low

temperature hydrothermal fluid as a bisulphide complex with bismuthinite on the "gold

solubility cliff' (Chapter 7). The hydrothermal fluid continued to drop in temperature

precipitating pyrite then hematite. Later ground waters precipitated goethite as pseudomorphs

replacing pyrite and hematite.

FINENESS
875-900

o 850-875

825-850

800-825

775-800

o 750-775

o 1 2 3 4

FREQUENCY
__ 0._- _

FIGURE 15: The fineness of native gold from SlOrmonL Electron microprobe data shown in Appendix A.
 CHAPTER 7
FLUID GEOCHEMISTRY & THERMODYNAMIC MODELLING
From the paragenetic relationships in Tables 1,2 and 3 it is possible to see how the

mineralizing hydrothermal fluids varied over time with respect to temperature, oxygen

fugacity, sulphur fugacity and pH. Once the fluid's nature is characterised, it is then possible

to suggest reasonable hypotheses for-the processes that promoted significant Bi-Au

mineralization at Stormont

The first difficulty in achieving the above goal is that this type of thermodynamic

modelling is rarely done for skarn conditions, and therefore some of the phase diagrams had to

be calculated from the basic thennodynamic data Assumptions also had to be made involving

the salinity and pH of ore forming solutions, as no fluid inclusion studies have been

performed involving any of the three deposits. Appendix C contains the rationale and

calculations for pH and salinity estimates.

Briefly, a pH estimate can be attained via the pH limitations of the stability of

muscovite and K-feldspar (which are common mineralogies in greisen veins associated with

mineralization). Salinity estimation is achieved via analogy with the Shepherd and Murphy

. deposit to the east, which has undergone extensive fluid inclusion analysis by Kwak and

Askins (l981a). For Stormont, the estimated salinity is approximately 4, while at the other

two deposits this estimate is slightly higher being ~5-6 (Appendix C). Salinities for the three

deposits are likely to be in the order of 4 M NaCl (Appendix C).

The basic paragenesis of the opaque minerals in all three deposits is:

Magnetite----> pyrrhotite ----> pyrite

native bismuth ----> bismuthinite/native gold ----> [hematite]

Appendix C contains the essential thermodynamic calculations needed to create or

modify f02-T, f02-fS2 and fOz-pH phase diagrams which are applicable to the ore forming

fluids at Stormont The f02-T phase diagram (Figure 18) was calculated from the basic

thermodynamic data, due to the strong influence of salinity making existing phase diagrams

(for V.M.S deposits) unrealistic for fluid compositions at Stormont.

 74

Calculated in Appendix Care:

) 1) The relevant equations to locate the position of the bismuthinite/native bismuth

transition on the three phase diagrams mentioned above for the estimated fluid conditions at

Stormont.

2) The relevant equations to_construct aqueous sulphur predominance diagrams in

fOz-T and fOz-pH space for the estimated fluid conditions at Storrnont.
J 3) The relevant equations to construct an Fe-S-O phase diagram in fOz-T space for

the estimated fluid conditions at Stormont

4) The position of the the Au(HS)z" <-----> AuClz- switch-over line in fOz-T space.

5) The positions of gold solubility contours for both Au species in fOz-T space.

The data calculated in Appendix B are plotted in Figures 16 (fOz-fSz), 17 (fOz-pH) and 18

(fOz-T).

Figure 16 has been modified from Brown and Nesbitt (1987), with the native

bismuth/bismuthinite transition being constrained further. The proposed fluid evolution path
)
for Storrnont is superimposed on this diagram. Although this diagram indicates that it is

possible to precipitate bismuth minerals at any time during this fluid's history, the bulk of the

bismuthinite and native bismuth are precipitated in the pyrite/hematite transition region. Gold

deposition occurs very late in the fluid's history with bismuthinite, and is shortly followed by

hematite in the very leached areas. Thus, as the hydrothermal fluid evolves, the oxygen and

sulphur fugacities both increase, resulting in the paragenesis seen in these skarns and

especially at Stormont.

Obviously there are factors other than fOz and fSz changing in the fluid
)
contemporaneously, such as the temperature and pH of the fluid, but a rising fSz is a very

effective way of explaining both the native bismuth to bismuthinite transition and this

reaction's position in the overall paragenesis of opaque minerals.

Figure 17 has been modified from Large (1977), with the native bismuth to

bismuthinite transition being added to a f02-pH phase diagram including the Py-Po-Mag-

J Hem stability fields. A proposed fluid path for Stormont has been superimposed on this

diagram. The fluid path shown is again consistent with the paragenesis seen in these skarn
 75

deposits. The small field of bismuthinite stability indicates that gold deposition (being syn-

I bismuthinite) is most likely to have occurred near the Py-Hem boundary at pH's of 3-5 and

f02'S of 10-32 to 10-35 (at T = 2500C and IS = 10-2). The fluid path drawn on this phase
diagram corresponds to a mineralizing fluid that is evolving to become more acidic and
(.
oxidising.

Figure 18 is the most informative phase diagram, and given that the previous two
)
diagrams are consistent with the paragenetic sequence, the assumed constants for pH and IS

seem realistic. Appendix C contains all the calculations for the construction of this f02-T phase

diagram. A hypothetical fluid path for Stormont is again superimposed on the stability fields

for Py-Po-Mag-Hem. This fluid path is also consistent with the observed paragenesis, and

indicates that with time the fluid is becoming more reduced and is cooling.

Figure 18 also contains gold solubility contours which indicate how much Au can be

carried in the mineralizing solution (as either the Au(HSh- or AuCI2- species). For example, if

the fluid path moves from the 10 ppb contour to the 1 ppb contour, then gold is precipitated.
) From this diagram, it is clear that large amounts of gold can be precipitated from the chloride

complex at temperatures greater than =30Q0C, but this is inconsistent with the paragenetic

position of the native gold (Le. the early formed magnetite zones assay very poorly for gold).

Thus it seems that the chloride complex is not the major contributor. On the other hand, native

gold occurs with bismuthinite and generally with (or after pyrite) and before hematite, which

suggests that the majority of the gold is being deposited on the "gold solubility cliff' from the

Au(HSh- complex. The occurrence of large quantities of native gold in discrete, oxidised

zones (plate 26) supports the hypothesis of a relatively rapid precipitation event on the "gold
)
solubility cliff' at low temperatures (although some supergene enrichment in these zones is

likely to have been partially responsible for the elevated Au grades).

Why the gold chloride complex did not seem to play a role in the deposition of the gold

during the high temperature stage of the ore fluid is puzzling. The fluid may have had low

salinities. The answer may lie in the source of the gold. Cambrian vo1canics are very likely to

) be present between the Roland Conglomerate and the Do1coath Granite beneath Stormont (S.

Halley, pers. comm., 1990; Pemberton and Yicary, 1989). If this is the case, the vo1canics
 could be a source for the gold. The gold could be extracted most effectively from the volcanics

I by the establishment of a convecting/circulating meteoric water cell. It is well-documented that

fluid compositions in skarns change from metamorphic to magmatic to meteoric in nature with

time (Einaudi et al., 1981 and Meinert, 1983). The establishment of an effective convecting

meteoric water cell at the distaI Storrnont deposit therefore would have been a later, lower

temperature development (oxygen isotopes indicate at least after the magnetite formation, as
I discussed in Chapter 10), perhaps explaining why the high temperature AuClz- complex was

not a significant transportation agent for gold.

Towards the end of the hydrothermal system's lifetime the fluids were cooler, the

Au(HS)z- species was the most effective gold transportation complex, a convecting meteoric

water cell had been effectively established and gold was being leached from the Cambrian

volcanics. The greater prospect-to-granite distance at Stormont (compared to the other deposits

in the area) may have promoted the development of a larger and more effective convection cell.

The auriferous fluids then ascended and deposited native gold with bismuthinite on the "gold
)
solubility cliff' (Figure 18) in areas with a high fracrure controlled permeability.

Figure 18 is also extremely instructive in characterising the differences in mineralizing

fluids from the three deposits. Ti Tree Creek has an abundance of magnetite, some pyrite and

no pyrrhotite indicating that the fluids were more oxidised and higher temperature than at

Stormont. Fletcher's Adit on the other hand has a similar fluid path to Stormont, but contains a

greater quantity of pyrrhotite and lacks the quantity of bismuth minerals and associated native

gold. Fletcher's Adit's mineralizing fluid path may not have crossed the "gold solubility cliff',

or may simply not have contained as much gold, possibly being a function of the sub-surface

thickness of the Cambrian volcanics and/or the granite-prospect distance.

The opaque mineral paragenesis at Stormont clearly indicates that the retrograde stage

and the mineralization stage have continued for the longest time at this deposit. This is

important as the mineralizing fluid is becoming more reduced with time. Gold skarns are

characterised by very reduced mineralizing fluids (Meinert, 1988; Meinert, 1989) and therefore

J the longer the mineralizing fluids evolved at Stormont, the more like"gold skarn forming

fluids" they became.

 o
T=300 D C
FeS2
pf!=-l
)

·10

., Log FS2
Fe20)

·20

Fe)O-l
Fe

·)0
·-10 ·)0 ·20
Log F02
FIGURE 16: Log FS2 vs log FOz diagram of tlte stabilities of tlte native element, oxide and sulphide
opaque ntinerals at 30()OC and pH = 4. Arrow indicates tlte probable evolutionary path of tlte mineralising fluid
at Stonnont, based on tlte observed paragenesis. Bi = native bismuth, Bm = bismutltinite. Modified from
i Brown and Nesbitt (1987, p. 2370); additional calculations are shown in Appendix B.

·20

IS= I 0. 2

T=250 D C
Fe 20)

·)0

, Log F02
Bi

·-10

Fe)O-l

FeS

-so
o 2 -I 6 8 10 12 14 pH

FIGURE 17: Log F02 Vs pH diagram of tlte stabilities of tlte native element, oxide and sulphide opaque
minerals at 2500 C and IS = 10-2 . Arrow indicates tlte probable evolutionary patlt of tlte mineralising fluid at
Stonnont, based on tlte observed paragenesis. Bi - native bismutlt, Bm - bismutltinite. Iron species stabilities
taken from Large (1977, p. 557), additional calculations requined involving tlte bismutlt species are shown in
Appendix B. -
 78

-20
J

) -30 lpI'm AuCI2-

100 ppb AuC1Z"

Log F02 FC203

10 ppb AuCI2-

-40 Au solubility cliff

ppb AuCI 2 -

.....
FcS
,.

-so
a CI-= 1 00.602

pH=4

IS=10-2
AII(HS12- of; ~ AIICJr
-60
.00250 .00200 .00150
11'1' (oK-I)
I I i i i i i

100"C 150"C 200"C 250"C 300"C 350"C 400"C

T (OC)

FIGURE 18: Log F02 vs temperature diagram of the stabiIities of the native element, oxide and sulphide
opaque minerals at aG-- = 100.602, pH ~ 4, and:ES ~ 10-2. Arrow indicates the probable evolutionary path of
the mineralising fluid at Stormont, based on the observed paragenesis. Bi = native bismuth, Bm ~
bismuthinite. Dotted line indicates the position where both gold complexes are equally efficient at transporting
gold ("switch-over line"). Thin continuous lines are gold solubility contours for both gold complexes. All
calculations required for the construction of this diagram are shown in Appendix B.
 CHAPTER 8
-, METAL ASSOCIATIONS AND SPATIAL VARIATIONS
.8..,1 INTRODUCTION
R.G.C. drill-holes FD I-FD 9 (Fletcher's Adit) and SD l-SD 6 (Stormont) have been

assayed for Au, Cu, Pb, Zn, Ag, As, Bi, Mo, Sn, and W. This chapter this data is presented

as "down-hole" stratigraphic metal variations, metal correlation plots and metal correlation
-'J
coefficient matrices for both Stormont and Fletcher's Adit The stratigraphic variation

diagrams from representative drill-holes are accompanied by schematic strati graphic columns

which indicate how metal abundance varies with each stratigraphic unit and skam assemblage.

The horizontal scale of some of these plots (e.g. SD 3) include only the upper portion of the

footwall clastics, which allows more detail to be observed in the skam region. Plots from

other drill-holes (e.g. SD 1) include assay data from the skam to the base of the Moina

Sandstone, allowing the metal variations in the footwall rocks to be best observed.

Metal correlation plots and correlation coefficient matrices are calculated for assays
~ )
from skam lithologies only, and assays below detection limits are recorded as zero values.

Each assay represents the average metal content over one metre. No mineral exploration

company drill-holes exist in the Ti Tree Creek area.

8.2 STRATIGRAPHIC VARIATIONS

8.2.1 STORMONT
Figure 19 displays the stratigraphic variation of metal abundance in SD 1 (SD 3 is

included in Appendix D). This type of plot shows where each metal has been deposited with
J
respect to the different lithologies.

Gold, Bi and Pb have a similar stratigraphic distribution pattern (Figure 19) and

existing predominantly in the middle and basal portions of the skam. No elevated grades occur

in the footwall. The Au, Bi and Pb association is a strong feature of mineralization at both

Stormont and Fletcher's Adit.

) Zinc shows a more erratic variation with high grades consistently occurring in the

skam, with two elevated concentrations occurring at approximately 75 and 110 m. These
 80

secondary peaks in Zn grade correspond to zones of intense jointing and minor faulting,

) respectively.

Copper shows a distinct peak which corresponds to a fault zone hosting greisen veins

(with chalcopYrite mineralization) at approximately 110 m. Copper grades in the skarn are

similar to those in the footwall rocks.

Silver occurs in consistently low amounts, with only minor peaks corresponding to the

fault zone at approximately 105-110 m and at the middle portion of the skarn.

Molybdenum is usually in very low abundances in the metasomatised calcareous units,

but commonly occurs in greater amounts in the middle to lower portions of the arenite

sequence and grades generally increase with depth. Molybdenum is indicative of high

temperatures so that this decrease "up-hole" is possibly a function of decreasing temperature.

Tin grades display an unusual trend. There are generally elevated grades in the skarn,

but a distinct peak in grade occurs at the top of the shale horizon. This peak may be due to Sn-

silicates such as malayaite (although no such minerals were identified) and therefore elevated

grades occur in the more silicious units.

Tungsten grades vary greatly throughout the stratigraphic section in SD 1. They are

being generally elevated in the skarn and irregular in the footwall. The footwall grade

elevations represent wolframite hosted in veins.

Arsenic grades are generally below the detection limit in the skarn, peak at the

homfelsic shale/calcarenite's upper contact with the skarn and are elevated in fractured areas in

the footwall arenites.

The metal variations with rock type in SD 3 are shown in Appendix D. In SD 3, the

top of the skam is extremely leached and the effects of supergene enrichment on the metal

abundance is visible.

Additional information for Stormont can be attained from SD 3. Here, Au, Bi, Pb, Cu,

Zn and As show some degree of supergene enrichment. Zinc grades display a remarkably

constant trend of increased values up the stratigraphic section, with a slight depression in

concentration at the base of the silicious zone, a slight rise in concentration at approximately 32

ID corresponding to a minor fault and a increase in concentration in the leached skam due to
 81

supergene enrichment. Copper grades also show a distinct increase in grade in the leached
-)
skarn, as well as elevated values in the silicious zone, but have a broad area of low values over

the majority of the skarn unit.

8.2.2 FLETCHER'S ADIT

At Fletcher's Adit FD 6 is the deepest drill-hole, Figure 20 displays the variation in

metal grades through the stratigraphy.

)
A slight peak in gold grade is present at the top of the hematitic pebble conglomerate,

which may be a result of a decrease in fOz as the fluid passed through the intensely hematitic

unit into the quartz arenites above. Slightly elevated gold concentrations also occur at the 50 m

level, which correspond to a fault Gold grades are on average much lower than in the

Stormont drill holes, but show similar elevated values in the middle to basal portion of the

skarn.

Except for one assay, Bi grades are only elevated in the skarn horizon. Assays from

the basal silicious zone and the unsilicified skarn are similary high grade.

Lead grades are consistently high throughout the "'" 200 m of stratigraphy at Fletcher's

Adit, only marginally rising in the skarn unit and therfore displays a very different

stratigraphic variation of Pb compared to Stormont There is a general rise in values up

through the arenites and then a sudden drop on contact with the hornfelsic shale/calcarenite

unit. The Pb-bearing fluids may have had difficulty penetrating the homfelsic shale/calcarenite

sequence due to its high impermeability and because there were only a small number of

fractures that could act as conduits for the hydrothermal fluids. While these fluids paused at

the base of the shales, the higher grades of Pb may have been deposited in the upper arenites

due to a temperature drop in the fluid.

Copper is predominantly confined to the skarn and the silicified base of the skarn

(unlike Stormont). Minor Cu concentration elevations in the footwall arenites coincide with

silicified areas.

Silver occurs as a few elevated grades in the skarn rocks. Generally, silver is lower in

concentration at Fletcher's Adit in comparison to the Stormont assay data.

 82
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DEPTH (ppm) DEPTH (ppm) DEPTH (ppm) DEPTH (ppm)

LEGEND

~ Limestone

~ Weathered and leached skarn

12 ,

10
•
, 120

100J • m Skarn

..- -
• • • ~
-Ec..
8

61
.. I
Ec..
c..
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6O-l
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Quartzite

Shale (predominantly)
-c.. 4
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....
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100 200 o 100 200
1f..'f..1 !lIII [J~:::::::::::::::::: ",::::;::::::

DEPTH (ppm)
::::::q";i fMJ 11111111::::::::: : :;: : : : : : : : : : : ;: :;: : : : : : : : : :,: : :::'£is
DEPTH (ppm) D No core recovered

FIGURE 19: Stratigraphic variations in metal content in the SD 1 drill-hole at Stormonl

 83
2 600 3000 I 50 I I
•

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•
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300
• ••
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S
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a. 20'
•
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100
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.....·.,·&.. •·
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DEPTH (m) DEPTH (m) DEPTH (m)

400 I I 1000
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DEPTH (m)
DEPTH (m)
DEPTH (m) DEPTH (m)

LEGEND

~ Limestone

0.3 120
lrn Weathered and leached skarn

0.2
J
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80
• • •
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•
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Skarn

- . .. . Quartzite
E
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-
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• • • ::2

i
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....
0.0
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......
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[I"£1fJ I 11 I Ik;:; :.:.:.:.:.:..:::::::::::::::::::::;....::::-::::::.:::.:::::.: ;:::::;:,::::::::::::;;;4\..•• ....J I P'¥'a>l 111111:::::;:::::::::::;:'::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :.::::::::::::::;:::;::.:.
DEPTH (m) DEPTH (m)
:::::::::E·~~~;;'J

D No core recovered

FIGURE 20: Stratigraphic variations in metal content in the FD 6 drill-hole at Fleteher's Adit.
 84

Zinc is more abundant in the skarn unit and is enriched in a number of small fault
) zones and their associated veins present in the footwall. This data follows a similar distribution

trend to the Stormont assay data.

Molybdenum grades show an erratic trend appearing to be unaffected by changes in

stratigraphy, fracture abundance or permeability. This trend is unlike those seen at Stormont

which is erratic up to the top of the arenite sequence, but then virtually lacking Mo above this

horizon. Temperatures during the deposition of Mo at Fletcher's Adit would probably have

been higher than at Stormont due to the decreased granite-to-prospect distance. As a result the

molybdenum may have been deposited continuously (unlike Stormont where deposition stops

at the base of the skarn) as the mineralizing fluids moved up the stratigraphy.

Tin in FD 6 is strictly confined to the skarn, with the highest concentration of Sn

occuring in the siliceous zone at the base of the skam. This assay trend is unlike SD 1 where

the distinct Sn peak in grade coincided with the top of the hornfelsic shale/calcarenite.

Tungsten shows a very similar trend to Sn, indicating an association between the two

elements. Arsenic grades are consistently low, show a slight elevation in the skam, but like

SD I vary greatly in the footwall.

Appendix D contains similar stratigraphy-metal plots for FD 7 and FD 8. These plots

provide the additional information on the spatial variations of metals at Fletcher's Adit. In FD

7 Cu variation is very similar to SD 3 and unlike SD I and FD 6, with Cu grades at FD 7

being depressed in the middle and lower portions of the skarn. The Mo grade trend in FD 7 is

totally unlike the erratic variation of this metal seen in other holes from Stormont and

Fletcher's Adit. At FD 7, Mo concentrations display an exceptionally well-defined trend of a

gradual decrease to the top of the arenites, then a gradual increase to the top of the hornfelsic

shale/calcarenites, then a peak at the silicious base of the skam and fmally, consistently low

grades in the middle to upper portions of the skarn.

In FD 8, Bi, Cu, As, Zn, W and especially Sn grades show supergene enrichment

trends in the upper, leached portions of the skarn. Gold seems unaffected by the intense

weathering of the skarn. Copper, Pb and Zn show a distinct enrichment peak corresponding to

the base of the hornfelsic shale/calcarenites, probably due to the fluid's progress up the
 85

stratigraphic section being retarded by this relatively impermeable unit, and metal deposition

') being aided by the "pooling" and cooling of the mineralizing fluids as they paused to penetrate

this unit.

8.3 METAL ASSOCIATIONS

The stratigraphic variation diagrams indicate that strong similarities exist, at least

spatially, between some metals. Gold, Pb and Bi are good examples of metals that have a

similar spatial concentration distribution "down-hole". In this chapter, metal associations are

reviewed through the use of metal grade-metal grade plots and correlation coefficient matrices.

8.3.1 METAL-METAL PLOTS

8.3.1.1 Storrnont
Appendix E contains a plethora of metal-metal correlation diagrams for all assay data

from skarn lithologies at Stormont. Seventy-five one metre assays are involved. Gold and

bismuth have been plotted against the other nine metals assayed, and some other combinations

have been added where the stratigraphic variation suggests there may be an association (e.g.

Sn-W).

Visually, the Au-Bi, Au-Pb, Bi-Pb and Sn-W plots display good to excellent

correlations. The Au-Cu, Au-Ag, Au-As, Ag-As, Bi-Ag, Au-Sn, Au-W, Bi-Sn, Bi-W, Bi-

Cu, and Bi-As show very poor correlations.

The poor Au-Cu and Au-Ag visual correlations and excellent Au-Bi visual correlation

are important, as these correlations are characteristic of gold skarns (Chapter 11). The

Au/Bi/Pb relationship seen in the stratigraphic variations of metal content is reinforced in these

plots.

One interesting feature of these plots is the similarity between Bi-Sn, Bi-Wand Bi-Cu

(Appendix E). These three plots all have two distinct regions, the first includes assays that are

low in Bi (generally less than 1000 ppm) and high in Sn, W and Cu. The second region,

which is clearly separated from the first, is characterised by very high Bi grades (2000-12000

ppm) and very low Sn, W and Cu grades. These regions indicate two episodes of Bi
 86

deposition, the first being low grade and associated with Sn, W and Cu, and the second being

high grade (and being associated with Au and Pb). This late stage, BijAu/Pb-rich phase of

mineralization is not present at Fletcher's Adit!

8.3.1.2 Fletcher's Adit

A similar collection of metal correlation plots is given in Appendix E for 165 assays

(over a one-metre intervals) from skarn lithologies at Fletcher's Adit.

The Au-Bi, Bi-Pb, and Au-Pb display very good visual correlations, while Bi-W, Bi-

Cu, Bi-Sn, and Cu-Sn show moderate visual correlations. The Bi-Mo, Bi-Ag, Bi-As, Cu-Ag,

Au-Ag, Ag-As, Au-Mo, Mo-W, Bi-Zn, Pb-Zn, Sn-W, Au-W, Au-Sn, and Au-Zn plots show

little or no visual correlation.

The Bi-Sn, Bi-W and Bi -Cu plots have a distribution of data within a single region of

low Bi concentration, indicating a single Bi depositional episode (unlike Stormont which has

two distinct populations of low and high grade Bi ). This single region is characterised by Bi

grades that are identical to the low Bi grade region for Stormont (i.e. Bi<I000 ppm) but have

Sn, W and Cu grades that reach grades ten times as great as those at Stormont. Nevertheless,

the low grade Bi regions from Stormont and the complete data set from Fletcher's Adit are

comparable and imply that both deposits experienced an (?)initial, low grade Bi (+ Cu, Wand

Sn) mineralization event, while only Stormont experienced a (?)later, high grade Bi (+ Au and

Pb) mineralization event!

8.3.2 METAL CORRELATION COEFFICIENT MATRICES

8.3.2.1 Storrnont

The metal correlation coefficient matrix for all assays from skarn lithologies in SD 1-

SD 6, is given in Table 7. The number of assays used for this matrix was 75, therefore any

correlation coefficient greater than 0.296 can be considered (with 99% confidence) to represent

a significant correlation (Freund, 1976).

The significant results attained from Table 7 include: the very strong correlations

between Au/Bi, Au/Pb and Bi/Pb; the strong correlations between W/CU, So/Cu, W/Sn,

Au/As and As/Ag; and the good correlations between Au/Ag, As/Cu, As!Zn and W/As.
 87

8.3.2.2 Fletcher's Adit

-I Table 8 is the metal correlation coefficient matrix for Fleteher's Adit where there are

165 samples from skarn lithologies only. With 165 samples, the coefficient corresponding to a

significant correlation (with 99% confidence) is any value greater than 0.265 (Freund, 1976).

The significant results attained from Table 8 include: the very strong correlations

between AulBi, Au/Pb, Pb/Ag and Bi/Pb; the strong correlations between Bi/W; and the good

correlations between Bi/Cu, As/Cu and Sn/Cu.

8.4 CONCLUSIONS
There is a very strong association, spatially and temporally between Au, Bi and Pb.

This association has been confinned by the recognition of ore minerals such as

galenobismutite, bismuthinite, native bismuth and native gold occurring in similar paragenetic

positions, and being spatially associated with one another. The good AulBi and poor Au/Cu

and Au/Ag correlations at Stormont are important in the classification of this deposit as a "gold

skam" (Chapter 11).

The stratigraphic distribution of metals shows that the Au, Pb and Bi are restricted to

the skam units. Faults and jointed areas in the skam and footwall contribute to locally high

grades of As, W, Zn, Ag and Cu. Supergene enrichment in the upper regions of weathered

skam plays a role in concentrating Cu, Pb, As, Zn, Bi, Sn and W grades.

The bimodal distribution of Bi-Cu, Bi-Sn and Bi-W values at Stormont and the

complete lack of the high grade Bi values at Fletcher's Adit is interesting. This disparity

between the two deposits highlights very clearly Stormont's high grade Bi and Au

mineralization is the result of a separate episode of late mineralization, which simply did not

occur at Fletcher's Adit. The early phase of mineralization which is common to both deposits

is a low grade Bi/Au/Pb/(and Ag at Fletcher's Adit) and a moderately high grade SnlW/Cu

mineralizing event (especially at Fletcher's Adit). The late phase of mineralization unique to

Stormont is a high grade AulBi/Pb event with very minor amounts of Sn, W or Cu. The

distinction between these two events is most clearly seen in Bi-Cu, Bi-W and Bi-Sn plots for
 88

Stonnont (Appendix E). The late mineralization phase of high grade AulBi/Pb at Stonnont

corresponds to deposition on the "gold solubility cliff' discussed in Chapter 6 (Figure 18).

Mo I As Sn w

Mo I -0.082 -0.0071 -0.079' - , - , - .

As I 0.5561 0.3991 -0.0431 0.3671 0.4691 0.1991 -0.07 1
Sn 1 -0.2351 0.4611 -0.21 -0.2211 -0.0111 -0.16/ -0.148 0.1331 1
W I -0.0951 0.7661 -0.0081 -0.0261 -0.0231 0.0791 -0.022, 0.3571 0.511 1

TABLE 7: Correlation coefficient matrix for metals contained in skarn lithologies only from Stormont.
Analyses below the detection limit for each metal are included as zero values. N= 75; therefore if a correlation
coefficient is 2:0.302, then the correlation is significant with 99% confidence (Freund, 1976). Data from
R.G.C. Exp. Pty. Ltd..

I Au J - Cu- I -Pb-I Zn I Ag I Si I Mo 1 As Sn W
.1
,;,.:.
I ..
I I I
I
I
I
I
I
I

······(}":67fr' 0 324 {::}::n:::SSiF: 0 13810 18~ 11

I Mo i:::::::::b~1;':0'2::i -0:1351::::::::::::,()~d3;~tl -0:0291 -0:0491 -0.1571
1: I : I

As I 0.0231 0.319/ -0.0471 0.176/ -0.0571 0.16/ -0.024 1

Sn I 0.0081 0.3291 0.0231 0.0821 0.0511 0.1191 -0.211 0.126 1
W I -0.0181 0.2441 0.0231 -0.0831 -0.0861 0.467 [ -0.031 0.029 0.066 1

TABLE 8: Correlation coefficient matrix for metals contained in skarn lithologies only from Fleteher's
.. )
Adit. Analyses below the detection limit for each metal are included as zero values. N= 165; therefore if a
correlation coefficient is 2:0.267, then the correlation is significant with 99% confidence (Freund, 1976). Data
from R.G.C. Exp. Pty. Ltd..
 89

CHAPTER 9
CONTROLS ON MINERALIZATION
II STRATIGRAPHIC CONTROLS

9.1.1 SHALE
The presence of a 10-20 m thick unit of hornfelsic shale interbedded with calcarenites

beneath the Gordon Limestone is a factor that affects mineralization. Throughout the field area,

this shale unit contains abundant evidence of lateral fluid flow. Evidence includes the laterally

extensive metasomatism and pyrrhotite mineralization of the calcarenite beds (Plate 39) and

wonn burrows (Plates 4 and 33), as well as a high proportion of sub-horizontal greisen veins

(Plate 7). There is no evidence to suggest that fluids penneated the hornfelsic shale horizons

via inter-granular porosity.

The stratigraphic distribution of metals such as Zn, Cu and Pb often displays peaks at

the base of the shale unit, possibly indicating that the mineralizing fluids may have cooled (and

deposited metals) and that their progress up the stratigraphic column was retarded by the low

penneability of the shale unit. As a result of the shale's low penneability, fluids likely to pass

through into the limestone via fractures. This dependence on fracture penneability is evident in

the stratigraphic metal distribution plots and the existence of high grade Au-Bi in fractures in

the skarns.

The presence of the hornfelsic shale horizon below the limestone results in the lateral

dispersion of hydrothennal fluids. This has the effect of producing laterally extensive, but

thin, skarn bodies and possibly dispersing the mineralization over a wider area.

9.1.2 CAMBRIAN VOLCANICS

The Denison Group sediments have very low concentrations of gold beneath Fletcher's

Adit and Stonnont Cambrian volcanics are therefore the most likely source for the gold at

Stonnont, and their sub-surface position may influence the intensity and location of the high

grade gold mineralization. Cambrian volcanics in the Moina area occur unconfonnably beneath

the Roland Conglomerate and the Moina Sandstone. A Comalco drill-hole on the northern

boundary of the mapping area intersected Cambrian volcanics beneath the Moina Sandstone at
 90

only ::=80 m depth. Drill-holes at Fletcher's Adit and Stonnont have penetrated Roland

Conglomerate at ::=180 m and ::=138 m respectively, and therefore the likelihood of the

existence of volcanics between the prospects and the granite is extremely high, especially at

Stonnont. The probability that the thickness of these volcanics being greater below Stonnont

is also high, as the granite-ta-prospect distance at Stonnont is known to be greater (Leaman,

1988 and Leaman and Richardson, 1988) and the Roland Conglomerate is intersected at

shallower depths than at Fletcher's Adit.

The position of the sub-surface volcanics is poorly constrained despite extensive

geophysical exploration in the area High resolution geophysical methods would be hindered

by the laterally discontinuous nature of the alluvial fan conglomerates, the major unconfonnity

between the Cambrian volcanics and the Denison Group and the irregular fonn of the roof of

the batholith.

9.1.3 DOLCOATH GRANITE

The presence of cupolas on the westerly dipping granite ridge would strongly influence

the placement and type of mineralization. At the Moina Sn-W mine to the east of the study

area, a cupola extends to ::=200m below the skarn, and has intruded the structurally weak

region around the NW trending Bismuth Creek Fault (Kwak and Askins, 1981a). Whether

similar, but deeper, granite cupolas occur at Ti Tree Creek, Fletcher's Adit or Stonnont is

unknown.

The metasomatising and mineralizing fluids can be very well focused, as indicated by

patchy skarn development in the Ti Tree Creek area where limestone only tens of metres

nearby shows no evidence of hydrothermal alteration. Cupolas, in addition to fractures, may

help to explain these localised areas ofmetasomatism. Leaman (1988) suggests that small

cupolas could occur on the top of the flat topped granite ridge, but are more likely to occur at

the intersection between the roof and the steep sides of the batholith, such as Dolcoath Hill.
 91

9.2 STRUCTURAL CONTROLS

~ ')

9.2.1 FOLDING
The Stormont and Fletcher's Adit skarn bodies lie in a broad, E-W trending syncline

associated with the first phase of Middle Devonian deformation in the Moina area (Map 7,

Appendix H). This large syncline has resulted in the two deposits being preserved from the

processes of denudation.

The folding associated with the second phase of deformation also has helped to

preserve the skarn at Fleteher's Adit in particular, as this deposit lies in a major NW-SE

trending syncline. The folding during this phase involved substantial quantities of brittle

failure which played an important role in hydrothermal fluid access.

9.2.2 FAULTING AND JOINTING

The presence of major faults and areas of intense jointing are the most important

control on mineralization. Stormont is associated with a large SE dipping normal fault and

Fletcher's Adit with a small thrust and two small SE dipping reverse faults. The normal fault at

Stormont appears to be responsible for the bulk of the fluid access, but at Fletcher's Adit the

jointing can be so intense (Plate 6) that the small faults may only play minor roles. Intense

jointing occurs in the hinge regions of the tighter second phase folds. Textures such as

"wrigglite" and stockwork veining, as well as the extensive overprinting of these textures,

indicates that metasomatic and mineralizing fluids are permeating from a number of different

fractures. The faults and joints also play a very important role in fracturing the homfelsic

shales which are potential stratigraphic fluid traps.

In an attempt to define the zonation of skam characteristics with respect to the major

faults at Stormont and Fletcher's Adit, each drill-hole (from each deposit) has been rated in the

intensity of jointing and faulting, retrograde alteration and leaching, maximum Au grade

(ppm), silica alteration and abundance of two types of vein assemblages (Table 9). These

intensity ratings have then been contoured in Figures 24 and 25.

For Fletcher's Adit, faulting and jointing intensity, as well as the abundance of calcite

± chlorite, actinolite and quartz veins (vein assemblage B), increased towards the two
 92

outcropping faults near the adit The intensity of silica alteration and the abundance of quartz ±

muscovite, K-feldspar and pyrite veins (vein assemblage A) decreased from SW to NE. The

maximum gold grade and the intensity of retrograde alteration increases from SW to NE.

Thus, for Fletcher's Adit, the highest gold grades occur in regions where faulting and jointing

intensity is high, retrograde alteration is abundant and silica alteration and carbonate veins are

absent.
i
At Stormont, jointing and faulting, retrograde alteration, maximum gold grade, and

quartz ± muscovite, K-feldspar and pyrite veining (vein assemblage A) increases in intensity

from SE to NW. Calcite ± chlorite, actinolite and quartz veining (vein assemblage B) deceases

in intensity from SE to NW. Thus, there are spatial associations of gold grade with fracturing

at Stormont, as well as there being an association between high gold grades, intense retrograde

alteration and an absence of carbonate veining. These characteristics are consistent with those

observed at Fletcher's Adit.

HOLE No R.A. ± LEACHING Si02 ALT MAX Au (pprn)1 VEIN A VEIN B JOINTS±FAULTS
FO 1 2 3 0.24 i 2 2 2
FO 3 1 2 0.09 I 2 2 2
FO 4 1 2 0.56 l 2 0 1
FO 6 1 2 0.24 I 3 1 1
FO 7 3 0 2.6 I 0 I 1 2
I
FO 8 3 0 0.66 I 1 0 2
FO 9 2 0 0.18 I 1 2 3
I
501 3 0 11.4 I 1 2 2
SO 3 3 0 21.2 I 1 2 2
SO 5 1 0 0.24 I 2 1 1
SO 6 1 0 0.04 I 3 0 1

TABLE 9: Categorised down-hole characteristics for the Fleteher's Adit and Stormont areas. See Appendix
G for drill-hole locations.
KEY: 0 = Absent 2 = Moderate
1 = Weak 3 = Intense or abundant

R.A. ± LEACHING = Abundant actinolite and iron oxides.

VEIN A = Quartz ± muscovite, K-feldspar, pyrite.
VEIN B = Calcite ± chlorite, actinolite, quartz.
 93
a) c) -'-:-"'~ .... ,
Equal Nu.
Equal Area
++ +
"'*-+:+:\ ++ + + +"
"+ + ,t+ +.fI" +
++
++
"'++t
+ et +
+ +t
+ '%..+ + ++ ..... + + .+...
+ + + ~+T +
~ + + + -ttt .p-++"
+ ++ + + + ~
+ : +++~
+ + +
+ ++ ~
+ ;:I:il'
+ + + + +T++.....
+ +
+ * ++ +
++ .r...+

+
+
+ + +++
+
*
+
+ ++ +
+ + ++
+
+ + +
+ +
+
+ + + +
+ +
+ +
+ +

b)
d)

FIGURE 21: Poles to: a) Bedding planes, from folded Ordovician lithologies.
b) Fault planes.
c) Joint sillfaces.
d) Sillfaces containing veins.
Contouring interval = 2a.
 94

,""
........
c
FIGURE 22: Block diagram showing the various regions within a concentrically folded sequence. Layer A
has been folded so that there is nonnal faulting in the hinge. Layer B has been folded without faulting. Layer C
in the core of the antifonn has been folded and thrust-faulted.

a a

FIGURE 23: Joint sets commonly found in folded rocks: (1) a-c joints; (2) joints in paired sets
symmetrically disposed about the a-c plane, intersecting in the pole to bedding; (3) radiiujoints; (4) joints in
paired sets intersecting in a and inclined to c. From Hobbs et. al., 1976, p. 294.
 95

...I , .
a) -!-
i ...I / i :: ::::.~ ) 1 ' .. , ... 1
(~ .~L ,to.::' .::~~.:~~ ~,~ !.~,~:)
..; ........ ,3
..a
; .
!
,. 0,:..: m.~'''.
:
. ...... •· .. '~..
4"
'1..
c)
!:
r ............... ' .,. ,0
,
.
~
:7
,2. ......
:;:
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/"
.
.';...
,
.
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.
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, , ·· . ~ ,
•.....:::::.. •••; PD1 , ' -

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"-
I
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. .« .' :<~..:
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/ .............. ...." "" .,~ "

fit 0,," ,co_~

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mJ ..• \~.~. "
/~ ..-( ">-..~ ".
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.........~~ ..:>,.' j/ ..'"::.:::\.::::" , ,

, .......
)." .a~~.~~.~~
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~ ..
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, : "' ", \ ,\ : .' ..
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<:·.. .·~:~:r7
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r: ........, , ,, ,, /, ': \ / " .'
I s
-..00-"" . , , .
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" : '
, 0(11. yoo...,IJ
\ " \
" .,' .,' ! ..Ob "too .... tJ
. ", \, '\.. _I " , ' "'•."

'-. .....- ·.~:~:~:n2 110 "

, 1'
0

. ,,
/( .... l"
I" : \. ' '.

~ -
..... .....
........
~

........ , ............. .... , ".' "

~ ,
..
. '
-'f
.. ..... la j
a .. _ _ ,"

o ,~m, .............. /'

o ,~ m, "" ....... o ,~m,
'" ......... ' .......

FU:To!EI1.'S AlllT' AJU:A

fU:TCJIER'SAlllT' AJU:A I' FU:TCIlER'SAlllT' AREA,
OOWN.ilOLl:C!AJlACTDUS'rD
" \0 ').P IH} , . ,
/' OOWN.OOLEC!AJlACTDUS'rD
g rO.-JoO ltIJ '" I
I
j
II.ntmrsAOlT ~ •. ~It..

I
.
OOWN.OOLECIAlIACTDUSnC
0 IQ"'l.D ~'"

0·1,

FIGURE 24: Spatial zonation of down-hole characteristics at Fleteher's Adit Characteristics contoured b) Vein assemblage A (continuous contours) and B (dotted contours) abundance. See Table 9 for
here are ranked for each drill-hole in Table 9. mineral assemblages.
a) Retrograde alteration and leaching intensity (dotted contours) and maximum gold grade (continuous c) Jointing and faulting intensity (continuous contours) and siliceous alteration intensity (dotted
contours, in ppm).
contours).

~,:
1 ...I
a) "fi ~l b) 0".
" ........: :
. <<IT ~ ... : ..•. : . ~
...;;
: : SDI /:.::::'" " : : SDt"'; /:,/'"
,,
,' .,
qoo ~. ~
S'100S "a~ \ Sltl1
"'H ~ ~
\'.."" 3 a:':,
-:,:. ~ <.. ;,;:::::::..:c::::::/::,
,,/I \ ~,
'/:/..;::::.
.', ..::.:/:..... ,
\"
. ~
'/ ..... " "'/
'
:, ';20.
\\
, . / / >'/3 '/0 SDJ; :':'
.,' .. ' \
'1
\
/1
-1

\,<:>,:{:::.. . / /
\! /
/
/j .....
.... :.-.:/
,.'.'.,-
\ I \
I
,. ~,-
/ I
SD. 0
J J I SD. 0

S<OO$'",,,,,~,,, .•••.' ~ •• '\./

//,/ ~~Ol Se» .. N j \~'!'.j Y / I
I " :::.-::-::.., ::::::.. ::.:::::::::.~. ...:::'.::'::> :::::.::.::/. .• 0 SD5
/ ..... I
STO.....OM' .uIE:A,
.......... / >"TO .....OM' .uIE:A, / .' .
....:...... "'::"\. /:~>. . .
/
/
OO"""""'U:C!AllAC:iJUmC

(0 1.D ~""
..
'..\.
'. '.
CO""-"OUOWIAC:l>urnc:I

e_~ ""'",
....
/
"
.//'

FIGURE 25: Spatial zonation of down-hole characteristics at Stormont. Characteristics contoured here are b) Retrograde alteration and leaching intensity (continuous contours) and maximum gold grade (dotted

ranked for each drill-hole in Table 9. contours, in ppm).

a) Vein assemblage A (thin, dotted contours) andB (heavy, dotted contours) abundance, withjointing
and faulting intensity (continuous contours). See Table 9 for mineral assemblages.
 96

!:.HAPTER 10
OXYGEN ISOTOPES
10.1 INTRODUCTION
. The aim of the isotope study is to detennine if the oxygen and hydrogen isotopes for

the metasomatising/mineralizing fluids from skarn deposits in the Moina area display any trend

consistent with the increasing granite-to-prospect distance to the west and, to determine the
'I
source and character of these fluids. It is proposed that the more distal skarn at Stormont may

show a greater meteoric water component in its mineralizing fluids. A larger meteoric water

component at Stormont may support the theory that, at Stormont, a convecting meteoric water

cell was established which leached gold out of the underlying Cambrian volcanics, and

deposited the gold late in the mineral paragenesis. Fletcher's Adit and Ti Tree Creek lack the

late stage of intense retrograde alteration and high grade Au mineralization, and it is proposed

that these two deposits would have fluids that were isotopically distinct from Stormont's,

being dominantly magmatic.

Several problems hindered the testing of these hypothesese. Firstly, a mineral pair was

needed that could be analysed for OD and 0 180, and these phases had to be in quantities that

enabled uncontaminated samples to be drilled out from hand specimens for each deposits.

Magnetite and actinolite were the only phases that met this criterion, but these phases are stable

over a large portion of the paragenesis (Tables 1,2 and 3). To overcome this problem only

areas of massive magnetite were sampled as this magnetite actinolite corresponds to the late

actinolite replacement /early mineralization stage.

The second problem involves the calculation of the isotopic values of the

mineralizing/metasomatising fluid in equilibrium with the mineral analysed. To do this the

temperature of formation must be attained, using either fluid inclusion evidence (not applicable

here) or an oxygen isotope mineral pair. For the samples analysed, the only suitable minerals

were actinolite, magnetite and fluorite. Therefore the only oxygen isotope pair that could be

used was actinolite-magnetite. Unfortunately there are no thermodynamic data available

involving the oxygen isotope fractionation between actinolite and any other phase. Thus,

estimates for the temperature had to be made. From the phase diagrams shown in Figures 13
 and 18, the most likely temperature for the formation of this magnetite and actinolite is 350-

400oC.

10.2 RESULTS
The 8 180 for the hydrothermal waters in equilibrium (at 3500C) with magnetite from

Stormont, Fletcher's Adit, Ti Tree Creek and Shepherd and Murphy have been calculated and

)
given in Table 10. The formula used, and its derivation is given in Appendix F. The results

from Table 10 have been plotted in Figure 26.

10.3 CONCLUSIONS
The 8 180 of the hydrothermal waters in equilibrium with the sampled magnetite (at

3500C) are clustered around the metamorphic and primary magmatic water values, for all four

deposits (Figure 26). The domination of metamorphic fluids indicates that these magnetites are

positioned very early in the mineral paragenesis (Einaudi et al., 1981). Thus, these samples

are paragenetically much earlier than the late, high grade Au-Hi mineralization stage, and no

conclusions can be drawn reguarding the influx of late meteoric waters at a late paragenetic

stage!

The dominance ofmetamorphic water in isotopic equilibrium with many of the

magnetite samples is an interesting result, especially in the case of the Shepherd and Murphy

deposit, were wrigglitic magnetite (which comprises the majority of magnetite from this

deposit) is thought to form from saline, boiling, fluorine-saturated fluids (K wak and Askins,

1981a and b). Skarn-forming fluids are known to change in character from metamorphic to

magmatic to meteoric with time (Einaudi et. al., 1981), so the results shown in Figure 26 most

likely represent magnetites that were formed early in the paragenesis and in equilibrium with

firstly metamorphic fluids, then metamorphic+magmatic fluids and then just magmatic fluids.
 98

SAMPLE RUN RESIDUAL % YIELD I Sa. Vs Std. Del 018 MAG DEL 0181120
I at 350·C
STORMONT I
104 458 0.039 121.31 -19.676 2.49 9.2
52 487 0.034 114.3·1 -20.415 1.73 8.44·
94 489 0.042 1461 -14.051 8.25 14.96
1
FLETCHER'S ... I I
6 449 0.039 1201 -15.915 6.34 13.06
25 450 0.04 116.41 -17.189 5.04 11.75
35 451 0:039 123.31 -17.667 4.55 11.26
293 460 0.048 1101 -16.815 5.42 12.13
I
TI TREE CREEK I
307 461 0.043 117.41 -18.921 3.26 9.97
312 462 0.042 1211 -18.054 4.15 10.86
311 496 0.064 129.4·1 -21.623 0.49 7.20·
!
SHEPHERD ... i
43 486 0.043 111.5i -18.387 3.81 10.52
297 494 0.04 101.5·' -15.755 6.5 13.21·
41 457 0.04 120.91 -18.471 3.72 10.43
40 456 0.038 105.6i -15.219 7.051 13.76

TABLE 10: Oxygen isotope results for magnetite samples taken from the Stormont, Fleteher's Adit, Ti
Tree Creek and Shepherd and Murphy skarns. An asterisk denotes a suspect sample due to low or high %
yields. The formula used to calculate the a180 H20 at 3500 C is shown in Appendix F.

DEL 018 OF HYDROTHERMAL FLUIDS AT 350°C

4

METAMORPHIC WATER

>- 3 - PRIMARY MAGMATIC WATER /

(300-600·Q

U
Z
~
~ 2- 1=
C) ~~
1= 1:%. ,
~ SMOW
~ I-~
1= /"

1
~
1 1= ~
1= 1=
1= 1=
1= 1=
1= 1=
o I- 1::= --.-

-5-4-3-2-1012345678910111213141516171819202122232425
DEI 18 0 %0 ~ SHEPHERD AND MURPHY
8 TI TREE CREEK
IiI FLETCHER'S ADIT
• STORMONT

FIGURE 26: a180 of hydrothennal fluids in equilibrium with magnetites (at 3500C), from skarns in the

Moina district a180 values for metamorphic and primary magmatic water from Bames, 1979.
 99

CHAPTER 11
") IS STORMONT A GOLD SKARN?
11.1 WHATISAGOLDSKARN?
Classification of skams has been fraught with difficulty due to their extreme variability

in metal content, texture, location, grade, mineralogy, as well as episodes and styles of

mineralization (Meinert, 1983). Classification criteria have been based on geochemistry,

tectonic setting and especially metal content, with variations within sub-classes being attributed

to differences in magma type, environment of emplacement and host rock composition

(Einaudi et al., 1981). Before the late 1980's skarn deposits were divided into six categories

based on metal content: iron, tungsten, copper, lead-zinc, molybdenum and tin, but it became

evident that these classes could not be used to describe high grade auriferous skarns (Meinert,

1989).

The total quantity of gold obtained from skarn deposits is in the order of 106 kg, and

comes from five major skarn classes: gold, iron, copper, porphyry copper and lead-zinc

(Meinert, 1987; 1989). Relatively recent discoveries of high grade skarns that are economic to

mine for their gold content, has led to significant research in the field of gold skarns (Meinert,

1989). A summary of his findings on gold skarns is fmdings on this type of skarn is given

below.

Gold skarns can be mined for their gold content alone and only contain minor amounts

of Cu, Pb and Zn (Table 11). Gold grades are generally in the range of 5-15 ppm (Table 11)

and Au (ppm)/Cu (%) ratios are in the order of 5 to 200, in comparison with other major skarn

classes which are less than 5 (Figure 27). They contain anomalous amounts of arsenic,

bismuth and/or tellurium, in comparison to other skarn classes.

Host rocks for gold skarns generally contain a significant clastic or volcaniclastic

component The mineralizing plutons are generally relatively mafic equigranular diorites and

granodiorites, although they range from diorite (such as Hedley, RC.) to rhyolite porphyry

(such as Red Dome, Qld.).

Pyroxenes range from diopside to hedenbergite and are aluminous. Higher grade

deposits tend to have pyroxenes with a hedenbergite mole percentage that is greater than 50%
 100

and are often pure hedenbergites (Figure 8) and pyroxene usually is more abundant than

garnet. Amphiboles are usually actinolites, but contain some aluminium. Garnets tend to

belong to the grandite series (grossular-andradite), and are more aluminous than other classes

(Figure 7). Ferrous/ferric ratios in the pyroxenes and garnets are high, which indicates

reducing conditions in the skarn-fonning fluids, or in the wall rocks.

Common metasomatic phases include scapolite, vesuvianite, K-feldspar, biotite,

prehnite, apatite, sphene, ferrobustamite, albite, and cuspidine. The dominant sulphide

minerals are usually arsenopyrite, marcasite and pyrrhotite. Bismuth minerals are abundant

and include native bismuth, bismuthinite, maldonite, wittichinite, joseite and hedleyite.

Tellurium mineralogies have been reported.

Garnet is more common in areas that are proximal to the igneous contact, while

pyroxene abundance (and hedenbergite mole percent) increases in the more distal regions. An

increase in the mole percentage of johannsenite (CaMnSi206) in pyroxene composition can

occur in the distal portions of the skarn (Myers and Meinert, 1988). Gold, arsenic, bismuth

and tellurium grades are generally higher in distal areas, while copper is concentrated in the

areas closest to the mineralizing pluton. A "genetic continuum" may exist between gold skarns

and gold-rich copper skarns (such as the Whitehorse Copper District, B.C.).

Mineralizing fluids are reduced, indicated by the mineralizing plutons having low

Fe203fFeO ratios, the calc-silicate's iron content being dominantly ferrous and the common

occurrence of arsenopyrite, loellingite and native bismuth.

There is an intimate association between gold and bismuth in hand specimens, thin

sections and assay data. Gold is transported dominantly as a bisulphide complex, at

temperatures less than 3000C, unlike copper and other base metals. Thus the following metal

correlations are typical:

1) Au/Bi = strong and positive.

2) Cu/Ag = strong and positive.
3) Au/Cu and Au/Ag = strong and negative.

[Meinert 1987, 1988a and 1989]

 101

SKARNTYPE "0 OF TOTAL GGLD Sl.ZElm.1.l ~ ~ ~ a.uLW1 ~ ~

GOLD 34.9 90.94 4.5 6.1 0.3 16.6 382678 502462 2364121
IRON 3.1 29.84 1.1 5.7 0.5 2.3 33646 168996 1474601
COPPER 9.1 74.05 1.4 15.2 1.4 1.0 100083 850763 1031631
PORPHYRYCu 51.9 2138.60 0.3 7.2 1.0 0.3 568230 12589800 222870001
Pb-Zn 1.0 30.53 0.4 176.9 0.4 0.9 10857 4692850 10298
WEIGHTED A V-TOTAL 2363.97 0.5 9.6 1.0 0.5 1095464 18804870 2380548

TABLE 11: The statistics involving gold in five m:uor classes of skarn deposits (modified from Meinert,
1989, p. 540).

iOOO
- - - - -Si
Golc $"':l:-m
'100
,0 • [rur. $kJrTI'
c"
::: • Pt'l-Zr. S~:Jrn,
U i 0
-
-..
-..
o Pornn:'r:- C.: Sk:.::-n,

-
Cl
:::
<
x Copp:::- S"':lm,

0
)

10 100 1000 10.000 100.000 1.000.000

Contained Au (kg)

FIGURE 27: Au(g/t)/cu(%) vs contained gold from six major skarn classes. AU(glt)/Cu(%) values for
Stormont and Fleteher's Adit have been superimposed on the original graph from Meinert, 1989, p. 544.
 102

11.2 ARGUMENTS FOR STORMONT BEING A GOLD SKARN

11.2.1 HOST SEQUENCE
Gold skams are often hosted in clastic or volcaniclastic-rich strata, which is the case

for skams in the Moina area. The skam is hosted in the base of the Gordon Limestone (which

has a moderate to high clastic content) and the very upper part of the Moina Sandstone

(generally being""180 m of marine clastics). Additionally, the Gordon Limestone in the Moina

area can be seen to contain cherty bands of clastic material (plate 8). However, the above

features are not unique to the Stormont prospect and therefore cannot alone account for the

high gold grades.

The reason for the clastic or volcaniclastic host rock association with gold skams is

presently an enigma Meinert (1989) has suggested the following explanations as possibilities:

1) A protolith gold contribution (at Stormont Au may be leached from the footwall

clastics or Cambrian volcanics).

2) A compositional control on metasomatic reactions, and the precipitation of gold.

3) A permeability control on mineralization.

4) A continental scale tectonic control on sedimentation, volcanic activity, igneous

petrogenesis and therefore skam mineralization.

Points 3 and 4 above are not unique to Stormont as these features also occur in the

Moina area, but the presence of sub-surface Cambrian volcanics underlying the Moina

Sandstone and the Roland Conglomerate is a variable that could possibly be unique to (or

more of an influence to) the Stormont prospect

11.2.2 METALS
Stormont's metal abundances are summarised in Table 4. Gold averages 1.08 ppm and

bismuth 0.103%, while copper, lead, zinc, silver, tin, tungsten and molybdenum are in very

low abundances.

Stormont's Au (ppm)/Cu (%) ratio is ",,284 (averaged from all skam assays), which is

even greater than in the gold skarn field (Figure 27). In comparison, the Au (ppm)/Cu (%)

~J ratio at Fletcher's Adit averages ""5.37, which is just under that of the gold skam field (Figure

27).
 103

Stormont's statistical correlation matrix is shown in Table 7. There is a very strong

) positive Au/Bi correlation, a negative Au/Cu correlation, and a good AulPb correlation.

Gold grades reach values up to 21.2 ppm at SD 3, and at SD 1 bismuth reaches

1.15%, which are typical values of moderate grade gold skarns.

11.2.3 OPAQUE MINERALOGY

Stormont's opaque mineralogies dominantly consist of magnetite, pyrrhotite, native
)
bismuth, native gold (which has an average fineness of 823) and bismuthinite, with only

traces of base metal sulphides. This is consistent with gold skarns in general. Although only

native bismuth and bismuthinite were found at Stormont, it is extremely likely that similar Bi-

Te-Pb-S mineralogies to those found in Fletcher's Adit and Ti Tree Creek exist at Stormont.

Justification for this statement comes from the strong BilPb, AulPb and Au/Bi metal

correlations (similar to those at Fletcher's Adit) and the complete absence of galena. To

effectively assess Stormont's bismuth mineralogies many more samples would have to be

analysed, as it is common for gold skarns to have six or seven Bi-Te-Au-Pb-Cu-S phases

(Ewers and Sun, 1989).

Pyrrhotite is the dominant iron sulphide at Stormont which is typical of gold skarn

mineralization involving reduced fluids. The extremely low quantities of sphalerite, galena and

to a lesser extent chalcopyrite is also typical.

11.2.4 SILICATE MINERALOGY

The high intensity and extent of retrograde alteration at Stormont is typical of gold

skarns. The increased permeability resulting from such pervasive alteration is important to

allow the easy penetration of late auriferous fluids (Einaudi et. al., 1981), and implies that this

class of deposit is characterised by high water-to-rock ratios in the middle to late paragenetic

stages.

Garnet-to-pyroxene ratios are difficult to assess at Stormont, due to the near total

retrograde alteration of clinopyroxene to actinolite. If one considers areas that are now

actinolite ± quartz, calcite and magnetite representing areas that were once mostly pyroxene,

-) garnet/pyroxene ratios would have been in the order of 60:40 to 30:70, which is consistent
 104

with typical gold skarns. This is in contrast to Fletcher's Adit where garnet/pyroxene ratios are

in the order of 90:10 to 60:40 and are not consistent with gold skarns (Meinen, 1988b).

Vesuvianite, sphene, K-feldspar, rutile and biotite are metasomatic phases that are

common to both Stormont and typical gold skarns. Sphene and rutile were not identified at

Fletcher's Adit or Ti Tree Creek.

Garnet compositions from all three deposits have been plotted on a pyralspite-
) grossular-andradite ternary diagram (Figure 7). Six garnets from Stormont (Appendix A) plot

well within the gold skarn field defmed by Meinen (1989). However they also plot in the Cu

and Zn skarn field, but these metals are in such low abundances that there is no justification

for attempting to classifying Stormont as a copper or zinc skarn. Four of the six garnets from

Stormont represent a traverse across a zoned grandite. Such zonation does not affect the

ternary diagram's classification scheme as the core-rim trend parallels the gold skarn field's

direction of elongation.

In comparison with Stormont, the garnets from Fletcher's Adit are more iron-rich, and

plot outside the gold skarn field (Figure 7). Those at Ti Tree Creek show a broader range in

composition (from almost pure andradite to compositions closely approximating the garnets

from Stormont), but importantly, plot consistently within the Cu skarn field, while only

occasionally within the gold skarn field

Clinopyroxene compositions for the three skarns are shown in Figure 8, on a

johannsenite-diopside-hedenbergite ternary diagram. Out of five analyses from Stormont,

three plot within the gold skarn field, one is borderline and one is totally uncharacteristic

(being extremely Mn-rich). The weight percentages of Al20:3 in clinopyroxenes from the three

deposits have been plotted against their hedenbergite mole percentages in Figure 28.

Clinopyroxenes from all three deposits plot within the broad gold skarn field, but this area is

not exclusive to gold skarns.

There are a lack of accumulated data on amphibole compositions in gold skarns,

however the three deposits plotted in Figures 9 and 10 show no resemblance to amphiboles

from the Whitehorse copper belt (a gold-rich copper skarn district).

 105

6I I

rt) 4 Typical upper limit of Al203 in

oN pyroxenes from skams without gold
o TI TREE CREEK
< 3
~ ,,' - - - ... c FLETCHER'S ADIT
.....
~ 2
• STORMONT
1
..........

oI ! , ~ 050---c ,.
• I ~ , ~
o 20 40 60 80 GOLD SKARN VALUES
MOLE % HEDENBERGITE

FIGURE 28: Iron and aluminium content from pyroxenes from Stonnont, Fletcher's Adit, Ti Tree Creek,
and gold skams in general. Gold,skam field from Meinert, 1989, p. 545.
 106

11.3 ARGUMENTS AGAINST STORMONT BEING A GOLD SKARN

11.3.1 MINERALIZING PLUTON
The Dolcoath Granite is a typical tin/tungsten-bearing ilmenite series granitoid (based

on Ishihara's [1981] classification scheme for granitoids). The Dolcoath Granite's only

similarity with granitoids associated with gold skarns world-wide is that it is equigranular.

Meinert (1988b) concluded that the Do1coath Granite is too reduced, its water content too low

and it lacks a large vertically zoned magma chamber, which are requirements needed to form

large, high grade gold skarns.

Figure 29 contains plots of Na20-K20, Na20+K20-Si02 and Fe203+FeO-Si02 for

compositional data from the Dolcoath Granite, a granitoid associated with a Sumatran gold

skarn (the Maura Sipongi deposit) and a granitoid associated with copper skarns which exhibit

anomalously high gold grades (Whitehorse district, Yukon).

The rationale for including data from the Whitehorse district is that there may be a

genetic continuum between gold skams and auriferous copper skarns (Meinert, 1989).

Additionally, the Whitehorse copper belt has been studied in detail (unlike most gold skarns),

giving confidence in the quoted average granitoid composition for this district.

By comparison with fields defined by Meinert (1983) for the six major skarn types the

composition of the Dolcoath Gianite consistently falls within the tin skarn field (Figure 29).

However for the LFe-Si02 plot, there is some overlap between the Dolcoath Granite's field

and the molybdenum skarn field (Figure 29).

In comparison with gold skams and auriferous copper skams in Figure 29, the

Dolcoath Granite shows:

1) enrichment in silica, having on average =15 wt% more Si02 than the Sumatran gold

skarn, and =20 wt% more Si02 than the Whitehorse granitoids.

2) a broad spread of K20 and Na20 values, with Na20 being lower and K20 being on

average marginally higher than the two reference granitoids.

3) depletion is LFe, having on average =2-3 wt% less LFe than the two reference

granitoids.
 107

K20 Vs Na20
10 I 71

6
o
N !:be
• .. Granitiods from a Sumalran Au skarn.

e . Dolcoalh Granite.
~ 4
• • A"eraQe graniloid trom rhe While horse diSltiCI

2
•
o 1/ i , I i i I i , I ' i I ' i I
o 2 4 6 8 10
Na20

K20+Na20 Vs Si02
20 -r- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - l l

0
N
~
+ 10
0
N

Z
~
J • .-'. e
~
e
e
t9 jjJ

e
oI I
, I i I i I
40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Si02

Fe203+FeO Vs Si02
12

10
0 8
~
~
+
•
.•-.•
rr'l
0
N

:J
~
~
C
C Cc

, , liJ I:b c(
o( i i i I I i

40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Si02
FIGURE 29: Major element trends for granitoids associated with the Moina skarns (Dolcoath Granite), a
Sumatran gold skarn (at Muara Sipongi), and Au~rich copper skarns from the Whitehorse district, Southern
Yukon. Data from Webb, 1974; Beddoe-Stephens et. al.. 1987; Meinert, 1986.
 108

It is noticeable from the three plots shown in Figure 29 that the granitoid compositions

from the Sumatran gold skarn lie between the Dolcoath Granite's and the Whitehorse

granitoid's major element compositions. This observation may be significant in understanding

the igneous petrogenetic control on metalliferous skarn formation, and whether a genetic

continuum exists between gold-bearing skarns and the other major skarn classes.

In summary, the Dolcoath Granite is a granitoid typically associated with Sn skarns,

and its major composition does not mirror that of gold skarns or auriferous copper skarns.

Thus, from the igneous petrology perspective, the skarn at Stormont should not be gold-

bearing. Stormont's footwalllithologies must help to modify skarn-forming fluids, so that the

fluids approach (but do not fully reach) those that mineralize and metasomatise gold skarns.

The Dolcoath Granite's chemistry remains as the most crucial factor in explaining why

Stormont's gold grades are low.

11.3.2 METALS
Arsenic is not abundant at Stormont, averaging only 14.2 ppm for all skarn assays.

Gold grades are on average low in comparison to typical gold skarns, as all skarn assays

(including zero values) average only 1.08 ppm. Accurate comparisons of gold grades are

difficult however, due to quoted resource gold grades only including assays from a specific

area defined by "cut-off grades".

The correlation coefficient for Au and eu is -0.005 (Table 7). The Au/Ag correlation

coefficient at Stormont of 0.362 is a statistically significant correlation, which is contrary to

gold skarn characteristics.

11.3.3 OPAQUE MINERALOGY

)
Although pyrrhotite is present, it is not abundant. Additionally no marcasite,

arsenopyrlte or loellingite have been identified at Stormonl Although Stormont has the lowest

quantity of magnetite of the three skarns, magnetite is locally abundant (usually spatially

separated from the zones containing Bi, Au and Pb) which is rare in gold skarns formed from

reduced fluids.
 109

11.3.4 SILICATE MINERALOGY

One of the five salitic clinopyroxenes analysed from Stonnont plots well outside the

gold skarn field in Figure 8, being extremely enriched in Mn (::=:8.93 mole % johannsenite). In

comparison with samples from Stonnont, pyroxenes from Ti Creek Creek are very consistent

in composition plotting in the centre of the copper skarn field, while those from Fletcher's Adit

are Mn-enriched, but just plot within the gold skarn field.

Meinert (1989) uses the graph shown in Figure 28 as another exploration tool for

quickly identifying potential high grade gold skarns. Although Stormont has clinopyroxene

compositions that plot within the broad gold skarn field, none plot within the high aluminium

portion (an area exclusive to clinopyroxene compositions from gold skarns). This diagram

also shows a trend of decreasing mol% hedenbergite and increasing wt% Al203 from

Fletcher's Adit to Stormont to Ti Tree Creek, which probably reflects differences in the

protolith's dolomite and clastic content.

Figure 10 indicates there is very litde difference in Al203 wt% between amphiboles

from Stonnont and those from the Whitehorse district, which is known to have less Al203

than typical gold skarns.

Cuspidine (C34Si20]F) is not present at Stonnont, with fluorine being mostly

contained in the mineral fluorite which is not usually associated with gold skarns. Other

particularly important mineralogies in typical gold skarns that do not occur in abundance (or at

all) at Stormont include prehnite, scapolite and apatite.

11.4 CONCLUSIONS
From the data given above for and against Stormont's status as a gold skarn, the

question arises: Why does Stormont have gold skarn characteristics, given the petrological

nature of the Dolcoath Granite? It seems that Stormont represents a skarn that has been

metasomatised and mineralized by fluids that have been strongly modified by their movements

through the footwalllithologies, and also may have had pre-existing metamorphic and

metasomatically derived phases influencing later reactions in the forming skarn. This

modification of granitic fluids can be most effectively achieved when the skarn is at a greater
 110

distance from the underlying granitic source, which explains the tendency for gold grades and

the Mn content of clinopyroxenes to increase towards the west.

The formation of Stormont represents the partial evolution of tin skarn-forming fluids

to potential gold skarn-forming fluids. The characteristics which argue against a gold skarn

status for Stormont can be attributed primarily to the metasomatising/mineralizing Dolcoath

Granite simply having the wrong chemistry. In addition, but to a lesser extent, the

composition of the host and footwalllithologies may have hindered the development of a high

grade deposit, in that they were not sufficiently auriferous.

Despite Stormont being associated with a granite of the wrong series (ilrnenite instead

of magnetite) and composition, the most fundamental gold skarn characteristics are fulfilled.

The host rocks, metal correlations, metal abundances and Au(ppm)/Cu(%) ratios at Stormont

are typical of high grade North American gold skarns. The garnet/pyroxene ratios, the opaque

mineralogies, the style of mineralization, the degree of retrograde alteration and minor silicate

mineralogies are definitely comparable to the North American examples.

Analysis of garnet and pyroxene compositions is quickly becoming the most definitive

classification and exploration technique in skarn research. The garnet compositions at

Stormont strongly support its classification as a gold skarn. The clinopyroxene compositions

indicate that Stormont is a gold skarn, but is unlike the high grade gold skarns in that the

AlZ03 content of the clinopyroxenes is low and the clinopyroxenes occasionally contain

anomalous amounts of Mn .

The amphibole compositions at Stormont are unlike amphiboles from gold-rich copper

skarns, but are lower:in AIz03 than the high grade gold skarns.
J
Thus, the compositions of the dominant calc-silicates also indicate that Stormont is a

"gold skarn" albeit a lower grade and more distal deposit than the North American examples.

.J
 111

CHAPTER 12
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
The Stormont Au-Bi skarn can be classified as a gold skarn based on the garnet and

clinopyroxene composition classification scheme, host rock composition, metal associations,

the degree of retrograde alteration, associated mineralogies and metal ratios from this deposit

in comparison with those from major gold skarns defined by Meinert (1987; 1989). The
~)

unusual feature of this skarn is that it is associated with an ilmenite series granitoid (the

Dolcoath Granite), which chemically is a typical Sn-W skam-forming granite. High grade gold

skarns throughout the world are generally mineralized by magnetite series granitoids (Meinert,

1988b).

Typically, gold skams are associated with oxidised plutons, but are generally distal to

the granitoid and are mineralized by fluids that have become relatively reducing (Le. pyrrhotite

and arsenopyrite are common). The fluids responsible for mineralizing these deposits are

initially oxidised and are therefore capable of transporting large quantities of gold as a chloride

complex. Additionally, the oxidised granitoids are the source for the majority of the gold. As

the fluids move to more distal areas in the contact aureole, they drop in temperature and f02

and deposit reduced iron sulphides and then gold.

At Moina however, the ilmenite series Dolcoath Granite produces fluids that are more

reducing and less efficient at transporting gold. Additionally, the granite is a typical Sn-W

skarn-forming granitoid and therefore contributes very little gold. At the distal position of

Stormont, the late mineralizing fluids are very similar in chemistry to those of typical gold

skarn fluids, but have: not been as oxidised initially (and therefore have not transported much

gold), and the granitoid has not contributed much gold It is likely that at Stormont the

majority of the gold has originated from the Cambrian volcanics in the footwall, and not from

the granite. This fundamental difference between Stormont and typical gold skarns helps to

explain why gold grades are very patchy at Stormont, instead of being uniformly high such as

the classic gold skarns of the world.

Despite the fundamentally limiting factor on gold mineralization at Stormont mentioned

above, the late stage fluids that mineralized this deposit were chemically similar to those from
 112

typical gold skams. Given that the mineralizing fluids emanating from the Dolcoath Granite

initially had a non-ideal chemistry, potential gold skarn-forming fluids were modified by

passing through the thick footwall sequence of rudites (with abundant disseminated hematite),

arenites and argillites, as well as underlying volcanics. Modification of Sn-W skarn-forrning

fluids into Au skarn-forming fluids is best achieved when the granite-to-prospect distance is at

a maximum. Thus Storrnont, being the most westerly and more distal deposit (0.5-1 km),

bears the greatest similarity to the classic North American gold skarns.

Given that the Cambrian volcanics are the most likely source of gold in the Moina

district, the extraction of moderately large amounts of gold would have been best achieved by

the establishment of a convecting cell of meteoric and magmatic fluids. The gold-leaching

fluids are hypothesized to have been dominantly meteoric in character, as the gold is

paragenetically very late and skarn-forming fluids are known to change from dominantly

metamorphic to magmatic to meteoric with time (Einaudi et al., 1981). The channelling of

mineralizing fluids up a discrete conduits would not have resulted in significant leaching of

gold from the surrounding volcanics.

During the mineralization stage at Storrnont, the paragenesis indicates that the

hydrothermal fluids were dropping in temperature, f02 and pH, while rising in fS2. The drop

in f02 with time may indicate that the footwall sedimentary sequence was no longer acting as

an oxidising agent to the granitic fluids, or that the Cambrian volcanics were starting to act as a

reducing agent as a late stage meteoric (+ magmatic) water convection cell was initiated. This

drop in f02 and temperature coincides well with thermodynamic modelling involving iron

sulphides, oxides, native bismuth and bismuthinite.

;

The rate of decline of f02 with temperature decreases with time, which may be a result

of the gradual establishment of a convecting meteoric (+ magmatic) water cell. Deposition of

Au on the "gold solubility cliff' from a Au(HSh- species is strongly supported by the

observed paragenesis and thermodynamic modelling using reasonable values for pH, T, f02,

LS and aCL-.
The metal-metal plots for skam lithologies at Stormont reveal that there exists a

population of metal grades that are very high in Au and Bi while low in Cu, W and Sn, that is
 113

unique to Stonnont. This population is distinct from a low grade Au and Bi population which

is common to both Fletcher's Adit and Stonnont The high grade, late stage Au and Bi

population may be the result of the establishment of a convecting water cell, during the late

retrograde alteration phase at Stonnont.

The intensity of retrograde fluid activity at Stonnont was very high (in comparison to

other skarns in the Moina area), as indicated by the pervasive alteration of salitic clinopyroxene

to actinolitic amphibole. The paragenesis also continues to lower temperatures at Stonnont.

Thus, during the middle and late stages of skarn development at Stonnont, water/rock ratios

were very high, retrograde alteration of the early calc-silicates was intense, and leaching of

gold from Cambrian volcanics in the footwall was taking place. The greater granite-to-prospect

distance, the increased fracture/fault controlled penneability, and abundance of late retrograde

fluids at Stonnont all contributed to the development of a late stage convection cell that was

large, active, and effective at leaching gold from the underlying volcanics.

Textural and mineralogical differences between the three skarns involved in this study

can be attributed mainly to the differing granite-to-prospect distances, amounts of dolomite,

AI, and Si in the protoliths, intensity of retrograde alteration, degree of fracture controlled

penneability, and possibly the sub-surface presence and thickness of the Cambrian volcanics.