HARDWARE AND NETWORKING

SERVICE LEVEL- III

Module Title: - Installing and Managing Network Protocols

Module code: EIS HNS3 M03 0322
Nominal duration: 50 Hours

Prepared by: ENTOTO POLY TECHNIC COLLEGE

September, 2023
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
 Acknowledgement

We would like to thank First of all God for giving me strength and health to start and finishing
TTLM. And next we thanks Ministry of Labor and Skills that MoLS gives available environment
like dormitory, hotel, water, coffee ceremony and other facilities for the all TVE trainers to work
this Teaching, Training and Learning Materials (TTLM).
Acronym

List of abbreviation

I/O Input or Output

VDU visual display unit
OS Operating system
HP-UX, AIX Hewlett Packard Unix, Advanced Interactive Executive
Mac OS Macintosh operating system
LAN Local area network
WAN Wide area network
VPN Virtual private network
PSTN public switched telephone network
Ipconfig Internet Protocol Configuration
P2P peer-to-peer
UTP Unshielded twisted-pair
STP Shielded twisted-pair
UTP Unshielded twisted-pair
STP Shielded twisted-pair
ASICs application-specific integrated circuits
ASICs application-specific integrated circuits
VLAN Virtual Local Area Network
CLI command-line interface
GUI Graphical User Interface
HDD or SSD Hard Disk Drive or Solid State Drive
CHKDSK and SFC Check Disk and System File Checker
PDA Personal digital assistant
 Introduction to the Module

This module covers the performance outcomes, skills and knowledge required to install and manage
network protocols in a networking environment

 This module covers the units:

 Install and manage network protocols

 Identify network protocol applications

Learning Objective of the Module

 Selecting, testing and validating appropriate network protocol services

 Designing a network addressing system, with subnet and host IDs
 Overview of network protocols services
 Configuring and testing IP address

 Common network protocol applications

 Evaluating user requirement and recommend network-protocol services

 Applying IP addressing scheme

 Network layers

 Module Instruction

For effective use this modules trainees are expected to follow the following module instruction:

 Read the specific objectives of this Learning Guide.

 Read the information that this module contain.
 Complete the Self-check.
 Submit your accomplished Self-check.
 Do the Operations which in the module.
 Do the LAP test in page (if you are ready) and show your output to your teacher.
*Your teacher will assess your result either satisfactory or unsatisfactory. If unsatisfactory, your
teacher shall advice you on additional work. But if satisfactory you can proceed to the next topic.
 Unit one: Install and manage network protocols

This unit is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the following content
coverage and topics:
o Overview of network protocols services
o Selecting, testing and validating appropriate network protocol services
o Designing a network addressing system, with subnet and host IDs
 IP class address classes
 IP address Sub netting
o Configuring and testing IP address
This unit will also support you to accomplish the learning outcomes stated in the cover page.
Specifically, upon completion of this learning guide, you will be able to:

 We hire subject matter experts to write our learning guides to ensure they are industry
and workplace relevant and current.
 Before we commence writing our learner guides we identify the requirements of the
training package/accredited course and collect feedback from industry.

 We design and develop our resources in consultation with VET experts, trainers and
assessors and industry experts. This is to ensure each component of the learning
resources demonstrate relevance and currency in the industry and meet training package
and regulatory compliance requirements.

 All resources go through a compliance and quality check with highly experienced
professionals who have worked in the VET sector, with ASQA and other regulators.

RTOs purchase a license for their RTO only and are not permitted to share the documents
with any other entity. Purchasers are asked to agree to a license agreement to this effect
prior to purchase.
 1. INTRODUCTION TO NETWORK PROTOCOL

1.1. Basic concept of network protocol

 A network protocol is an established set of rules that determine how data is transmitted
between different devices in the same network.
 Essentially, it allows connected devices to communicate with each other, regardless of
any differences in their internal processes, structure or design.
 a protocol is a standardized set of rules for formatting and processing data. Protocols
enable computers to communicate with one another.
 Network protocols are a set of rules, conventions, and data structures that dictate how
devices exchange data across networks.
 Network Protocols are a set of rules governing exchange of information in an easy,
reliable and secure way.
 In order for two computers to talk to each other, they must be speaking the same
language.

1.2. List of Network Protocols

 There are thousands of different network protocols, but they all perform one of three primary
actions:

o Communication

o Network Management

o Security

1.3. Communication
• Communication protocols allow different network devices to communicate with each other.
They are used in both analog and digital communications and can be used for important
processes, ranging from transferring files between devices to accessing the internet.

• Common types of communication protocols include the following:

• Automation: These protocols are used to automate different processes in both commercial and
personal settings, such as in smart buildings, cloud technology or self-driving vehicles.

• Instant messaging: Instantaneous, text-based communications on smartphones and computers

occur because of a number of different instant messaging network protocols.
• Routing: Routing protocols permit communication between routers and other network devices.
There are also routing protocols specifically for ad hoc networks.

• Bluetooth: Ever-popular Bluetooth devices — including headsets, smartphones and computers

— work due to a variety of different Bluetooth protocols.

• File transfer: If you have ever moved files from one device to another, either via a physical or
digital medium, you’ve used file transfer protocols (FTP).

• Internet Protocol: Internet Protocol (IP) allows data to be sent between devices via the internet.
The internet could not operate as it currently does without IP.

1.4. Network management

Protocols define and describe the various procedures needed to effectively

operate a computer network. These protocols affect various devices on a
single network — including computers, routers and servers — to ensure each
one, and the network as a whole, perform optimally.
The functions of network management protocols include the following:
Connection: These protocols establish and maintain stable connections
between different devices on the same network.
Link aggregation: Link aggregation protocols allow you to combine multiple
network connections into one link between two devices. This works to
increase the strength of the connection and helps sustain the connection
should one of the links fail.
Troubleshooting: Troubleshooting protocols allow network administrators to
identify errors affecting the network, evaluate the quality of the network
connection, and determine how administrators can fix any issues.
Security
 Security protocols, also called cryptographic protocols, work to ensure that the
network and the data sent over it are protected from unauthorized users.
 Common functions of security network protocols include the following:
 Encryption: Encryption protocols protect data and secure areas by requiring
users to input a secret key or password in order to access that information.
 Entity Authentication: Entity authentication protocols create a system that
requires different devices or users on a network to verify their identity before
accessing secure areas.
 Transportation: Transportation security protocols protect data while it is
transported from one network device to another.
 Here are a few examples of the most commonly used network protocols:
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): This Internet Protocol defines how data
is transmitted over the internet and determines how web servers and browsers
should respond to commands. This protocol (or its secure counterpart,
HTTPS) appears at the beginning of various URLs or web addresses online.
Secure Socket Shell (SSH): This protocol provides secure access to a
computer, even if it’s on an unsecured network. SSH is particularly useful for
network administrators who need to manage different systems remotely.
Short Message Service (SMS): This communications protocol was created to
send and receive text messages over cellular networks. SMS refers exclusively
to text-based messages. Pictures, videos or other media require Multimedia
Messaging Service (MMS), an extension of the SMS protocol.
Protocols
Protocols are a fundamental aspect of digital communication as they dictate
how to format, transmit and receive data. They are a set of rules that
determines how the data will be transmitted over the network.
It can also be defined as a communication standard followed by the two key
parties (sender and receiver) in a computer network to communicate with each
other.
It specifies what type of data can be transmitted, what commands are used to
send and receive data, and how data transfers are confirmed.
1.5. Designing a network addressing system, with subnet and host IDs

I. INTRODUCTION
Testing is a crucial activity in the
evaluation process of
a system or an implementation under
test (IUT). Among the
commonly applied approaches, the
passive testing techniques
(also called monitoring) are today
gaining efficiency and reli-
ability [9]. These techniques are
divided in two main groups:
online and offline testing approaches.
Offline testing computes
test scenarios before their execution
on the IUT and gives
verdicts afterwards, while online
testing provides continuously
testing during the operation phase of
the IUT.
With online testing approaches, the
collection of traces is
avoided and the traces are eventually
not finite. Indeed, testing
a protocol at runtime may be
performed during a normal use
of the system without disturbing the
process. Several online
testing techniques have been studied
by the community in
order to test systems or protocol
implementations [14], [10],
[2]. These methods provide interesting
studies and have their
own advantages, but they also have
several drawbacks such as
the presence of false negatives, space
and time consumption,
often related to a needed complete
formal model, etc. Although
they bring solutions, new results and
perspectives to the
protocol and system testers, they also
raise new challenges
and issues. The main ones are the non-
collection of traces
and their on-the-fly analysis. The
traces are observed (through
an interface and an eventual sniffer)
and analyzed on-the-fly
to provide test verdicts and no trace
sets should be studied
a posteriori to the testing process. In
our work, we present a
novel formal online passive testing
approach applied at runtime
to test the conformance and
performance of the IUT.
We herein extend our previous
proposed methodology [3],
[4] that presented a passive testing
approach for checking the
requirements of communicating
protocols. In [3] and [4], a for-
malism was applied to test in an
offline way the conformance
and performance of an IUT. In this
new paper, we develop
our approach to test these two aspects
in an online way in
considering the above mentioned
inherent constraints and chal-
lenges. Furthermore, our framework is
designed to test them
at runtime, with new required verdicts
definitions of ‘Time-
Fail’, ‘Data-Inc’ and ‘Inconclusive’
representing unobserved
I. INTRODUCTION
Testing is a crucial activity in the
evaluation process of
a system or an implementation under
test (IUT). Among the
commonly applied approaches, the
passive testing techniques
(also called monitoring) are today
gaining efficiency and reli-
ability [9]. These techniques are
divided in two main groups:
online and offline testing approaches.
Offline testing computes
test scenarios before their execution
on the IUT and gives
verdicts afterwards, while online
testing provides continuously
testing during the operation phase of
the IUT.
With online testing approaches, the
collection of traces is
avoided and the traces are eventually
not finite. Indeed, testing
a protocol at runtime may be
performed during a normal use
of the system without disturbing the
process. Several online
testing techniques have been studied
by the community in
order to test systems or protocol
implementations [14], [10],
[2]. These methods provide interesting
studies and have their
own advantages, but they also have
several drawbacks such as
the presence of false negatives, space
and time consumption,
often related to a needed complete
formal model, etc. Although
they bring solutions, new results and
perspectives to the
protocol and system testers, they also
raise new challenges
and issues. The main ones are the non-
collection of traces
and their on-the-fly analysis. The
traces are observed (through
an interface and an eventual sniffer)
and analyzed on-the-fly
to provide test verdicts and no trace
sets should be studied
a posteriori to the testing process. In
our work, we present a
novel formal online passive testing
approach applied at runtime
to test the conformance and
performance of the IUT.
We herein extend our previous
proposed methodology [3],
[4] that presented a passive testing
approach for checking the
requirements of communicating
protocols. In [3] and [4], a for-
malism was applied to test in an
offline way the conformance
and performance of an IUT. In this
new paper, we develop
our approach to test these two aspects
in an online way in
considering the above mentioned
inherent constraints and chal-
lenges. Furthermore, our framework is
designed to test them
at runtime, with new required verdicts
definitions of ‘Time-
Fail’, ‘Data-Inc’ and ‘Inconclusive’
representing unobserved
 Design a network addressing system, with subnet and host IDs including appropriate devices
Network protocols are the rules that define the standards for communication between network
hosts
 Examples of protocols used in computer networking include:
1. Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
2. Network Basic Input Output System (NetBIOS)
3. NetBIOS Enhanced User Interface (NetBEUI).
 TCP/IP is a suite of protocols including Internet Protocol (IP) which provides network
addressing.
 Each computer, network printer or other network host on your organization network will
need a unique IP address just the same as a letter that is mailed to you through Australia Post
needs a unique address to be delivered to you. These IP addresses can be either configured
manually at each device or assigned automatically by the network operating system. In this
we will look at the format of IP addresses, and how networks are segregated from each other
by using subnet masks. To fully understand how IP addressing works, firstly you need to be
able to translate binary numbers such as 10001000 to decimal numbers (10001000 =136).
 An IP address is 32 bits long and made up of two components, a network portion and a host
portion. The network address is used to identify the network and is common to all the devices
attached to the network. The host (or node) address is used to identify a particular device
attached to the network. The IP address is generally represented using the dotted decimal
notation, where 32 bits are divided into four octets. Each of the octets can be represented in a
decimal format, separated by decimal points.
 When a computer is configured to use the same IP address each time it powers up, this is
known as a Static IP address
In contrast, in situations when the computer's IP address is assigned automatically, it is known as
a Dynamic IP address, the current version of the IP protocol is IP version 4 (IPv4) & IP version 6
(IPv6).
Example of Ipv4
An Ipv4 address (dotted decimal notation)
10101100
00010000
11111110
00000001
172 16 254 1
One byte = 8 Bits
So, four byte = 8*4=32
  Subnet allows network administrators to subdivide a single class of network addresses
into multiple, smaller networks, allowing the more efficient use of IP addresses. The
basic idea of subnet ting is to divide the standard class full host number field into two
parts the subnet ID and the host ID on that subnet.
.
1.6. Configuring and testing IP address

 You must configure all physical interfaces of a multpathing group with a test address.
You need test addresses to detect failures and repairs. If a test address is not configured, it
is not chosen for failover. Only in. mpathd uses test addresses. Normal applications
should not use this address. This address will not failover when the interface fails. In
IPv4, you should configure the test address in such a way that normal applications do not
use the test address (See How to Configure a Multipathing Interface Group with Two
Interfaces).

This section describes test address configuration concepts for the following Internet protocols:

 IPv4
 IPv6

IPv4 Test Addresses

The in.mpathd multipathing daemon requires a test IP address for detecting failures and repairs. You
must use a routeable address for this IP address. That is, the subnet prefix of the address must be
known to any routers present on the link. You use the ifconfig command's new -failover option to
configure a test address. Use the following syntax to configure a test address:

# ifconfig interface-name addif ip-address <other-parameters> -failover up

For <other-parameters>, use the parameters required by your configuration. See the ipconfig
(1M) man page for descriptions. How to Configure a Multipathing Interface Group with Two
Interfaces shows the steps you perform for an IPv4 test address.

For example, to add a new logical interface with an address of 19.16.85.21, the netmask and broadcast
address set to the default value, and also configure the interface with a test address, type the following:

# ifconfig hme0 addif 19.16.85.21 netmask + broadcast + -failover up

Note –You must mark an IPv4 test address as deprecated to prevent applications from using the
test address (see How to Configure a Multipathing Interface Group with Two Interfaces).

Use failover without the dash to turn on the failover attribute of the address.
Note – All test IP addresses in a multipathing group must use the same network prefix. That is,
the test IP addresses must belong to a single IP subnet.

IPv6 Test Addresses

To configure an IPv6 test address, you use the link-local address itself, because link-local addresses are
tied to the physical interface. Thus, you do not need a separate IP address in the IPv6 case. For IPv6,
the -failover option has the following syntax:

# ifconfig interface-name inet6 -failover

How to Configure a Multipathing Interface Group with Two Interfaces shows the steps you
perform for an IPv6 test address.

When a multipathing group has both IPv4 and IPv6 plumbed on all the group's interfaces, you
might not need a separate IPv4 test address. The in.mpathd daemon can probe the interfaces
using an IPv6 link-local address. IPv6 link-local addresses are created when IPv6 is plumbed.

Use failover without the dash to turn on the failover attribute of the address.

Note –The only valid IPv6 test address is the link-local address.

Preventing Applications From Using Test Addresses

After you have configured a test address, you need to ensure that this address is not used by normal
applications. If you let applications use the test address, applications will fail, because test addresses do
not failover during the failover operation. To ensure that IP does not pick the test address for normal
applications, you mark the test address deprecated by using the ifconfig command. This parameter has
the following syntax:

ifconfig interface-name deprecated

After you mark the address as deprecated, IP does not pick this address as a source address for
any communication, unless the applications explicitly bind to the address.
Only in.mpathd explicitly binds to such an address (see How to Configure a Multipathing
Interface Group with Two Interfaces).

Because link-local addresses are not present in the name service (DNS, NIS, and NIS+),
applications do not use link-local addresses for communication. Consequently, you do not need
to mark IPv6 test addresses as deprecated.

Note –You must not mark IPv6 link-local addresses as deprecated.

Use the -deprecated option to turn off the deprecated attribute of the address.

Note –IPv4 test addresses should not be placed in the name service tables (DNS/NIS/NIS+). In
IPv6, link-local addresses are used as test addresses and are not normally placed in the name
service tables.

Unit Two: Identify network Protocol application

This unit is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the following content
coverage and topics:

 Common network protocol applications

 Evaluating user requirement and recommend network-protocol services

 Applying IP addressing scheme

 Network layers

This unit will also support you to accomplish the learning outcomes stated in the cover page.
Specifically, upon completion of this learning guide, you will be able to:

 We hire subject matter experts to write our learning guides to ensure they are industry
and workplace relevant and current.
 Before we commence writing our learner guides we identify the requirements of the
training package/accredited course and collect feedback from industry.

 We design and develop our resources in consultation with VET experts, trainers and
assessors and industry experts. This is to ensure each component of the learning
resources demonstrate relevance and currency in the industry and meet training package
and regulatory compliance requirements.

 All resources go through a compliance and quality check with highly experienced
professionals who have worked in the VET sector, with ASQA and other regulators.

RTOs purchase a license for their RTO only and are not permitted to share the documents
with any other entity. Purchasers are asked to agree to a license agreement to this effect
prior to purchase.
 2. Identify network Protocol application

2.1. Common network protocol applications

 Network protocols enable the exchange of information across the internet and work behind
the scenes so effectively that many users don't think twice about them or how the internet
works. But it's critical for networking professionals to know and understand protocols as
the foundation of networking.

This glossary explores 12 common network protocols network engineers should be

familiar with and provides information about their main functions and importance.

1. Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

ARP translates IP addresses to MAC addresses and vice versa so LAN endpoints can
communicate with one another. ARP is necessary because IP and MAC addresses are
different lengths. Below is a breakdown of the various address lengths:

 IP version 4 (IPv4) addresses are 32 bits.

 IPv6 addresses are 128 bits.

 MAC addresses -- a device's physical hardware number -- are 12 hexadecimal digits split
into six pairs.

Translations between these addresses must occur for proper device communication. ARP
isn't required every time devices attempt to communicate because the LAN's host stores
the translated addresses in its ARP cache. As a result, the ARP translation process is
mainly used when new devices join the network.
 ARP
translates MAC and IP addresses between endpoints.

2. Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)

BGP makes the internet work. This routing protocol controls how packets pass through routers in
an autonomous system (AS) -- one or multiple networks run by a single organization or provider
-- and connect to different networks. BGP can connect endpoints on a LAN to one another, and it
can connect endpoints in different LANs to one another over the internet.

External BGP directs network traffic from various ASes to the internet and vice versa. Internal
BGP directs network traffic between endpoints within a single AS.
BGP is often used for internet redundancy, WAN and IaaS connectivity.

3. Domain name system (DNS)

 DNS is a database that includes a website's domain name and its corresponding IP
addresses. People use a domain name to access a website, while devices use an IP address
to locate a website.

 DNS translates the domain name into IP addresses, and these translations are included
within the DNS. Servers can cache DNS data, which is required to access the websites.
DNS also includes the DNS protocol, which is within the IP suite and details the
specifications DNS uses to translate and communicate.

 DNS is important because it can provide users with information quickly and enable
access to remote hosts and resources across the internet.

4. Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)

 DHCP assigns IP addresses to network endpoints so they can communicate with other
network endpoints over IP. Whenever a device joins a network with a DHCP server for
the first time, DHCP automatically assigns it a new IP address and continues to do so
each time a device moves locations on the network.

When a device connects to a network, a DHCP handshake takes place. In this handshake process,
the device and DHCP server communicate using the following steps:

1. The device establishes a connection.

2. The server receives the connection and provides available IP addresses.

3. The device requests an IP address.

4. The server confirms the address to complete the process.

 DHCP
handshakes occur when a device initially connects to a network.

5. File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

 FTP is a client-server protocol, with which a client requests a file and the server supplies
it. FTP runs over TCP/IP -- a suite of communications protocols -- and requires a
command channel and a data channel to communicate and exchange files, respectively.
Clients request files through the command channel and receive access to download, edit
and copy the file, among other actions, through the data channel.

 FTP has grown less popular as most systems began to use HTTP for file sharing.
However, FTP is a common network protocol for more private file sharing, such as in
banking.

6. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

  Like FTP, HTTP is a file sharing protocol that runs over TCP/IP. But HTTP primarily
works over web browsers and is commonly recognizable for most users. When a user
enters a website domain and aims to access it, HTTP provides the access. HTTP connects
to the domain's server and requests the site's HTML, which is the code that structures and
displays the page's design.

 Another form of HTTP is HTTPS, which stands for HTTP over Secure Sockets Layer or
HTTP Secure. HTTPS can encrypt a user's HTTP requests and webpages. This provides
more security to users and can prevent common cybersecurity threats, such as man-in-
the-middle attacks.

HTTP
provides users with access to the various components of a website's domain.

7. Internet Protocol (IP)

 IP functions similarly to a postal service. When users send and receive data from their
device, the data gets spliced into packets. Packets are like letters with two IP addresses:
one for the sender and one for the recipient.

 After the packet leaves the sender, it goes to a gateway, like a post office, that directs it in
the proper direction. Packets continue to travel through gateways until they reach their
destinations.
 IP is commonly paired with TCP to form TCP/IP, the overall internet protocol suite.
Together, IP sends packets to their destinations, and TCP arranges the packets in the
correct order, as IP sometimes sends packets out of order to ensure the packets travel the
fastest ways.

8. Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)

 OSPF works with IP to send packets to their destinations. IP aims to send packets on the
quickest route possible, which OSPF is designed to accomplish. OSPF opens the shortest,
or quickest, path first for packets. It also updates routing tables -- a set of rules that
control where packets travel -- and alerts routers of changes to the routing table or
network when a change occurs.

 OSPF is similar to and supports Routing Information Protocol, which directs traffic based
on the number of hops it must take along a route, and it has also replaced RIP in many
networks. OSPF was developed as a more streamlined and scalable alternative to RIP.
For example, RIP sends updated routing tables out every 30 seconds, while OSPF sends
updates only when necessary and makes updates to the particular part of the table where
the change occurred.
 RIP helps
determine that the path via Router C results in fewer hops to the traffic's destination.

9. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)

 SMTP is the most popular email protocol, is part of the TCP/IP suite and controls how
email clients send users' email messages. Email servers use SMTP to send email
messages from the client to the email server to the receiving email server. However,
SMTP doesn't control how email clients receive messages -- just how clients send
messages.

 That said, SMTP requires other protocols to ensure email messages are sent and received
properly. SMTP can work with Post Office Protocol 3 or Internet Message Access
Protocol, which control how an email server receives email messages.

10. Telnet
 Telnet is designed for remote connectivity, and it establishes connections between a
remote endpoint and a host machine to enable a remote session. Telnet prompts the user
 at the remote endpoint to log on. Once the user is authenticated, Telnet gives the endpoint
access to network resources and data at the host computer.

 Telnet has existed since the 1960s and was arguably the first draft of the modern internet.
However, Telnet lacks sophisticated security protections required for modern
communications and technology, so it isn't commonly used anymore.

11. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

 TCP is the other half of TCP/IP and arranges packets in order so IP can deliver them.
Specifically, TCP numbers individual packets because IP can send packets to their
destinations through different routes and get them out of order, so TCP amends this
before IP delivers the packets.

 TCP also detects errors in the sending process -- including if any packets are missing
based on TCP's numbered system -- and requires IP to retransmit those packets before IP
delivers the data to its destination. Through this process, the TCP/IP suite controls
communication across the internet.

Key
differences between TCP and UDP include packet order and use cases.

12. User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

  UDP is an alternative to TCP and also works with IP to transmit time-sensitive data. UDP
enables low-latency data transmissions between internet applications, making it ideal for
VoIP or other audio and video requirements.

 Unlike TCP, UDP doesn't wait for all packets to arrive or organize the packets. Instead,
UDP transmits all packets even if some haven't arrived.

2.2. Evaluating user requirement and recommend network-protocol services

Why Protocol Design?

• New demands by advances in communication technology
• More distributed, net-based, and mobile applications
• Customization, cross-layer optimization etc.

 Important part of the design of distributed systems and why protocol evaluation?

o Testing and (problem) analysis for new protocols

o if standard protocols are used in new contexts
(e.g. Internet protocols in wireless networks)
o if protocols of different layers are combined
o if protocols share resources

What is a protocol?
 Low-level abstraction: A state machine
 The protocol state defines which actions are performed and how to respond to events
 A communicating state machine consists of
o set of states
o state transitions
o message queues

What is protocol design?

 It’s more than just implementation
 A development process:
 o Requirements
o Specification and validation
o Implementation
o Test and evaluation

Conclusion

 The signalmen did not have the appropriate set of messages

 An unexpected case occurred that could not be handled by the protocol.
 The protocol could not recover from an error, it was incomplete in this sense

2.3. Applying IP addressing scheme

The number of machines you expect to support will affect several decisions you will need to
make at this stage of setting up a network for your site. Your organization may require a small
network of several dozen standalone machines located on one floor of a single building.
Alternatively, you may need to set up a network with more than 1000 hosts in several buildings.
This arrangement may require you to further divide your network into subdivisions called
subnets. The size of your prospective network will affect the
 Network class you apply for
 Network number you receive
 IP addressing scheme you use for your network
Obtaining a network number and then establishing an IP addressing scheme is one of the most
important tasks of the planning phase of network administration.

3. Parts of the IP Address

Each network running TCP/IP must have a unique network number, and every machine on it
must have a unique IP address. It is important to understand how IP addresses are constructed
before you register your network and obtain its network number.

The IP address is a 32-bit number that uniquely identifies a network interface on a machine. An
IP address is typically written in decimal digits, formatted as four 8-bit fields separated by
periods. Each 8-bit field represents a byte of the IP address. This form of representing the bytes
of an IP address is often referred to as the dotted-decimal format.

The bytes of the IP address are further classified into two parts: the network part and the host
part. Figure 3-1 shows the component parts of a typical IP address, 129.144.50.56.

Figure 3-1 Parts of an IP Address

 Network Part

This part specifies the unique number assigned to your network. It also identifies the class of
network assigned. In Figure 3-1, the network part takes up two bytes of the IP address.

Host Part

This is the part of the IP address that you assign to each host. It uniquely identifies this machine
on your network. Note that for each host on your network, the network part of the address will be
the same, but the host part must be different.

Subnet Number (Optional)

Local networks with large numbers of hosts are sometimes divided into subnets. If you choose to
divide your network into subnets, you need to assign a subnet number for the subnet. You can
maximize the efficiency of the IP address space by using some of the bits from the host number
part of the IP address as a network identifier. When used as a network identifier, the specified
part of the address becomes the subnet number. You create a subnet number by using a netmask,
which is a bit mask that selects the network and subnet parts of an IP address. (Refer to "Creating
the Network Mask" for full details.)

Network Classes

The first step in planning for IP addressing on your network is to determine which network class
is appropriate for your network. After you have done this, you can take the crucial second step:
obtain the network number from the InterNIC addressing authority.

Currently there are three classes of TCP/IP networks. Each class uses the 32-bit IP address space
differently, providing more or fewer bits for the network part of the address. These classes are
class A, class B, and class C.

Class A Network Numbers

A class A network number uses the first eight bits of the IP address as its "network part." The
remaining 24 bits comprise the host part of the IP address, as illustrated in Figure 3-2 below.

Figure 3-2 Byte Assignment in a Class A Address

The values assigned to the first byte of class A network numbers fall within the range 0-127.
Consider the IP address 75.4.10.4. The value 75 in the first byte indicates that the host is on a
class A network. The remaining bytes, 4.10.4, establish the host address. The Inter NIC assigns
only the first byte of a class A number. Use of the remaining three bytes is left to the discretion
of the owner of the network number. Only 127 classes A networks can exist. Each one of these
numbers can accommodate up to 16,777,214 hosts.

Class B Network Numbers

A class B network number uses 16 bits for the network number and 16 bits for host numbers.
The first byte of a class B network number is in the range 128-191. In the number 129.144.50.56,
the first two bytes, 129.144, are assigned by the InterNIC, and comprise the network address.
The last two bytes, 50.56, make up the host address, and are assigned at the discretion of the
owner of the network number. Figure 3-3 graphically illustrates a class B address.

Figure 3-3 Byte Assignment in a Class B Address

Class B is typically assigned to organizations with many hosts on their networks.

Class C Network Numbers

Class C network numbers use 24 bits for the network number and 8 bits for host numbers. Class
C network numbers are appropriate for networks with few hosts--the maximum being 254. A
class C network number occupies the first three bytes of an IP address. Only the fourth byte is
assigned at the discretion of the network owners. Figure 3-4 graphically represents the bytes in a
class C address.

Figure 3-4 Byte Assignment in a Class C Address

The first byte of a class C network number covers the range 192-223. The
second and third each cover the range 1- 255. A typical class C address might
be 192.5.2.5. The first three bytes, 192.5.2, form the network number. The
final byte in this example, 5, is the host number.
Administering Network Numbers
If your organization has been assigned more than one network number, or
uses subnets, appoint a centralized authority within your organization to
assign network numbers. That authority should maintain control of a pool of
assigned network numbers, assigning network, subnet, and host numbers as
required. To prevent problems, make sure that duplicate or random network
numbers do not exist in your organization.
Designing Your IP Addressing Scheme
After you have received your network number, you can then plan how you
will assign the host parts of the IP address.
Table 3-1 shows the division of the IP address space into network and host
address spaces. For each class, "range" specifies the range of decimal values
for the first byte of the network number. "Network address" indicates the
number of bytes of the IP address that are dedicated to the network part of the
address, with each byte represented by xxx. "Host address" indicates the
number of bytes dedicated to the host part of the address. For example, in a
class A network address, the first byte is dedicated to the network, and the last
three are dedicated to the host. The opposite is true for a class C network.
Table 3-1 Division of IP Address Space
The numbers in the first byte of the IP address define whether the network is class A, B, or C and
are always assigned by the Inter NIC. The remaining three bytes have a range from 0-255. The
numbers 0 and 255 are reserved; you can assign the numbers 1-254 to each byte depending on
the network number assigned to you.

Table 3-2 shows which bytes of the IP address are assigned to you and the range of numbers
within each byte that are available for you to assign to your hosts.

Table 3-2 Range of Available Numbers

4. How IP Addresses Apply to Network Interfaces

In order to connect to the network, a computer must have at least one network interface, as
explained in "Network Interfaces". Each network interface must have its own unique IP address.
The IP address that you give to a host is assigned to its network interface, sometimes referred to
as the primary network interface. If you add a second network interface to a machine, it must
have its own unique IP number.
 Each network interface has a device name, device driver, and associated device file in the
/devices directory. The network interface might have a device name such as le0 or smc0, device
names for two commonly used Ethernet interfaces.
Note -
This book assumes that your machines have Ethernet network interfaces. If you plan to use
different network media, refer to the manuals that came with the network interface for
configuration information.

2.4. Network layers

 The "network layer" is the part of the Internet communications process where these
connections occur, by sending packets of data back and forth between different networks.

 The network layer has two main functions. One is breaking up segments into network
packets, and reassembling the packets on the receiving end. The other is routing packets
by discovering the best path across a physical network.

 The Network Layer is the third layer of the OSI model.

 It handles the service requests from the transport layer and further forwards the service
request to the data link layer.
 The network layer translates the logical addresses into physical addresses
 It determines the route from the source to the destination and also manages the traffic
problems such as switching, routing and controls the congestion of data packets.
 The main role of the network layer is to move the packets from sending host to the
receiving host.
The main functions performed by the network layer are:
o Routing: When a packet reaches the router's input link, the router will move the packets
to the router's output link. For example, a packet from S1 to R1 must be forwarded to the
next router on the path to S2.
o Logical Addressing: The data link layer implements the physical addressing and
network layer implements the logical addressing. Logical addressing is also used to
distinguish between source and destination system. The network layer adds a header to
the packet which includes the logical addresses of both the sender and the receiver.
o Internetworking: This is the main role of the network layer that it provides the
logical connection between different types of networks.
o Fragmentation: The fragmentation is a process of breaking the packets into the
smallest individual data units that travel through different networks.
 Services Provided by the Network Layer
o Guaranteed delivery: This layer provides the service which guarantees that the
packet will arrive at its destination.
o Guaranteed delivery with bounded delay: This service guarantees that the
packet will be delivered within a specified host-to-host delay bound.
o In-Order packets: This service ensures that the packet arrives at the destination in
the order in which they are sent.
o Guaranteed max jitter: This service ensures that the amount of time taken between
two successive transmissions at the sender is equal to the time between their receipt at the
destination.
o Security services: The network layer provides security by using a session key
between the source and destination host. The network layer in the source host encrypts
the payloads of datagrams being sent to the destination host. The network layer in the
destination host would then decrypt the payload. In such a way, the network layer
maintains the data integrity and source authentication services.
The OSI Model: Understanding the Seven Layers of Computer Networks
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a reference tool for understanding data
communications between any two networked systems. It divides the communications processes
into seven layers. Each layer both performs specific functions to support the layers above it and
offers services to the layers below it. The three lowest layers focus on passing traffic through the
network to an end system. The top four layers come into play in the end system to complete the
process.
This white paper will provide you with an understanding of each of the seven layers,
including their functions and their relationships to each other. This will provide you with an
overview of the network process, which can then act as a framework for understanding the
details of computer networking.

Since the discussion of networking often includes talk of “extra layers”, this paper will
address these unofficial layers as well.

Finally, this paper will draw comparisons between the theoretical OSI model and the
functional TCP/IP model. Although TCP/IP has been used for network communications before
the adoption of the OSI model, it supports the same functions and features in a differently
layered arrangement.

The main benefits of the OSI model include the following:

 o Helps users understand the big picture of networking

o Helps users understand how hardware and software elements function together

o Makes troubleshooting easier by separating networks into manageable pieces

o Defines terms that networking professionals can use to compare basic functional

o relationships on different networks

o Helps users understand new technologies as they are developed

o Aids in interpreting vendor explanations of product functionality

 Layer 1 – The Physical Layer

The physical layer of the OSI model defines connector and interface specifications, as
well as the medium (cable) requirements. Electrical, mechanical, functional, and procedural
specifications are provided for sending a bit stream on a computer network.

Components of the physical layer include:

Cabling system components

Adapters that connect media to physical interfaces

Connector design and pin assignments

Hub, repeater, and patch panel specifications

Wireless system components

Parallel SCSI (Small Computer System Interface)

Network Interface Card (NIC)

 In a LAN environment, Category 5e UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) cable is generally
used for the physical layer for individual device connections. Fiber optic cabling is often used for
the physical layer in a vertical or riser backbone link. The IEEE, EIA/TIA, ANSI, and other
similar standards bodies developed standards for this layer.

Note: The Physical Layer of the OSI model is only part of a LAN (Local Area Network).

 Layer 2 – The Data Link Layer

Layer 2 of the OSI model provides the following functions:

Allows a device to access the network to send and receive messages

Offers a physical address so a device’s data can be sent on the network

Works with a device’s networking software when sending and receiving messages

Provides error-detection capability

Common networking components that function at layer 2 include:

• Network interface cards

• Ethernet and Token Ring switches

• Bridges NICs have a layer 2 or MAC address.

A switch uses this address to filter and forward traffic, helping relieve congestion and
collisions on a network segment. All rights reserved. Page 4 Bridges and switches function in a
similar fashion; however, bridging is normally a software program on a CPU, while switches use
Application-Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs) to perform the task in dedicated hardware,
which is much faster.

Layer 3 – The Network Layer

 Layer 3, the network layer of the OSI model, provides an end-to-end logical addressing
system so that a packet of data can be routed across several layer 2 networks (Ethernet, Token
Ring, Frame Relay, etc.). Note that network layer addresses can also be referred to as logical
addresses.

Initially, software manufacturers, such as Novell, developed proprietary layer 3

addressing. However, the networking industry has evolved to the point that it requires a common
layer 3 addressing system. The Internet Protocol (IP) addresses make networks easier to both set
up and connect with one another. The Internet uses IP addressing to provide connectivity to
millions of networks around the world.

To make it easier to manage the network and control the flow of packets, many
organizations separate their network layer addressing into smaller parts known as subnets.
Routers use the network or subnet portion of the IP addressing to route traffic between different
networks. Each router must be configured specifically for the networks or subnets that will be
connected to its interfaces.

Routers communicate with one another using routing protocols, such as Routing
Information Protocol (RIP) and Open version of Shortest Path First (OSPF), to learn of other
networks that are present and to calculate the best way to reach each network based on a variety
of criteria (such as the path with the fewest routers). Routers and other networked systems make
these routing decisions at the network layer.

When passing packets between different networks, it may become necessary to adjust
their outbound size to one that is compatible with the layer 2 protocol that is being used. The
network layer accomplishes this via a process known as fragmentation. A router’s network layer
is usually responsible for doing the fragmentation. All reassembly of fragmented packets
happens at the network layer of the final destination system. Copyright ©2006 Global
Knowledge Training LLC. All rights reserved.

Two of the additional functions of the network layer are diagnostics and the reporting of
logical variations in normal network operation. While the network layer diagnostics may be
initiated by any networked system, the system discovering the variation reports it to the original
sender of the packet that is found to be outside normal network operation.
 The variation reporting exception is content validation calculations. If the calculation
done by the receiving system does not match the value sent by the originating system, the
receiver discards the related packet with no report to the sender. Retransmission is left to a
higher layer’s protocol. Some basic security functionality can also be set up by filtering traffic
using layer 3 addressing on routers or other similar devices

Layer 4 – The Transport Layer

Self check test-1.

Layer 4, the transport layer of the OSI model, offers end-to-end communication between
end devices through a network. Depending on the application, the transport layer either offers
reliable, connection-oriented or connectionless, best-effort communications.

Some of the functions offered by the transport layer include:

• Application identification

• Client-side entity identification

• Confirmation that the entire message arrived intact

• Segmentation of data for network transport

• Control of data flow to prevent memory overruns

• Establishment and maintenance of both ends of virtual circuits

• Transmission-error detection

• Realignment of segmented data in the correct order on the receiving side

• Multiplexing or sharing of multiple sessions over a single physical link

The most common transport layer protocols are the connection-oriented TCP
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the connectionless UDP User Datagram Protocol
(UDP).

Layer 5 – The Session Layer

 Layer 5, the session layer, provides various services, including tracking the number of
bytes that each end of the session has acknowledged receiving from the other end of the session.
This session layer allows applications functioning on devices to establish, manage, and terminate
a dialog through a network. Session layer functionality includes:

 Virtual connection between application entities

 Synchronization of data flow

 Creation of dialog units

 Connection parameter negotiations

 Partitioning of services into functional groups

 Acknowledgements of data received during a session

 Retransmission of data if it is not received by a device

Layer 6 – The Presentation Layer

 Layer 6, the presentation layer, is responsible for how an application formats the data to
be sent out onto the network. The presentation layer basically allows an application to read (or
understand) the message. Examples of presentation layer functionality include:

• Encryption and decryption of a message for security

• Compression and expansion of a message so that it travels efficiently

• Graphics formatting

• Content translation

• System-specific translation

Layer 7 – The Application Layer

Layer 7, the application layer, provides an interface for the end user operating a device
connected to a network. This layer is what the user sees, in terms of loading an application (such
as Web browser or e-mail); that is, this application layer is the data the user views while using
these applications.

Examples of application layer functionality include:

• Support for file transfers

• Ability to print on a network

• Electronic mail

• Electronic messaging

• Browsing the World Wide Web

Layers 8, 9, and 10

Whether a designed to be a humorous extension or a secret technician code, layers 8, 9,

and 10 are not officially part of the OSI model. They refer to the non-technical aspects of
computer networking that often interfere with the smooth design and operation of the network.
 Layer 8 is usually considered the “office politics” layer. In most organizations, there is at
least one group who is favored, at least temporarily, by management and receives “special”
treatment. When it comes to networking, this may mean that this group always has the latest
and/or fastest equipment and highest speed network links.

Layer 9 is generally referred to as the “blinders” layer. This layer applies to

organizational managers who have already decided, usually with little or no current information,
to dictate a previously successful network plan. They may say things such as:

 “It worked in my last company, so we will use it here.”

 “Everybody says this is the right solution.”

 “I read in an airline magazine that this was the best way to do it so that is what we will
do.”

What these managers seem to forget is that they are paying a highly qualified staff to provide
them with useful information. These managers bypass planning in order to make a quick
decision.

Layer 10, the “user” layer, is in every organization. But users are much more than a layer.
While they are one of the reasons the network exists, users can also be a big part of the need for
troubleshooting. This is especially true when the users have computers at home and have decided
to “help” the network administrator or manager by making changes to the network without
consulting the network staff. Equally challenging is the user who “didn’t do anything” when the
network segment in his/her immediate vicinity suddenly stopped working. In these cases, the
layer 10 identification coincides with layer 10 troubles (and the “ID10T” label some technicians
have used).

TCP/IP Model Overview

 The OSI model describes computer networking in seven layers. While there have been
implementations of networking protocol that use those seven layers, most networks today use
TCP/IP. But, networking professionals continue to describe networking functions in relation to
the OSI layer that performs those tasks.

The TCP/IP model uses four layers to perform the functions of the seven-layer OSI
model.

The network access layer is functionally equal to a combination of OSI physical and data
link layers (1 and 2). The Internet layer performs the same functions as the OSI network layer
(3).

Things get a bit more complicated at the host-to-host layer of the TCP/IP model. If the
host-to-host protocol is TCP, the matching functionality is found in the OSI transport and session
layers (4 and 5). Using UDP equates to the functions of only the transport layer of the OSI
model.

The TCP/IP process layer, when used with TCP, provides the functions of the OSI
model’s presentation and application layers (6 and 7). When the TCP/IP transport layer protocol
is UDP, the process layer’s functions are equivalent to OSI session, presentation, and application
layers (5, 6, and 7).

Equipment at the Layers

Some of the layers use equipment to support the identified functions. Hub related activity
is “Layer One”. The naming of some devices designates the functional layer such as “Layer Two
Switch” or “Layer Three Switch”. Router functions focus on “Layer Three”. User workstations
and servers are often identified with “Layer Seven”.

Summary
The most identified benefit of the OSI model is that it organizes thinking about networks
and give novices, journeymen, and masters a common, computer networking language. Human
communication, discussions, and collaboration can use this language to remove ambiguity and
clarify intent.
 Learn More
Learn more about how you can improve productivity, enhance efficiency, and sharpen your
competitive edge. Check out the following Global Knowledge courses:

Understanding Networking Fundamentals

TCP/IP Networking

Network+ Boot Camp

For more information or to register, visit www.globalknowledge.com or call 1-800-COURSES to

speak with a sales representative.

Our courses and enhanced, hands-on labs offer practical skills and tips that you can immediately
put to use. Our expert instructors draw upon their experiences to help you understand key
concepts and how to apply them to your specific work situation. Choose from our more than 700
courses, delivered through Classrooms, e-Learning, and On-site sessions, to meet your IT and
management training needs.

About the Author

Paul Simoneau has over 37 years of experience in working with multiple aspects of computers
and data communications. He is the founder and president of NeuroLink, Ltd., an international
coaching and education company specializing in professional development. NeuroLink’s client
list includes Cisco, AT&T, Lucent, Citibank, Quest Communications, Hewlett-Packard, Sprint,
Verizon, all branches of the US Armed Forces, and many others.

He is also a senior instructor and course director with Global Knowledge, the blended solutions
training company. In that role, he has authored and managed two highly successful courses—
Hands-on Internetworking with TCP/IP and Network Management Essentials. Both courses are
offered world-wide in Classroom, Virtual Classroom, and Self-directed formats. In support of
these and other courses, he actively participates in Global Knowledge’s e-mentoring programs.

His is author of the books Hands-On TCP/IP and SNMP Network Management.
Name: _____________________________ IDNo_________ Date: ___________________

Time started: ____________ Time finished: ________________

Instruction:-Read all questions which given below and you to answer the correct one.(2 points
each)

1. Follow Operational Health Safety (OH&S) guideline is not important at workplace.

A. True B. False
2. Warranty is not important to know what kind of support services are offered by the
prospective supplier.
A. True B. False
3. From the following one is used to control the movement of cursor.
A. keyboard B. Mouse C. Printer D. None
3. All peripheral devices are Input devices.
A. True B. False
4. Which one of the following Input devices that help to write or enter the letters and
numbers in to your computer?
A. Keyboard B. Printer C. Monitor Mouse
5. From the given alternatives One is output device
A. Monitor B. Printer C. Projector D. All are answers
Instruction: Match column A with column B.

Column A Column B

6. Operational Health and Safety A. Modem

7. Clients B. input or output devices
8. Connectivity devices C. Internal departments
9. Peripherals D. Correct posture
Instruction: Say true or false
10. Output peripherals are show the product or display result of input.
11. Keyboard and mouse are not input peripherals
12. Communication devices are produce sounds capture pictures.
 0peration sheet-1
Start up your computer

Step 1:- Connect the power cables on the system unit and monitor.

Step 2:-Connect hardware peripherals to the computer on the back side front side.

Step 3:- Boot you Computer.

 Lap test 1
Instruction: Answer all the questions listed below, if you have some clarifications – feel free to
ask your teacher.

Identify the following

1. Operating System
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. Client
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. Equipment
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. OHS
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________