Introduction To Graph Theory 2nd Edition West Solutions Manual 1
Introduction To Graph Theory 2nd Edition West Solutions Manual 1
Solutions Manual an endpoint with every edge incident to v. Since e has only two endpoints,
d(v) = 2, and there is only one such edge e. Thus G is a triangle.
β(G) = 1 if and only if G is a nontrivial star plus isolated vertices. The
vertex cover number is 1 if and only if one vertex is incident to all edges.
β 0 (G) = 1 if and only if G = K 2 . Since every edge covers two vertices,
Full download at link: β 0 (G) = 1 requires that n(G) = 2, and indeed β 0 (K 2 ) = 1.
3.1.5. α(G) ≥ n(G )
for every graph G. Form an independent set S
by 1(G)+1
Solution Manual: iteratively selecting a remaining vertex for S and deleting that vertex and
https://testbankpack.com/p/solution-manual-for-
introduction-to-graph-theory-2nd-edition-west-
0130144002-9780130144003/
any matching is a matching in T − {u, v}. Since each perfect matching in 3.1.11. If C and C 0 are cycles in a graph G, then C 4C 0 decomposes into
T must contain the edge uv, the number of perfect matchings in T equals cycles. Since even graphs decompose into cycles (Proposition 1.2.27), it
the number of perfect matchings in T − {u, v}. suffices to show that C 4C 0 has even degree at each vertex. The set of edges
Each component of T − {u, v} is a tree; by the induction hypothesis, in a cycle that are incident to v has even size (2 or 0). The symmetric
each component has at most one perfect matching. The number of perfect difference of any two sets of even size has even size, since always | A 4 B| =
matchings in a graph is the product of the number of perfect matchings in | A| + |B| − 2 | A ∩ B|.
each component, so the original T has at most one perfect matching. (More
3.1.12. If C and C 0 are cycles of length k in a graph with girth k, then C 4C 0
generally, a forest has at most one perfect matching.)
is a single cycle if and only if C ∩ C 0 is a single nontrivial path.
3.1.9. Every maximal matching in a graph G has size at least α 0 (G)/2. Sufficiency. If C ∩ C 0 is a single path P, then the other paths in C and
Proof 1 (counting and contrapositive). Let M ∗ be a maximum match- C between the endpoints of P share only their endpoints, and hence C 4C 0
0
ing, and let M be another matching. We show that if |M| < α 0 (G)/2, is their union and is a single cycle.
then M is not a maximal matching. Since M saturates 2 |M| vertices and Necessity. We know that C ∩ C 0 must have an edge, since otherwise
|M| < α 0 (G)/2, we conclude that M saturates fewer than α 0 (G) vertices. C and C 0 are edge-disjoint and C 4C 0 has two cycles. Also we may assume
This means that M cannot saturate a vertex of every edge of M ∗ , and there that C and C 0 are distinct, since otherwise C 4C 0 has no edges.
is some edge of M ∗ that can be added to enlarge M. Suppose that P and P 0 are distinct maximal paths in C ∩ C 0 . Now C
Proof 2 (augmenting paths). Let M be a maximal matching, and let M ∗ is the union of four paths P, Q, P 0 , Q 0 , and C 0 is the union of four paths
be a maximum matching. Consider the symmetric difference F = M 4 M ∗ . P, R, P 0 , R 0 . Note that Q and Q 0 may share edges with R and R 0 . By sym-
Since the number of edges from M and M ∗ in a component of F differ by at metry, we may assume that P 0 is no longer than P and that Q and R share
most one, the symmetric difference contains at least |M ∗ |−|M| augmenting the same endpoint of P.
paths. Since M is maximal, each augmenting path must contain an edge If Q and R also share the same endpoint of P 0 , then Q ∪ R and Q 0 ∪ R 0
of M (an M -augmenting path of length one is an edge that can be added to both form closed walks in which (by the maximality of P and P 0 ) some edge
M). Thus |M ∗ | − |M| ≤ |M|, and we obtain |M| ≥ |M ∗ | /2 = α 0 (G)/2. appears only once. If Q and R do not share the same endpoint of P 0 , then
Proof 3 (vertex covers). When M is a maximal matching, then the P 0 ∪ Q ∪ R and P 0 ∪ Q 0 ∪ R 0 both form closed walks in which the edges of
vertices saturated by M form a vertex cover (if an edge had no vertex in P 0 appear only once. In each case, the two closed walks each each contain
this set, then it could be added to M). Since every vertex cover has size at a cycle, and the sum of their lengths is less than 2k. This yields a cycle of
least α 0 (G), we obtain 2 |M| ≥ β(G) ≥ α 0 (G). length less than k in G, which is impossible.
Comment: The statement can fail for longer cycles. In the 3-
3.1.10. If M and N are matchings in a graph G and |M| > |N |, then there
dimensional cube Q 3 , there are two 6-cycles through antipodal vertices,
are matchings M 0 and N 0 in G such that M 0 = |M| − 1, N 0 = |N | + 1,
and their symmetric difference consists of two disjoint 4-cycles.
M 0 ∩ N 0 = M ∩ N , and M 0 ∪ N 0 = M ∪ N . Consider the subgraph F of G
consisting of the edges in the symmetric difference M 4 N ; this consists of 3.1.13. In an X, Y -bigraph G, if S ⊆ X is saturated by a matching M and
all edges belonging to exactly one of M and N . Since each of M and N is T ⊆ Y is saturated by a matching M 0 , then there is a matching that sat-
a matching, every vertex has at most one incident edge in M and at most urates both S and T . Let F be a subgraph of G with edge set M ∪ M 0 .
one incident edge in N . Hence the degree of every vertex in F is at most 2. Since each vertex has at most one incident edge from each matching, F has
The components of a graph with maximum degree 2 are paths and maximum degree 2. Each component of F is an alternating path or an al-
cycles. A path or cycle in F alternates edges between M and N . Since ternating cycle (alternating between M and M 0 ). From a component that
|M| > |N |, F has a component with more edges of M than of N . Such a is an alternating cycle or an alternating path of odd length, we can choose
component can only be a path P that starts and ends with an edge of M. the edges of M or of M 0 to saturate all the vertices of the component.
Form M 0 from M by replacing M ∩ E( P) with N ∩ E( P); this reduces the Let P be a component of F that is a path of even length. The edge
size by one. Form N 0 from N by replacing N ∩ E( P) with M ∩ E( P); this at one end of P is in M; the edge at the other end is in M 0 . Also P starts
increases the size by one. Since we have only switched edges belonging to and ends in the same partite set. If it starts and ends in X , then the ends
exactly one of the sets, we have not changed the union or intersection. cannot both be in S, because only one endpoint of P is saturated by M.
147 Chapter 3: Matchings and Factors Section 3.1: Matchings and Covers 148
k−2 )
Choosing the edges of M in this component will thus saturate all vertices 3.1.16. When k ≥ 2, the k-dimensional hypercube Q k has at least 2(2
of S and T contained in V ( P). Similarly, choosing the edges of M 0 from perfect matchings.
any component of F that is a path of even length with endpoints in Y will Proof 1 (induction on k). Let m k denote the number of perfect match-
saturate all the vertices of S ∪ T in that component. ings. Note that m 2 = 2, which satisfies the inequality. When k > 2, we
can choose matchings independently in each of two disjoint subcubes of di-
3.1.14. Matchings in the Petersen graph.
mension k − 1. The number of such matchings is m 2 . By the induction
Deleting any perfect matching leaves C 5 +C 5 . Deleting a perfect match- k−3
k−1
k −2
hypothesis, this is at least (22 )2 , which equals 22 .
ing leaves a 2-regular spanning subgraph, which is a disjoint union of cy-
cles. Since the Petersen graph has girth 5, the only possible coverings of Comment: Since we could choose the two disjoint subcubes in k ways,
we can recursively form kmk2−1 perfect matchings in this way, some of which
the vertices by disjoint cycles are C 5 + C 5 and C 10 .
are counted more than once.
If a 10-cycle exists, with vertices [v1 , . . . , v10 ] in order, then the remain-
Proof 2 (direct construction). Pick two coordinates. There are 2 k−2
ing matching consists of chords. Two consecutive vertices cannot neighbor
copies of Q 2 in which those two coordinates vary, and two choices of a per-
their opposite vertices on the cycle, since that creates a 4-cycle. Similarly, k−2
the neighbors must be at least four steps away on the cycle. Hence we may perfect matchings. (Since
2
assume by symmetry that v1 ↔ v5 . Now making v10 adjacent to any of fect matching in each copy of Q 2 . This yields 2
k−2
we can choose the two coordinates in k2 ways, we can generate k2 22 per-
fect matchings, but there is some repetition.)
{v6 , v5 , v4 } creates a cycle of length at most 4, so there is no way to insert
the remaining edges. 3.1.17. In every perfect matching in the hypercube Q k , there are exactly
a) The Petersen graph has twelve 5-cycles. Each edge extends to P4 in
k−1
i edges that match vertices with weight i to vertices with weight i + 1,
four ways by picking an incident edge at each endpoint. Since the graph has where the weight of a vertex is the number of 1s in its binary k-tuple name.
diameter two and girth 5, every P4 belongs to exactly one 5-cycle through an Proof 1 (induction on i ). Since the vertex of weight 0 must match to a
additional vertex. Since there are 15 edges, we have generated 60 5-cycles, vertex of weight 1, the claim holds when i = 0. For the induction step, the
but each 5-cycle is generated five times. induction hypothesis yields k−1
i −1 vertices of weight i
−1 matched to vertices
b) The Petersen graph has six perfect matchings. Since the Petersen of weight i . The remaining vertices of weight i must match to vertices of
graph has girth five, the five remaining edges incident to any 5-cycle form a weight i + 1. Since k − k−1 = k−1 , the claim follows.
i i −1 i
perfect matching, and deleting them leaves a 5-cycle on the complementary change the same coordinate. Hence there are 3 · 2 · 1 perfect matchings of
vertices. Hence the 5-cycles group into pairs of 5-cycles with a matching the second type.
between them. Since every matching leaves C 5 + C 5 , every matching arises
in this way, and by part (b) there are six of them.
3.1.15. Matchings in k-dimensional cubes.
a) For k ≥ 2, if M is a perfect matching of Q k , then there are an even
number of edges in M whose endpoints differ in coordinate i. Let V0 and
V1 be the sets of vertices having 0 and 1 in coordinate i , respectively. Each
has even size. Since the vertices of Vr not matched to V1−r must be matched
within Vr , the number of vertices matched by edges to V1−r must be even.
b) Q 3 has nine perfect matchings. There are four edges in each such
matching, with an even number distributed to each coordinate. The pos-
sible distributions are (4, 0, 0) and (2, 2, 0). There are three matchings of
the first type. For the second type, we pick a direction to avoid crossing,
pick one of the two matchings in one of the 4-cycles, and then the choice of
the matching in the other 4-cycle is forced to avoid making all four edges
147 Chapter 3: Matchings and Factors Section 3.1: Matchings and Covers 148
Proof 2 (canonical forms). Let M ∗ be the matching where every edge
matches vertices with 0 and 1 in the last coordinate. The number of edges
matching weight i to weight i + 1 is the number of choices of i ones from
the first k − 1 positions, which is k−1 . i
It now suffices to prove that every perfect matching M has the same
weight distribution as M ∗ . The symmetric difference of M and M ∗ is a
union of even cycles alternating between M and M ∗ , plus isolated vertices
saturated by the same edge in both matchings. It suffices to show that the
weight distribution on each cycle is the same for both matchings.
The edges joining vertices of weights i and i + 1 along a cycle C alter-
nate appearing with increasing weight and with decreasing weight, since
weight changes by 1 along each edge. For the same reason, the number of
edges along C from a vertex to the next appearance of a vertex with the
same weight is even. Since C alternates between M and M ∗ , this means
that the edges joining vertices of weights i and i + alternate between M
and M ∗ . Hence there is the same number of each type, as desired.
3.1.18. The game of choosing adjacent vertices, where the last move wins.
Suppose that G has a perfect matching M. Whenever the first player
Another document from Scribd.com that is
random and unrelated content:
uusien aikeideni järjestämiseen; mutta sinä tulet olemaan ensimäinen
saamaan niistä tietoa. Vaan nyt tahdon mennä ulkoilmaan… Hagan
rannoille. Mitähän sanot ajoretkestä? Näen kuitenkin sinusta, ett'et ole
halukas… kyllä ymmärrän — kentiesi tahdot tavata erästä…? Sano
terveisiä sille nuorelle kaunottarelle!
Samaan aikaan riensi rouva Enerot etehisen läpi, joka johti neiti
Rudenschöldin huoneesen, mutta turhaan kolkutti hän sen ovelle. Tuo
kaunis hovineiti ei ollut kotona, vaan hän oli lähtenyt ulos, eikä tiedetty
mihin, ja häntä varrottiin tulevaksi kotia vasta iltasella.
— Minä tulen silloin takaisin, ja jos hän ei olisi vielä palannut, kotia
tulen häntä vartoamaan, mutta jos hän palajaisi ennen minun tuloani, niin
pyytäkää häntä olemaan kotona. Minulla on hänelle puhumista jotakin
sellaista, joka ei siedä viivytystä. Ah, älkää Jumalan nimessä unohtako
lausua hänelle juuri näitä sanoja! — pyysi tuo pieni rouva, jolloin
jalosukuisen neidin kamarineitsyt korskeasti hymyili ja alavaisesti lupasi
täyttää tämän pyynnön, joka ei juuri ollut sommiteltu siihen tapaan, jolla
hän oli tottunut saamaan asioita toimitettavaksi hallitsijattarellensa.
Mutta rouva Enerot ei tänäpäivänä juuri paljon ajatellut, mikä oli
soveliasta, mikä ei, ja rientäessänsä kotiaan päin, oli jonkinlainen arkuus
niissä silmäyksissä, joita hän loi ympärillensä. Kotiaskareissaan vajosi
hän usein ajatuksiinsa, joista hän yhtäkkiä säpsähti toimeensa.
Levottomuus, jota hän tähän asti ei koskaan ollut tuntenut, oli vallannut
hänet, ja ilmaistuaan miehellensä sen syyt, vakuutti hän tälle, ett'ei hän
tulisi saamaan lepoa, ennenkuin oli saanut puhua asiasta neiti
Rudenschöldin kanssa, ja että nyt oli hämärä, jonkatähden hänen oli
meneminen tämän luokse.
— Ei, ei, joku tunne sanoo minulle, että joitakin hankkeita on tekeillä,
ja että ne tarkoittavat kuningasta. Hyvä Jumala, minuutit rientävät! Nyt,
nyt on kaikki liian myöhäistä!
— Lapsellisuutta!
"Tuomio vainajasta."
— Magd…
— Vaiti, vaiti, älä ole noin tuskissasi! Onhan kaikki jälleen hyvin
meidän välillämme! kentiesi minä vielä paranen, ja silloin tulen saamaan
takasin entiset ystäväni. Se on minulle mieluinen ajatus, joka virkistää
minun mieltäni ja lievittää tuskiani!
— Onko kansa yhä yhtä sääliväinen? Niin ystäväni, enpä voi kyllin
ilmaista iloani siitä, — lausui kuningas eräänä päivänä paroni
Armfelt'ille.
— Mitä?
— Jos, niin, jos! Kuka voi nähdä selvään tässä tapauksessa? Minä
itsekin olen halukas uskomaan hänen syyttömyyttänsä, lisäsi Armfelt
hiukan mietittyään, hän on liian heikko ja epäröivä ollakseen
alkuunpanijana ja johtajana niin yhdessä kuin toisessakin yrityksessä. Jos
Reuterholm olisi ollut hänen rinnallansa, silloin, niin, silloin epäilemättä!
— Vaara uhkaa tulla sangen suureksi niille, jotka eivät ole tunnetut
kuningasvainajan ystäviksi…
Niin pian kuin tämä herttuan puolelta sitova asiakirja oli valmiiksi
kirjoitettu, kirjoitti hallitsija nimensä sen alle, jonka tehtyä hän
läsnäolevien seuraamana meni nuoren kuninkaan huoneesen ja teki
hallitsijavalansa.
— Hym.