ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SOILS

We have discussed particles sizes and index properties and used these to classify soils. You
know the water changes the soil states in fine-grained soils; the greater the water content in a
soil the weaker it is. Soils are porous materials much like sponges. Water can flow between the
interconnected voids. Particle sizes and the structural arrangement of the particles influence the
rate of flow.
Water can cause instability and many geotechnical structures (e.g., roads, bridges, dams, and
excavations) have failed because of instability from flow of water. The key physical property
that governs flow of water in soils is permeability. In this chapter, we will discuss soil
permeability by considering one-dimensional flow of water through soils.

Definition of key terms

Groundwater – is water under gravity that fills the soil pores.
Head (H) – is the mechanical energy per unit weight.
Hydraulic Conductivity (Coefficient of Permeability, k) – is a proportionality constant to
determine the flow velocity of water through soils.

Seepage through Soils

 Weight Tail water force
Head water loss of Dam

Friction that maintains equilibrium

What are seepage problems?

1. How much water will seep through (earth embankment dam), and under (concrete dam)
the dam, from upstream to downstream?

2. What would be the uplift pressures on concrete dam and pore water pressures on the
earth embankment dam?

3. What is the factor of safety against erosion and piping?

Answers to seepage problems:

Darcy’s Law + Geometry + Boundary Conditions

Darcy’s Laws

Δh

h1 L h2

flow z2
z1

datum

Q=kiA
Where:
Q=seepage quantity
k =coefficient of permeability
i=hydraulic gradient
∆H
i=
L
∆ H =change ∈head
L=flow distance
A=area of flow

From Bernoulli: the total head at a point in water under motion is the sum of the following

P
a . Pressure head=
γ
2
v
b . Velocity head=
2g
c . elevationhead =z

Note: In the Bernoulli’s equation, if applied to the flow of water through soils, the term
containing the velocity head can be neglected. Therefore, the total head at any point is
P
h= + z
γw

COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY: k
The coefficient of permeability is dependent on the following:
a. Viscosity
b. Grain – size distribution
The values of k are governed by the size of the smallest particle:

US Standard Sieve Sizes

% Passing

The k – values
of these soil
are
approximately
the same

Particle Size diameter (mm)

c. Void ratio
d. Degree of saturation
e. Pore size distribution

Typical Values of k
Type of Soil K (cm/sec)
Coarse sand, gravel >10-1
Fine sand 10-1 to 10-3
Silty sand 10-3 to 10-5
silt 10-5 to 10-7
Clay <10-7

Methods of determining k
A. Laboratory Method
a.1. Constant head permeability test
a.2. Falling head permeability test
a.3. Hazen’s Formula (correlation)

B. Field Methods
b.1. Borehole Flow Test
b.2. Field pumping test

Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Laboratory Test

1. Air bubbles in completely saturated samples can interfere with water flow and results in
measured values of coefficient of permeability that are lower than the actual coefficient
of permeability.

2. Restrictions in the flow through the apparatus can lead to erroneously low measured
values of the coefficient of permeability

3. Disturbance

A. Constant Head k-Test

supply

Porous stone

h Soil sample

L Porous stone

Graduated
cylinder

QL
k=
Aht
Where:
k =coefficient of permeability
Q=volume of water collected
L=length of sample
A=cross sectional area of the soil sample
h=constant head
t=time ¿ collect Q

B. Falling Head k-Test

Initial height of H2O on standpipe

Standpipe Final height of H2O on standpipe

Porous stone h2
h1

Soil sample

Porous stone

( aLAt ) log ( h )
h1
k =2.303
2

Where:
k =coefficient of permeability
a=cross sectional area of standpipe
L=length of sample
A=cross sectional area o f soil sample
t=time elapsed (t 2−t 1 )
h1=h ead difference at timet 1
h2 =h ead difference at timet 2

C. k – Using Hazen’s Formula

2
k =C D10
Where:
k =coefficient of permeability , cm/sec
C=a constant that varies ¿ 1.0−1.50
D10=effective ¿ t h e particle ¿ ( mm ) corresponding ¿ 10 % passing

US Standard Sieve
Percent Passing

10%
D1
0
Particle Size Diameter
D. k – Borehole Flow Test
 2r For shallow depth

Ground water table

L Final head during test

Δy
initial head during test

40 r ∆y
k=
( 20+
L
r )(
2−
y y ∆t
L )
Where:
r =radius of hole
L=depthof ground water table based ¿ the bottom of hole
∆ y =change ∈height
∆ t=time elapsed ¿ initial ¿ final water level

Field Pumping Test

A. Permeable layer underlain by an impermeable layer
r1
r2
q

Static water
level
Drawdown
curve at
steady state Observation
condition Wells
Test well
h2
h1

Permeable
Layer
Impermeable Layer

k=
2.303 qlog
() r1
r2
π ( h1−h2 )
2 2

Where:
q=discharge of test well at steady state condition
 B. Well penetration the full depth of a confined aquifer

r1

q r2

Piezometric
waterlevel
before pumping

Piezometric
drawdown curve
at steady state h2 h1
condition

Permeable
layer Observation well
Test well

Confined
aquifer
(permeable
layer) Submersible
pump

k=
q log
() r1
r2
2.727 H ( h1−h2 )
Where:
q=discharge of test well at steady state condition

Equivalent Permeability in Stratified Soils

In a stratified soil deposit where the coefficient of permeability for flow in a given
direction changes from layer to layer on equivalent permeability determination becomes
necessary to simplify calculations.

A. Horizontal flow in stratified soil

kv1 Soil 1
h1
kh1
Direction
kv2 Soil 2 of flow
h2
h kh2

kv3 Soil 3
h3
kh3

kh =
{( k h 1 )( h1 ) + ( k h2 ) ( h 2) + ( k h 3 ) ( h3 ) }
equivalent
H
Where:
kh =equivalent h orizontal k
equivalent
 B. Vertical flow in stratified soils

kv1 Soil 1
h1
kh1

kv2 Soil 2
h2
h kh2

kv3 Soil 3
h3
kh3

Direction of flow

H
kv =

( )( )( )
h1 h2 h3
equivalent

+ +
kv1 k v2 kv 3
Where:
kv =equivalent vertical k
equivalent

Methods of Seepage Analysis

1. Flownets = graphical solution
2. Analytical Solution
3. Numerical Analysis = finite element method
4. Flow models

Flownets: Advantages
1. It is always possible
2. No special equipment is required
3. Of all methods, it improves our understanding the best

Flownets Techniques
1. Use a good paper with no printed lines or grid.
2. Use a scale that permits the whole problem to be viewed at arms length without eye
sweep
3. Draw the fix boundaries in ink and the flownet in pencil. Use a fairly soft lead.
4. Use a smaller integer of nf (number of flow channels, 2 or 3 or possibly in unusual
circumstances, 4) but ideal is 3.
5. Sketch lightly to begin.
6. Rotate the drawing when judging
7. Follow the sequence: sketch – judge – erase
Fix Boundaries
a. Earth Embankment

Phreatic surface
(ink fix boundaries)

Permeable layer

fix boundaries ink

impermeable layer

b. Concrete Dams

fix boundary

Permeable layer

fix boundary
impermeable layer
 c. Sheet pile

fix boundary

Permeable layer

fix boundary
impermeable layer

Flow in Pipes
Equipotential
line
Flow lines
Δh Fix boundary

Flow channel

Q Q

Flow channel

Equipotential Fix boundary

pressure drop

Nf = number of flow channel

Note:
1. The equipotential line and flow line must intersect at 90o
Lines wherein the points are having the same potential energy

2. The equipotential pressure drop must be maintained as squares.

How to Judge if the Equipotential Pressure Drops are Squares

Consider Case I

b
Case II Irregular Equipotential Pressure Drop
IIa

wrong

Line of
symmetry

Solution: subdivide

correct

IIb

Line of symmetry

wrong

correct

Seepage, Drainage & Flownets

By Ceder Gren, Harry
3rd edition
Seepage through an Earth Dam Phreatic Surface
z

0.30Δ

a’ a

H
c
L
α
k e d
Δ

Steps
1. Obtain a
2. Calculate Δ and then 0.30Δ
3. Calculate d
4. With known values of a and d, determine L from

L=
d
∙
√a2
∙
H2
Cosα cos2 α sin2 α
5. Draw the flownet after establishing the upper boundary

nf
q=k ( ∆ H ) ( 1)
nd
Where:
q=rate of seepage
k =coefficient of permeability
∆ H =change ∈head
n f =number of flow c h annels
n d=number of equipotential pressure drop onits flow c h annel

volume
q=
time

HEAD

Darcy’s law governs the flow of water through soils. But before we delve into Darcy’s law, we
will discuss an important principle in fluid mechanics – Bernoullis’ Principle – which is essential
in understanding flow through soils.
If you cap one end of a tube, fill the tube with water, and then rest it on your table, the height
of water with reference to your table is called the pressure head (h p). Head refers to the
mechanical energy per unit weight. If you raise the tube above the table, the mechanical energy
of total head increases.
Illustration of elevation and pressure heads

You now have two components of total head – the pressure head (h p) and the elevation head
(hz). If water were to flow through the tube with a velocity v, under a steady state condition,
2
v
then we have an additional head due to the velocity given as . The total head, H, according
2g
to Bernoulli’s principle is:
2
v
H=hz+ hp+
2g

The elevation or potential head is referenced to an arbitrary datum and the total head will
change depending on the choice of the datum position. Therefore, it is essential that you
identify your datum position in solution to flow problems. Pressure are defined relative to
atmospheric pressure. The velocity of flow through soils is generally small (<1 cm/s) and we
usually neglect the velocity head. The total head in soil is then:

u
H=hz+ hp=hz+
γw

Where u=hpɣw is the porewater pressure.

Consider a cylinder containing a soil mass with water flowing through it at a constant rate as
depicted in figure. If we connect two tubes, A and B, called piezometers, at a distance l apart,
the water will rise to different heights n each of the tubes. The height of water in tube B near
the exit is lower than A. Why? As the water flows through the soil, energy is dissipated through
friction with the soil particles, resulting in a loss of head. The head loss between A and B,
assuming decrease in head is positive and our datum is arbitrarily selected at the top of the
cylinder, is ∆ H =|hpB−hpA| .

Darcy’s Law
Darcy (1856) proposed that the average flow velocity through soils is proportional to the
gradient of the total head. The flow in any direction, j, is:

dH
vj=kj
dxj

Where v is the average flow velocity, k is a coefficient of proportionality called the hydraulic
conductivity (sometimes called the coefficient of permeability), and dH is the change in total
head over a distance dx. The unit of measurement for k is length/time, that is cm/s. With
reference to figure, Darcy’s Law becomes:

∆H
vx=kx =kxi
l

∆H
Where i= is the hydraulic gradient. Darcy’s law is valid for all soils if the flow is laminar.
l
The average velocity, v, is calculated from the equation:
∆H
vx=kx =kxi
l

Is for the cross-sectional area normal to the direction of flow. Flow through soils, however,
occurs only through the interconnected voids. The velocity through the voids spaces is called
seepage velocity (vs) and is obtained by dividing the average velocity by the porosity of the soil:

kj
vs= i
n

The volume rate of flow, qz, or simply, flow rate is the product of the average velocity and the
cross-sectional area:
 qz=vjA =Akji

The unit of measurement for qz is cu.m/s or cc/s. The conservation of flow (law of continuity)
stipulates that the volume rate of inflow (qz)in into a soil element must equal the volume of
outflow, (qz)out, or simply, inflow must be equal to outflow:

( qz ) ∈¿ ( qz ) out

The hydraulic conductivity depends on:

Soil Type : Coarse-grained soils have higher hydraulic conductivities than fine-grained soils. The
water in the double layer in fine-grained soils significantly reduces the seepage pore space.
Particle Size: Hydraulic conductivity depends on D502 or D102 for coarse-grained soils.
Pore Fluid Properties, particularly viscosity: k1:k2 = u2:u1 , where u is viscosity and the subscripts
1 and 2 denote two types of pore fluids in a given soil.
Void Ratio: k1:k2 = e21:e22 where subscripts 1 and 2 denote two types of soil fabric for coarse
grained soils. This ratio is useful in comparing the hydraulic conductivities of similar soils with
different void ratios.
Pore Size: The greater the pore size, the higher the hydraulic conductivity.
Homogeneity, layering, and fissuring: Water tends to seep quickly through loose layers, through
fissures and along the interface of layered soils. Catastrophic failures can occur from such
seepage.
Entrapped gases: Entrapped gases tend to reduce the hydraulic conductivity. It is often very
difficult to get gas-free soils. Even soils that are under groundwater level are assumed to be
saturated may still have some entrapped gases.
Validity of Darcy’s Law: Darcy’s Law is valid only for laminar flow (Reynold’s number less than
2000). Francher et. Al (1993) gave the following criterion for the applicability of Darcy’s law:
v Dsγw
≤1
ug
Where v is the velocity, Ds is the diameter of a sphere of equivalent volume to the soil, u
is viscosity of water, and g is the acceleration due to gravity. Typical ranges of kz for various soil
types are shown in table below.

Hydraulic Conductivity for Common Soil Types

Soil Type Kz (cm/s)
Clean Gravel >1.0
Clean Sands, Clean Sand and Gravel Mixtures 1.0 to 10-3
Fine Sands, Silts, Mixtures Comprising Sands, Silts, and Clays 10-3 to 10-7
Homogeneous Clays <10-7

Homogeneous clays are practically impervious. Two popular uses of “impervious” clays are in
dam construction to curtail the flow of water through the dam as barriers in landfills to prevent
migration of effluent to the surrounding area. Clean sands and gravels are pervious and can be
used as drainage materials or soil filters.

Emperical Relationship for K

For a homogeneous soil, the hydraulic conductivity depends predominantly on its void ratio and
pore size. You should recall that the void ratio is dependent on the soil fabric or structural
arrangement of the soil grains. Taylor (1948) proposed a relationship linking k with void ratio as:

3
γwC 1 e
2
kz =D50
u x 1+e
Where C1 is a constant that can be obtained from laboratory experiments. A number of
empirical relationships have been proposed linking k to void ratio and grain size for coarse-
grained soils. Hazen (1930) proposed one of the early relationships as:

kz =C D 10 cm/s
2

Where C is a constant varying between 0.4 and 1.4 if the unit of measurement of D10 is mm.
Typically, C = 1.0. Hazen’s test were done on sands with D10 ranging from 0.1mm to 3mm and
Cu<5. Other relationships were proposed for coarse- and fine-grained soils by Samarasinghe et
al. (1982), Kenny et al. (1984), and others. One has to be extremely cautious in using empirical
relationships for kz because it is very sensitive to changes in void ratio, pore size, and the
homogeneity of your soil mass.

EXAMPLES:
1. A soil sample 10cm in diameter is placed in a tube 1m long. A constant supply of water is
allowed to flow into one end of the soil at A and the outflow at B is collected by a beaker. The
average amount of water collected is 1 cc for every 10 seconds. The tube is inclined as shown.
Determine:
a. Hydraulic Gradient
b. Flow Rate
c. Average Velocity
d. Seepage Velocity if e = 0.60
e. Hydraulic Conductivity

SOLUTION:

a . Define the datum position . Select thetop of the table as the datum .
Find thetotal Heads at A ( inflow )∧B ( outflow )
HA=hpA+ hzA=1+1=2 m
HB=hpB+ hzB=0+0.80=0.80 m
Find thehydraulic gradient
∆ H =|HB−HA|=|0.80−2|=1.2 m
l=1 m
∆ H 1.2m
i= = =1 . 2
l 1m
b . Determine flow rate .
Volume of water collected , Q=1 cc , t=10 seconds
Q 1
qz= = =0 . 1cc / s
t 10

c . Determine the average velocity .

qz= Av
2 2
π d π 10 2
A= = =78.5 cm
4 4
qz 0.1
v= = =0 . 0013 cm/ s
A 78.5

d . Determine seepage velocity

v
vs=
n
e 0.6
n= = =0.38
1+ e 1+ 0.6
0.0013
vs= =0 .0034 cm/s
0.38

'
e . Determine the hydraulic conductivity . ¿ Darc y sLaw v=kzi
v 0.0013 −4
kz = = =10 .8 x 10 cm/ s
i 1.2

2. A sand layer having the cross-section area as shown in figure has been determined to
exist for a 350m length of the levee. The coefficient of permeability of the sand layer is
3.5 m/day. Determine the flow of water into the ditch in L/min?

Given:
k =3.5 m/day

Required:
q=?

SOLUTION:
Q=kiA
h 20
i= = =0.1818
L 110
A=1.5 x 350=525 sq . m
3
m 1000 L 1 day 1 hr L
Q=3.5 x 0.1818 x 525=334.1 x 3
x x =232
day m 24 hrs 60 min min

3. A permeable soil is underlain by impervious layer, as shown in figure. For the permeable
layer, k = 0.0048 cm/sec. H = 3m and α = 5˚.
a) Calculate the hydraulic gradient.
b) Calculate for the flow of water per meter width in cu.m/hr.
c) Calculate the total amount of water percolated per day per meter width, in cu.m.

Given:
cm m
k =0.0048 =0.000048
s s
α =5
H=3 m
SOLUTION:
a . For hydraulic gradient
i=Head Loss / Length

∆H
Tanα= ; ∆ H=LTanα
L

L L
Cosα = ; hyp=
hyp Cosα

∆ H LTanα
i= = =TanαCosα =Sinα=sin5 ˚ =0 . 0872
L L
Cosα

b . Flow per meter width

q=kiA
A=3 cosα x 1=3 cos 5 °=2.9886 sq . m

cu . m 3600 s cu . m
q=0.000048 x 0.0872 x 2.9886=0.00001251 per meter x =0 .045 per meter
s 1hr hr

c .Volume percolated per day

V =q x t
cu . m
V =0.045 x 24 hrs
hr
V =1 . 08 cu . m

FLOW PARALLEL TO SOIL LAYERS

When the flow is parallel to the soil layers, the hydraulic gradient is the same at all points. The
flow through the soil mass as a whole is equal to the sum of the flow through each of the layers.
There is a parallel here with the flow of electricity through resistors in parallel. If we consider a
unit width (in the y direction) of flow and use the equation q = kiA

qx= Av=( 1 x Ho ) k x (eq ) i=( 1 x z 1 ) k x 1 i+ ( 1 x z 2 ) k x 2 i+..+(1 x z n)k xn i

Where Ho is the total thickness of the soil mass, k x(eq) is the equivalent permeability in the
horizontal (x) direction, z1 to zn are the thickness of the first to the nth layers, and k x1 to kxn are
the horizontal hydraulic conductivities of the first to the nth layer. Solving equation:

qx= Av=( 1 x Ho ) k x (eq ) i=( 1 x z 1 ) k x 1 i+ ( 1 x z 2 ) k x 2 i+..+(1 x z n)k xn i

We get:

1
k x(eq )= (z k + z k +..+ z n k xn )
Ho 1 x1 2 x 2
For flow normal to the soil layers, the head loss in the soil mass is the sum of the head losses in
each layer:

∆ H =∆ h 1+∆ h2+..+ ∆ hn

Where ΔH is the total head loss, and Δh1 to Δhn are the head losses in each of the n layers. The
velocity in each layer is the same. The analogy to electricity is flow of current through resistors
in series. From Darcy’s law, we obtain:

∆H ∆h1 ∆h2 ∆ hn
k z (eq)= =k z 1 =k z 2 =..=k zn
Ho z1 z2 zn

Where kz(eq) is the equivalent hydraulic conductivity in the vertical (z) direction and k z1 to kzn are
the vertical hydraulic conductivities of the first to the nth layer.

Ho
k z ( eq )=
z1 z2 z
+ +..+ n
k z1 k z2 k zn

The equivalent hydraulic conductivity for flow parallel and normal to soil layers is:

k eq= √k x(eq ) k z (eq )

PROBLEMS:
4. From the figure shown, what is the equivalent coefficient of permeability in the horizontal
direction if each soil layer is 3m thick and has the given values of K1, K2, K3, and K4. What is the
total flow if iav = 0.70.

SOLUTION:

1
K H (eq )= (K 1 H 1+ K 2 H 2+ K 3 H 3+..+ KnHn)
H

1 cm x m
K H (eq )=
12m
[ 2 x 10 ( 3 ) +1 x 10 ( 3 ) +2 x 10 ( 3 )+1 x 10 (3 ) ]
−4 −5 −3 −3
sec
−4
K H (eq )=8 . 025 x 10 cm/s

Q=kiA
−4 cm 1m −5 cu . m
Q=8.025 x 10 x 0.7 x 12 m x 1m x =6 .741 x 10
s 100 cm s
5. A canal is cut into a soil with a stratigraphy shown in figure. Assume flow takes place laterally
and vertically through the sides of the canal and vertically below the canal. The values of k = kx =
kz in each layer are given.
a) What is the equivalent permeability in the horizontal direction through the sides of the canal,
in cm/day.
b) What is the equivalent permeability in the vertical directions through the sides of the canal,
in cm/day.
c) Determine the equivalent permeability in the vertical directions below the bottom of the
canal, in cm/day.

SOLUTION:

a . Equivalent permeability∈horizontal direction through the sides of thecanal (Ho=3 m)

1
K x(eq) = ( 1 x 2.3 x 10−5 +1.5 x 5.2 x 10−6+ 0.5 x 2 x 10−6 ) m x cm =10.6 x 10−6 cm x 3600 s x 24 h rs =0 . 9158 cm
3m s s 1hr 1 day day

b . Equivalent permeability∈vertical direction through the sides of the canal(Ho=3 m)

Ho
K z(eq )=
H1 H2 H3 Hn
+ + + ..+
K 1 K2 K3 Kn
3m −6 cm 3600 s 24 hrs
K z(eq )= =5.16 x 10 x x =0 . 4458 cm/day
1m 1.5 m 0.5 m s 1hr 1 day
+ +
cm cm cm
2.3 x 10−5 5.2 x 10−6 2.0 x 10−6
s s s

c . Equivalent permeability ∈vertical direction through the bottom of the canal

Ho=1.5 m+1.2 m+3 m=5.7 m
5.7 m −6 cm 3600 s 24 h rs
K z(eq )= =7.18 x 10 x x =0 . 6204 cm/day
1.5 m 1.2 m 3m s 1hr 1day
+ +
cm cm cm
2.0 x 10−6 0.3 x 10−4 0.8 x 10−3
s s s

6. The figure shows the layer of soil in a tube that is 100mm x 100mm in cross-section. Water is
supplied to maintain a constant head difference of 450mm across the sample. The hydraulic
conductivity of the soils in the direction of flow through them are tabulated as shown:
a) Compute the equivalent hydraulic conductivity.
b) Compute the hydraulic gradient.
c) Compute the rate of water supply in cc/hr.

SOLUTION:

a . Equivalent hydraulic conductivity

H 0.6 −5 cm
kv = = =3.3 952 x 10

( )( )( ) ( )( )( )
h1
equivalent
h2 h3 0.2 0.2 0.2 sec
+ + −4
+ −2
+ −5
kv1 k v2 kv 3 2 x 10 3.7 x 10 1.2 x 10

b. hydraulic gradient
h 450
i= = =0 . 75
L 600

c. Rate of water supply

3
−5 cm −3 cc 3600 s cm
Q=kiA=3.3952 x 10 x 0.75 x ( 10 cm x 10 cm )=2.5464 x 10 x =9.1670
s s 1 hr hr
Assignment:
Name:
Section:

1. The soil under a dam has four layers of soil with different coefficients of permeability.
Layer Depth Coefficient of Permeability
1 4m 5 cm/hr
2 8m 3 cm/hr
3 12m 2 cm/hr
4 3m 1 cm/hr

a) Compute the average vertical coefficient of permeability in meters/day.

b) Compute the transmissibility of the soil when the water table is at the ground surface in
sq.m/day.
c) Compute the interstitial velocity of water moving through the soil if it has a void ratio of 0.60
and a hydraulic gradient of 0.0018. Express in cm/hr.

SOLUTION:

2. The figure shows the layer of soil in a tube that is 100mm x 100mm in cross-section.
Water is supplied to maintain a constant head difference of 450mm across the sample.
The hydraulic conductivity of the soils in the direction of flow through them are
tabulated as shown:
KA 2x10-4 cm/s
KB 3.7x10-2 cm/s
KC 1.2x10-5 cm/s

a) Compute the height hA at the piezometer attached between A and B.

b) Compute the height hb at the piezometer attached between B and C.

SOLUTION:

3. A confined aquifer underlies an unconfined aquifer as shown in the figure:

a) Compute the equivalent horizontal coefficient of permeability.

b) Compute the hydraulic gradient.
c) Compute the flow rate from one stream to another per meter width.

SOLUTION:

4. Water flows through the permeable layer as shown in figure. Given H = 3.5ft, h = 4.6ft, L =
120ft, α =14 ° , and k = 0.0016 ft/s. Consider 1 ft width perpendicular to the figure.
a) Calculate the hydraulic gradient in percent.
b) Calculate the flow of water per ft width in ft3/hr.
c) Calculate the total amount of water percolated per day per ft width, in cubic ft.