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Title: An Advanced English Grammar with Exercises

Author: George Lyman Kittredge

Frank Edgar Farley

Release Date: May 29, 2014 [EBook #45814]

Language: English

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AN ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

WITH EXERCISES
BY

GEORGE LYMAN KITTREDGE

GURNEY PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH LITERATURE IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY

AND

FRANK EDGAR FARLEY

PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH LITERATURE IN WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY

GINN AND COMPANY

BOSTON · NEW YORK · CHICAGO · LONDON ATLANTA · DALLAS · COLUMBUS · SAN FRANCISCO

COPYRIGHT, 1913, BY GEORGE LYMAN KITTREDGE AND FRANK EDGAR FARLEY

ENTERED AT STATIONERS’ HALL

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

424.2

The Athenæum Press

GINN AND COMPANY · PROPRIETORS · BOSTON · U.S.A.

PREFACE

This grammar is intended for students who have already received instruction in the
rudiments. Still, every such textbook must begin at the beginning. Part One,
therefore, which occupies pp. 1–24, gives a succinct treatment of the Parts of
Speech in the Sentence and of their substitutes, the Phrase and the Clause,
concluding with a Summary of Definitions. Thus it clears the way for what follows,
and may be utilized as a review, if the student needs to refresh his memory.

Part Two deals specifically and fully with Inflections and Syntax (pp. 25–182). It
includes also a chapter on the use of subordinate clauses as nouns, adjectives, and
adverbs (pp. 157–162), as well as a chapter in which such clauses are logically
classified in accordance with their particular offices in the expression of thought
(pp. 163–182).

Part Three (pp. 183–226) develops the subject of Analysis in its natural order,
first explaining how sentences are put together, and then illustrating the process
by which they may be resolved into their constituent parts. Modifiers and
Complements are classified, and the so-called Independent Elements are discussed.
There is added a special chapter on Combinations of Clauses, in which the
grammatical and logical relations of coördination and subordination are set forth,
and their functions in the effective use of language are considered. This portion
of the book, it is hoped, will be especially useful to students of English
composition.

The Appendix furnishes lists of verbs, tables of conjugation, rules for capitals
and marks of punctuation, a summary of important rules of syntax, and a brief
history of the English language.

The Exercises (pp. 227–290) are collected at the end of the text, so as not to
break continuity. References prefixed to each, as well as page-numbers in the Table
of Contents, enable the teacher to attach them, at will, to the topics which they
concern. The passages for parsing, analysis, etc., have been carefully selected
from a wide range of eminent British and American writers. The name of the author
is often appended to the quotation, when the passage is particularly noteworthy
either for its contents or its form. In most cases, however, this has not been
done; but the student may always feel confident that he is occupying himself with
specimens of English as actually composed by distinguished authors. The
constructive exercises call particular attention to those matters in which error is
especially prevalent.

An advanced grammar must aim to be serviceable in two ways. It should afford the
means for continuous and systematic study of the subject or of any part of it; and
it should also be useful for reference in connection with the study of composition
and of literature. With this latter end in view, many notes and observations have
been included, in smaller type, to show the nature and development of the various
forms and constructions, and to point out differences between the usage of to-day
and that which the student observes in Shakspere and other English classics. The
fulness of the index makes it easy to find anything that the volume contains.

In accordance with the desire of many teachers, certain topics of importance have
been treated with unusual thoroughness. Among these may be mentioned the uses of
shall and will, should and would, the infinitive and the infinitive clause,
conditional sentences, indirect discourse, and the combination of clauses in
sentences of different kinds.

The authors are indebted to several teachers for suggestions and criticism.
Particular acknowledgment is due to Mr. Theodore C. Mitchill, of the Jamaica High
School, New York, and Mr. C. L. Hooper, of the Chicago Normal School.

CONTENTS

[The numbers in the first column refer to the pages of the text; those in the
second column to the pages of the Exercises.]

INTRODUCTION

TEXT EXERCISES

Language and Grammar xi

Grammar and Usage xv

Summary of General Principles xvii

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

PART ONE—THE PARTS OF SPEECH IN THE SENTENCE

The Sentence—Subject and Predicate 1 227

Kinds of Sentences 2 227

The Eight Parts of Speech Defined 3 228

The Same Word as Different Parts of Speech 9 229

Infinitives and Participles 11 229

Comparative Importance of the Parts of Speech 13

Simple and Complete Subject and Predicate 14 230

Compound Subject and Predicate 15 230

Substitutes for the Parts of Speech 16 231

Phrases—Noun, Verb, Adjective, Adverbial 16 231

Clauses—Independent and Subordinate 16 232

Compound and Complex Sentences 17 232

Compound Complex Sentences 18 232

Clauses as Parts of Speech 19 232

Summary of Definitions 21

PART TWO—INFLECTION AND SYNTAX

CHAPTER I—INFLECTION

Inflection in General 25

Summary of Inflections 26

CHAPTER II—NOUNS

Classification—Common Nouns and Proper Nouns 27 233

Special Classes—Abstract, Collective, Compound 29 234

Inflection of Nouns 30 235

Gender 31 235

Number 34 235

Person 39 236
Case 40 237

Nominative Case 41 237

Possessive Case 43 238

Objective Case 47 239

Parsing of Nouns 54 240

CHAPTER III—PRONOUNS

Personal Pronouns 55 241

Gender and Number of Personal Pronouns 56 241

Case of Personal Pronouns 57 241

The Self-Pronouns (Compound Personal Pronouns) 60 241

Adjective Pronouns—Demonstratives 62 243

Adjective Pronouns—Indefinites 64 243

Relative Pronouns 66 244

The Relative Pronoun What 71 246

Compound Relative Pronouns 72 246

Interrogative Pronouns 73 246

Parsing of Pronouns 74 247

CHAPTER IV—ADJECTIVES

Classification of Adjectives 75 248

Adjectives—the Articles 77 248

Comparison of Adjectives 79 249

Irregular Comparison 81 249

CHAPTER V—ADVERBS

Classification of Adverbs 83 250

Relative and Interrogative Adverbs 86 251

Comparison of Adverbs 87 252

Use of the Comparative and Superlative 88 252

Numerals—Adjectives, Nouns, Adverbs 89 252

CHAPTER VI—VERBS
Classification of Verbs 91 253

Auxiliary Verbs—Verb-Phrases 91 253

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs 92 253

Copulative Verbs 93 253

Inflection of Verbs 94 254

Tense of Verbs 94 254

Present and Past Tenses 94 254

Weak (Regular) and Strong (Irregular) Verbs 95 254

Person and Number 97 254

The Personal Endings 97 254

Conjugation of the Present and the Past 98 254

Special Rules of Number and Person 100 254

The Future Tense—Shall and Will 102 256

Complete or Compound Tenses 106 258

Voice—Active and Passive 107 258

Conjugation of the Six Tenses 108 258

Use of the Passive Voice 110 258

Progressive Verb-Phrases 113 260

Emphatic Verb-Phrases 114 260

Mood of Verbs 115 261

Indicative Mood 115 261

Imperative Mood 116 261

Subjunctive Mood—Forms 118 261

Uses of the Subjunctive 119 261

Potential Verb-Phrases (Modal Auxiliaries) 124 262

Special Rules for Should and Would 127 264

The Infinitive 132 266

The Infinitive as a Noun 134 266

The Infinitive as a Modifier 136 266

The Infinitive Clause 137 267

Participles—Forms and Constructions 140 268

Nominative Absolute 144 269

Verbal Nouns in -ing (Participial Nouns) 145 269

CHAPTER VII—PREPOSITIONS

List of Prepositions 148 270

Special Uses of Prepositions 149 270

CHAPTER VIII—CONJUNCTIONS

Coördinate (or Coördinating) Conjunctions 151 270

Subordinate (or Subordinating) Conjunctions 153 270

Correlative Conjunctions 153 270

CHAPTER IX—INTERJECTIONS

Interjections 155 272

Exclamatory Expressions 155 272

CHAPTER X—CLAUSES AS PARTS OF SPEECH

Clauses as Parts of Speech 157 272

Adjective Clauses 157 272

Adverbial Clauses 158 272

Noun (or Substantive) Clauses 159 272

CHAPTER XI—THE MEANINGS OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

Clauses of Place and Time 163 272

Causal Clauses 164 272

Concessive Clauses 164 272

Clauses of Purpose and Result 166 274

Conditional Sentences 167 274

Forms of Conditions 169 274

Present and Past Conditions 170 274

Future Conditions 171 274

Clauses of Comparison 173 275

Indirect Discourse 173 277

Shall and Will, Should and Would in Indirect Discourse 177 278

Indirect Questions 179 280

Shall and Will, Should and Would in Indirect Questions 182 281

PART THREE—ANALYSIS

CHAPTER I—THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES

Analysis—the Elements 183 282

Simple Sentences 184 282

Compound Sentences 185 282

Complex Sentences 186 282

Compound and Complex Clauses 186 287

Compound Complex Sentences 187 283

CHAPTER II—ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES

Simple Sentences 188 283

Compound Sentences 188 283

Complex Sentences 189 283

Compound Complex Sentences 190 283

CHAPTER III—MODIFIERS

Modifiers in General 191 283

Modifiers of the Subject 192 283

Modifiers of the Predicate 196 284

CHAPTER IV—COMPLEMENTS

Use of Complements 200 285

The Direct Object 201 285

The Predicate Objective 202 285

The Predicate Nominative 202 285

The Predicate Adjective 203 285

CHAPTER V—MODIFIERS OF COMPLEMENTS AND OF MODIFIERS

Modifiers of Complements 205 286

Modifiers of Other Modifiers 207 286

CHAPTER VI—INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS

Four Kinds of Independent Elements 209 286

Parenthetical Expressions 209 286

CHAPTER VII—COMBINATIONS OF CLAUSES

General Principles 210 287

Coördination and Subordination 210 287

Clauses—Simple, Compound, Complex 211 287

Complex Sentences 186 282

Simple Sentences with Compound Subject or Predicate 212 287

Compound and Complex Sentences 213 287

Compound Complex Sentences 215 287

Varieties of the Complex Sentence 216 287

Special Complications in Complex Sentences 220 288

Special Complications in Compound Complex Sentences 222 288

CHAPTER VIII—ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES

Ellipsis in Clauses and Sentences 224 288

Varieties of Ellipsis 225 288

Examples of Elliptical Constructions 226 288

EXERCISES

Exercises on Part One 227

Exercises on Part Two 233

Exercises on Part Three 282

APPENDIX

Lists of Verbs 291

Conjugation of the Verb to be 300

Conjugation of the Verb to strike 301

Use of Capital Letters 305

Rules of Punctuation 306

Rules of Syntax 311

The English Language 316

Index 321

INTRODUCTION

LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR

I. The Nature of Language

Language is the expression of thought by means of spoken or written words.

The English word language comes (through the French langue) from the Latin lingua,
“the tongue.” But the tongue is not the only organ used in speaking. The lips, the
teeth, the roof of the mouth, the soft palate (or uvula), the nose, and the vocal
chords all help to produce the sounds of which language consists. These various
organs make up one delicate and complicated piece of mechanism upon which the
breath of the speaker acts like that of a musician upon a clarinet or other wind
instrument.

Spoken language, then, is composed of a great variety of sounds made with the vocal
organs. A word may consist of one sound (as Ah! or O or I), but most words consist
of two or more different sounds (as go, see, try, finish). Long or short, however,
a word is merely a sign made to express thought.

Thought may be imperfectly expressed by signs made with the head, the hands, etc.
Thus, if I grasp a person’s arm and point to a dog, he may understand me to ask,
“Do you see that dog?” And his nod in reply may stand for “Yes, I see him.” But any
dialogue carried on in this way must be both fragmentary and uncertain. To express
our thoughts fully, freely, and accurately, we must use words,—that is, signs made
with the voice. Such voice-signs have had meanings associated with them by custom
or tradition, so that their sense is at once understood by all. Their advantage is
twofold: they are far more numerous and varied than other signs; and the meanings
attached to them are much more definite than those of nods and gestures.

Written words are signs made with the pen to represent and recall to the mind the
spoken words (or voice-signs). Written language (that is, composition) must, of
necessity, be somewhat fuller than spoken language, as well as more formal and
exact. For the reader’s understanding is not assisted by the tones of the voice,
the changing expressions of the face, and the lively gestures, which help to make
spoken language intelligible.

Most words are the signs of definite ideas. Thus, Charles, captain, cat, mouse,
bread, stone, cup, ink, call up images or pictures of persons or things; strike,
dive, climb, dismount, express particular kinds of action; green, blue, careless,
rocky, triangular, muscular, enable us to describe objects with accuracy. Even
general terms like goodness, truth, courage, cowardice, generosity, have
sufficiently precise meanings, for they name qualities, or traits of character,
with which everybody is familiar.

By the use of such words, even when not combined in groups, we can express our
thoughts much more satisfactorily than by mere gestures. The utterance of the
single word “Charles!” may signify: “Hullo, Charles! are you here? I am surprised
to see you.” “Bread!” may suggest to the hearer: “Give me bread! I am very hungry.”
“Courage!” may be almost equivalent to, “Don’t be down-hearted! Your troubles will
soon be over.”

Language, however, is not confined to the utterance of single words. To express our
thoughts we must put words together,—we must combine them into groups; and such
groups have settled meanings (just as words have), established (like the meanings
of single words) by the customs or habits of the particular language that we are
speaking or writing. Further, these groups are not thrown together haphazard. We
must construct them in accordance with certain fixed rules. Otherwise we shall fail
to express ourselves clearly and acceptably, and we may even succeed in saying the
opposite of what we mean.

In constructing these groups (which we call phrases, clauses, and sentences) we

have the aid of a large number of short words like and, if, by, to, in, is, was,
which are very different from the definite and picturesque words that we have just
examined. They do not call up distinct images in the mind, and we should find it
hard to define any of them. Yet their importance in the expression of thought is
clear; for they serve to join other words together, and to show their relation to
each other in those groups which make up connected speech.

Thus, “box heavy” conveys some meaning; but “The box is heavy” is a clear and
definite statement. The shows that some particular box is meant, and is enables us
to make an assertion about it. And, in “Charles and John are my brothers,”
indicates that Charles and John are closely connected in my thought, and that what
I say of one applies also to the other. If, in “If Charles comes, I shall be glad
to see him,” connects two statements, and shows that one of them is a mere
supposition (for Charles may or may not come).

In grouping words, our language has three different ways of indicating their
relations: (1) the forms of the words themselves; (2) their order; (3) the use of
little words like and, if, is, etc.

I. Change of form. Words may change their form. Thus the word boy becomes boys when
more than one is meant; kill becomes killed when past time is referred to; was
becomes were when we are speaking of two or more persons or things; fast becomes
faster when a higher degree of speed is indicated. Such change of form is called
inflection, and the word is said to be inflected.

Inflection is an important means of showing the relations of words in connected

speech. In “Henry’s racket weighs fourteen ounces,” the form Henry’s shows at once
the relation between Henry and the racket,—namely, that Henry owns or possesses it.
The word Henry, then, may change its form to Henry’s to indicate ownership or
possession.

II. Order of words. In “John struck Charles,” the way in which the words are
arranged shows who it was that struck, and who received the blow. Change the order
of words to “Charles struck John,” and the meaning is reversed. It is, then, the
order that shows the relation of John to struck, and of struck to Charles.

III. Use of other words. Compare the two sentences:

The train from Boston has just arrived.

The train for Boston has just arrived.

Here from and for show the relation between the train and Boston. “The Boston
train” might mean either the train from Boston or the train for Boston. By using
from or for we make the sense unmistakable.

Two matters, then, are of vital importance in language,—the forms of words, and the
relations of words. The science which treats of these two matters is called
grammar.

Inflection is a change in the form of a word indicating some change in its meaning.

The relation in which a word stands to other words in the sentence is called its
construction.

Grammar is the science which treats of the forms and the constructions of words.

Syntax is that department of grammar which treats of the constructions of words.

Grammar, then, may be said to concern itself with two main subjects,—inflection and
syntax.

English belongs to a family of languages—the Indo-European Family1—which is rich in

forms of inflection. This richness may be seen in other members of the family,—such
as Greek or Latin. The Latin word homo, “man,” for example, has eight different
inflectional forms,—homo, “a man”; hominis, “of a man”; homini, “to a man,” and so
on. Thus, in Latin, the grammatical construction of a word is, in general, shown by
that particular inflectional ending (or termination) which it has in any particular
sentence. In the Anglo-Saxon period,2 English was likewise well furnished with such
inflectional endings, though not so abundantly as Latin. Many of these, however,
had disappeared by Chaucer’s time (1340–1400), and still others have since been
lost, so that modern English is one of the least inflected of languages. Such
losses are not to be lamented. By due attention to the order of words, and by using
of, to, for, from, in, and the like, we can express all the relations denoted by
the ancient inflections. The gain in simplicity is enormous.

II. Grammar and Usage

Since language is the expression of thought, the rules of grammar agree, in the
main, with the laws of thought. In other words, grammar is usually logical,—that
is, its rules accord, in general, with the principles of logic, which is the
science of exact reasoning.

The rules of grammar, however, do not derive their authority from logic, but from
good usage,—that is, from the customs or habits followed by educated speakers and
writers. These customs, of course, differ among different nations, and every
language has therefore its own stock of peculiar constructions or turns of
expression. Such peculiarities are called idioms.

Thus, in English we say, “It is I”; but in French the idiom is “C’est moi,” which
corresponds to “It is me.” Many careless speakers of English follow the French
idiom in this particular, but their practice has not yet come to be the accepted
usage. Hence, though “C’est moi” is correct in French, we must still regard “It is
me” as ungrammatical in English. It would, however, become correct if it should
ever be adopted by the great majority of educated persons.

Grammar does not enact laws for the conduct of speech. Its business is to ascertain
and set forth those customs of language which have the sanction of good usage. If
good usage changes, the rules of grammar must change. If two forms or constructions
are in good use, the grammarian must admit them both. Occasionally, also, there is
room for difference of opinion. These facts, however, do not lessen the authority
of grammar in the case of any cultivated language. For in such a language usage is
so well settled in almost every particular as to enable the grammarian to say
positively what is right and what is wrong. Even in matters of divided usage, it is
seldom difficult to determine which of two forms or constructions is preferred by
careful writers.

Every language has two standards of usage,—the colloquial and the literary. By
“colloquial language,” we mean the language of conversation; by “literary
language,” that employed in literary composition. Everyday colloquial English
admits many words, forms, phrases, and constructions that would be out of place in
a dignified essay. On the other hand, it is an error in taste to be always “talking
like a book.” Unpractised speakers and writers should, however, be conservative.
They should avoid, even in informal talk, any word or expression that is of
doubtful propriety. Only those who know what they are about, can venture to take
liberties. It is quite possible to be correct without being stilted or affected.3

Every living language is constantly changing. Words, forms, and constructions

become obsolete (that is, go out of use) and others take their places.
Consequently, one often notes in the older English classics, methods of expression
which, though formerly correct, are ungrammatical now. Here a twofold caution is
necessary. On the one hand, we must not criticise Shakspere or Chaucer for using
the English of his own time; but, on the other hand, we must not try to defend our
own errors by appealing to ancient usage.

Examples of constructions once in good use, but no longer admissible, are: “the
best of the two” (for “the better of the two”); “the most unkindest cut of all”;
“There’s two or three of us” (for there are); “I have forgot the map” (for
forgotten); “Every one of these letters are in my name” (for is); “I think it be”
(for is).

The language of poetry admits many old words, forms, and constructions that are no
longer used in ordinary prose. These are called archaisms (that is, ancient
expressions). Among the commonest archaisms are thou, ye, hath, thinkest, doth.
Such forms are also common in prose, in what is known as the solemn style, which is
modelled, in great part, on the language of the Bible.4

In general, it should be remembered that the style which one uses should be
appropriate,—that is, it should fit the occasion. A short story and a scientific
exposition will differ in style; a familiar letter will naturally shun the
formalities of business or legal correspondence. Good style is not a necessary
result of grammatical correctness, but without such correctness it is, of course,
impossible.

SUMMARY OF GENERAL PRINCIPLES

1. Language is the expression of thought by means of spoken or written words.

2. Words are the signs of ideas.

Spoken words are signs made with the vocal organs; written words are signs made
with the pen to represent the spoken words.
The meanings of these signs are settled by custom or tradition in each language.

3. Most words are the signs of definite ideas: as,—Charles, captain, cat, strike,
dive, climb, triangular, careless.

Other words, of less definite meaning, serve to connect the more definite words and
to show their relations to each other in connected speech.

4. In the expression of thought, words are combined into groups called phrases,
clauses, and sentences.

5. The relation in which a word stands to other words in the sentence is called its
construction.

The construction of English words is shown in three ways: (1) by their form; (2) by
their order; (3) by the use of other words like to, from, is, etc.

6. Inflection is a change in the form of a word indicating some change in its

meaning: as,—boy, boy’s; man, men; drink, drank.

7. Grammar is the science which treats of the forms and the constructions of words.

Syntax is that department of grammar which treats of the constructions of words.

8. The rules of grammar derive their authority from good usage,—that is, from the
customs or habits followed by educated speakers and writers.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

PART ONE

THE PARTS OF SPEECH IN THE SENTENCE

Summary. The Sentence: Subject and Predicate; Kinds of Sentences.—Use of words in

the Sentence: the Eight Parts of Speech; Infinitives and Participles.—Comparative
Importance of the Parts of Speech in the Sentence: the Subject Noun (or Simple
Subject); the Predicate Verb (or Simple Predicate); Compound Subject and Predicate.
—Substitutes for the Parts of Speech: Phrases; Clauses; Compound and Complex
Sentences.

THE SENTENCE
1. A sentence is a group of words which expresses a complete thought.

Fire burns.

Wolves howl.

Rain is falling.

Charles is courageous.

Patient effort removes mountains.

London is the largest city in the world.

A man who respects himself should never condescend to use slovenly language.

Some of these sentences are short, expressing a very simple thought; others are
comparatively long, because the thought is more complicated and therefore requires
more words for its expression. But every one of them, whether short or long, is
complete in itself. It comes to a definite end, and is followed by a full pause.

2. Every sentence, whether short or long, consists of two parts,—a subject and a
predicate.

The subject of a sentence designates the person, place, or thing that is spoken of;
the predicate is that which is said of the subject.

Thus, in the first example in § 1, the subject is fire and the predicate is burns.
In the third, the subject is rain; the predicate, is falling. In the last, the
subject is a man who respects himself; the predicate, should never condescend to
use slovenly language.

Either the subject or the predicate may consist of a single word or of a number of
words. But neither the subject by itself nor the predicate by itself, however
extended, is a sentence. The mere mention of a thing (fire) does not express a
complete thought. Neither does a mere assertion (burns), if we neglect to mention
the person or thing about which the assertion is made. Thus it appears that both a
subject and a predicate are necessary to make a sentence.

3. Sentences may be declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory.

1. A declarative sentence declares or asserts something as a fact.

Dickens wrote “David Copperfield.”

The army approached the city.

2. An interrogative sentence asks a question.

Who is that officer?

Does Arthur Moore live here?

3. An imperative sentence expresses a command or a request.

Open the window.

Pronounce the vowels more distinctly.

4. An exclamatory sentence expresses surprise, grief, or some other emotion in the

form of an exclamation or cry.

How calm the sea is!

What a noise the engine makes!

A declarative, an interrogative, or an imperative sentence is also exclamatory, if

it is uttered in an intense or excited tone of voice.

4. In imperative sentences, the subject (thou or you) is almost always omitted,

because it is understood by both speaker and hearer without being expressed.

Such omitted words, which are present (in idea) to the minds of both speaker and
hearer, are said to be “understood.” Thus, in “Open the window,” the subject is
“you (understood).” If expressed, the subject would be emphatic: as,—“You open the
window.”

5. The subject of a sentence commonly precedes the predicate, but sometimes the
predicate precedes.

Here comes Tom.

Next came Edward.

Over went the carriage.

A sentence in which the predicate precedes the subject is said to be in the

inverted order. This order is especially common in interrogative sentences.

Where is your boat?

When was your last birthday?

Whither wander you?—Shakspere.

THE PARTS OF SPEECH

6. If we examine the words in any sentence, we observe that they have different
tasks or duties to perform in the expression of thought.

Savage beasts roamed through the forest.

In this sentence, beasts and forest are the names of objects; roamed asserts
action, telling us what the beasts did; savage describes the beasts; through shows
the relation in thought between forest and roamed; the limits the meaning of
forest, showing that one particular forest is meant. Thus each of these words has
its special office (or function) in the sentence.

7. In accordance with their use in the sentence, words are divided into eight
classes called parts of speech,—namely, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs,
adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.

I. NOUNS

8. A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing.

Examples: Lincoln,

William,

Elizabeth,

sister,

engineer,

Chicago,

island,

shelf,

star,

window,

happiness,

anger,

sidewalk,

courage,

loss,

song.
II. PRONOUNS

9. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. It designates a person, place, or

thing without naming it.

In “I am ready,” the pronoun I is a convenient substitute for the speaker’s name.

In “You have forgotten your umbrella,” the pronouns you and your designate the
person to whom one is speaking.

Other pronouns are: he, his, him;

she, hers, her;

it, its;

this, that;

who, whose, whom, which;

myself, yourself, himself, themselves.

Since pronouns stand for nouns, they enable us to talk about a person, place, or
thing without constantly repeating the name.

10. Nouns and pronouns are called substantives.

Nouns and pronouns are very similar in their use. The difference between them is
merely that the noun designates a person, place, or thing by naming it, and that
the pronoun designates, but does not name. Hence it is convenient to have a general
term (substantive) to include both these parts of speech.

11. The substantive to which a pronoun refers is called its antecedent.

Frank introduced the boys to his father. [Frank is the antecedent of the pronoun
his.]

Eleanor is visiting her aunt.

The book has lost its cover.

The trappers sat round their camp fire.

Washington and Franklin served their country in different ways. [Their has two
antecedents, connected by and.]

III. ADJECTIVES

12. An adjective is a word which describes or limits a substantive.5

This it usually does by indicating some quality.

An adjective is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits.

13. An adjective limits a substantive by restricting the range of its meaning.

The noun box, for example, includes a great variety of objects. If we say wooden
box, we exclude boxes of metal, of paper, etc. If we use a second adjective (small)
and a third (square), we limit the size and the shape of the box.

Most adjectives (like wooden, square, and small) describe as well as limit. Such
words are called descriptive adjectives.

We may, however, limit the noun box to a single specimen by means of the adjective
this or that or the, which does not describe, but simply points out, or designates.
Such words are called definitive adjectives.6

IV. VERBS

14. A verb is a word which can assert something (usually an action) concerning a
person, place, or thing.7

The wind blows.

The horses ran.

The fire blazed.

Her jewels sparkled.

Tom climbed a tree.

The dynamite exploded.

Some verbs express state or condition rather than action.

The treaty still exists.

The book lies on the table.

Near the church stood an elm.

My aunt suffers much from headache.

15. A group of words may be needed, instead of a single verb, to make an assertion.

A group of words that is used as a verb is called a verb-phrase.

You will see.

The tree has fallen.

We might have invited her.

Our driver has been discharged.

16. Certain verbs, when used to make verb-phrases, are called auxiliary (that is,
“aiding”) verbs, because they help other verbs to express action or state of some
particular kind.

Thus, in “You will see,” the auxiliary verb will helps see to express future
action; in “We might have invited her,” the auxiliaries might and have help invited
to express action that was possible in past time.

The auxiliary verbs are is (are, was, were, etc.), may, can, must, might, shall,
will, could, would, should, have, had, do, did. Their forms and uses will be
studied in connection with the inflection of verbs.

The auxiliary verb regularly comes first in a verb-phrase, and may be separated
from the rest of it by some other word or words.

Where was Washington born?

The boat was slowly but steadily approaching.

17. Is (in its various forms) and several other verbs may be used to frame
sentences in which some word or words in the predicate describe or define the
subject.

1. Gold is a metal.

2. Charles is my friend’s name.

3. The colors of this butterfly are brilliant.

4. Iron becomes red in the fire.

5. Our condition seemed desperate.

6. Bertram proved a good friend in this emergency.

7. My soul grows sad with troubles.—Shakspere.

In the first sentence, the verb is not only makes an assertion, but it also
connects the rest of the predicate (a metal) with the subject (gold) in such a way
that a metal serves as a description or definition of gold.

In sentences 4–7, becomes, seemed, proved, and grows are similarly used.

In such sentences is and other verbs that are used for the same purpose are called
copulative (that is, “joining”) verbs.

Is in this use is often called the copula, that is, the “joiner” or “link.”
The forms of the verb is are very irregular. Among the commonest are: am, is, are,
was, were, and the verb-phrases has been, have been, had been, shall be, will be.8

V. ADVERBS

18. An adverb is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

To modify a word is to change or affect its meaning in some way. Thus in “The river
fell rapidly,” the adverb rapidly modifies the verb fell by showing how the falling
took place. In “I am never late,” “This is absolutely true,” “That is too bad,” the
italicized words are adverbs modifying adjectives; in “He came very often,” “He
spoke almost hopefully,” “The river fell too rapidly,” they are adverbs modifying
other adverbs.

Most adverbs answer the question “How?” “When?” “Where?” or “To what degree or
extent?”

19. Observe that adverbs modify verbs in much the same way in which adjectives
modify nouns.

Adjectives Adverbs

A bright fire burned. The fire burned brightly.

A fierce wind blew. The wind blew fiercely.

A word or group of words that changes or modifies the meaning of another word is
called a modifier.

Adjectives and adverbs, then, are both modifiers. Adjectives modify substantives;
adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.

VI. PREPOSITIONS

20. A preposition is a word placed before a substantive to show its relation to

some other word in the sentence.

The substantive which follows a preposition is called its object.

A preposition is said to govern its object.

In “The surface of the water glistened,” of makes it clear that surface belongs
with water. In “Philip is on the river,” on shows Philip’s position with respect to
the river. In, or near, or beyond would have indicated a different relation. Water
is the object of the preposition of, and river is the object of the preposition on.

21. A preposition often has more than one object.

Over hill and dale he ran.

He was filled with shame and despair.

VII. CONJUNCTIONS

22. A conjunction connects words or groups of words.

A conjunction differs from a preposition in having no object, and in indicating a

less definite relation between the words which it connects.

In “Time and tide wait for no man,” “The parcel was small but heavy,” “He wore a
kind of doublet or jacket,” the conjunctions and, but, or, connect single words,—
time with tide, small with heavy, doublet with jacket. In “Do not go if you are
afraid,” “I came because you sent for me,” “Take my key, but do not lose it,”
“Sweep the floor and dust the furniture,” each conjunction connects the entire
group of words preceding it with the entire group following it.

VIII. INTERJECTIONS

23. An interjection is a cry or other exclamatory sound expressing surprise, anger,

pleasure, or some other emotion or feeling.

Interjections usually have no grammatical connection with the groups of words in

which they stand; hence their name, which means “thrown in.”

Examples: Oh! I forgot.

Ah, how I miss you!

Bravo! Alas!

THE SAME WORD AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH

24. The meaning of a word in the sentence determines to what part of speech it
belongs.

The same word may be sometimes one part of speech, sometimes another.

Words of entirely separate origin, meaning, and use sometimes look and sound alike:
as in “The minstrel sang a plaintive lay,” and “He lay on the ground.” But the
following examples (§ 25) show that the same word may have more than one kind of
grammatical office (or function). It is the meaning which we give to a word in the
sentence that determines its classification as a part of speech.
25. The chief classes of words thus variously used are (1) nouns and adjectives,
(2) nouns and verbs, (3) adjectives and adverbs, (4) adjectives and pronouns, (5)
adverbs and prepositions.

I. Nouns and Adjectives Nouns Adjectives

Rubber comes from South America. This wheel has a rubber tire.

That brick is yellow. Here is a brick house.

The rich have a grave responsibility. A rich merchant lives here.

The first two examples show how words that are commonly nouns may be used as
adjectives; the third shows how words that are commonly adjectives may be used as
nouns.

II. Nouns and Verbs Nouns Verbs

Hear the wash of the tide. Wash those windows.

Give me a stamp. Stamp this envelope.

It is the call of the sea. Ye call me chief.

Other examples are: act,

address,

ally,

answer,

boast,

care,

cause,

close,

defeat,

doubt,

drop,

heap,

hope,

mark,

offer,

pile,
place,

rest,

rule,

sail,

shape,

sleep,

spur,

test,

watch,

wound.

III. Adjectives and Adverbs Adjectives Adverbs

That is a fast boat. The snow is melting fast.

Draw a straight line. The arrow flew straight.

Early comers get good seats. Tom awoke early.

For an explanation of the form of these adverbs, see § 191.

IV. Adjectives and Pronouns Adjectives Pronouns

This man looks unhappy. This is the sergeant.

That book is a dictionary. That is a kangaroo.

Each day brings its opportunity. I received a dollar from each.

For further study of this class of words, see pp. 62–65.

V. Adverbs and Prepositions Adverbs Prepositions

Jill came tumbling after. He returned after the accident.

We went below. Below us lay the valley.

The weeds sprang up. We walked up the hill.

Other examples are: aboard,

before,

beyond,
down,

inside,

underneath.

Miscellaneous examples of variation are the following:—

Noun. The calm lasted for three days.

Adjective. Calm words show quiet minds.

Verb. Calm your angry friend.

Other examples are: iron,

stone,

paper,

sugar,

salt,

bark,

quiet,

black,

light,

head,

wet,

round,

square,

winter,

spring.

Noun. Wrong seldom prospers.

Adjective. You have taken the wrong road.

Adverb. Edward often spells words wrong.

Verb. You wrong me by your suspicions.

Noun. The outside of the castle is gloomy.

Adjective. We have an outside stateroom.

Adverb. The messenger is waiting outside.

Preposition. I shall ride outside the coach.

Adjective. That boat is a sloop.

Pronoun. That is my uncle.

Conjunction. You said that you would help me.

Adjective. Neither road leads to Utica.

Pronoun. Neither of us arrived in time.

Conjunction. Neither Tom nor I was late.

Preposition. I am waiting for the train.

Conjunction. You have plenty of time, for the train is late.

Interjection. Hurrah! the battle is won.

Noun. I heard a loud hurrah.

Verb. The enemy flees. Our men hurrah.

INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES

26. Two classes of verb-forms illustrate in a striking way the fact that the same
word may belong to different parts of speech; for they really belong to two
different parts of speech at one and the same time. These are the infinitive (which
is both verb and noun) and the participle (which is both verb and adjective).

27. Examples of the infinitive may be seen in the following sentences:

To struggle was useless.

To escape is impossible.

To exercise regularly preserves the health.

To struggle is clearly a noun, for (1) it is the subject of the sentence, and (2)
the noun effort or exertion might be put in the place of to struggle. Similarly,
the noun escape might be substituted for to escape; and, in the third sentence,
regular exercise (a noun modified by an adjective) might be substituted for to
exercise regularly.

But these three forms (to struggle, to escape, and to exercise) are also verbs, for
they express action, and one of them (to exercise) is modified by an adverb
(regularly). Such forms, therefore, are noun-forms of the verb. They are classed
with verbs, and are called infinitives.

28. The infinitive is a verb-form which partakes of the nature of a noun. It is

commonly preceded by the preposition to, which is called the sign of the
infinitive.

29. The infinitive without to is used in a great variety of verb-phrases.

I shall go.

John will win.

Mary may recite.

Jack can swim.

Such phrases will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs.

Note. That go, win, recite, and swim are infinitives may be seen by comparing the
following sentences:—“I intend to go,” “John is sure to win,” “Mary is permitted to
recite,” “Jack is able to swim.”

30. The following sentence contains two participles:—

Shattered and slowly sinking, the frigate drifted out to sea.

In this sentence, we recognize shattered as a form of the verb shatter, and sinking
as a form of the verb sink. They both express action, and sinking is modified by
the adverb slowly. But shattered and sinking have also the nature of adjectives,
for they are used to describe the noun frigate. Such words, then, are adjective
forms of the verb. They are classed as verbs, and are called participles, because
they share (or participate in) the nature of adjectives.

31. The participle is a verb-form which has no subject, but which partakes of the
nature of an adjective and expresses action or state in such a way as to describe
or limit a substantive.

A participle is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits.

32. The chief classes of participles are present participles and past participles,
so called from the time which they denote.

All present participles end in ing. Past participles have several different
endings, which will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs (§ 334).

33. Participles are used in a variety of verb-phrases.

Tom is coming.

Our boat was wrecked.

I have sent the money.

He has brought me a letter.

Your book is found.

They have sold their horses.

You have broken your watch.

The ship had struck on the reef.

Such phrases will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs.

Note. The double nature of the infinitive (as both verb and noun) and the
participle (as both verb and adjective) almost justifies one in classifying each as
a distinct part of speech (so as to make ten parts of speech instead of eight). But
it is more convenient to include them under the head of verbs, in accordance with
the usual practice.

SIMPLE AND COMPLETE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

34. Our survey of the eight parts of speech has shown, (1) that these have very
different offices or functions in the sentence, and (2) that their functions are
not of equal importance.

Clearly, the most important parts of speech are substantives (nouns and pronouns)
and verbs.

Substantives enable us to name or designate persons, places, or things, and verbs

enable us to make statements about them. Both substantives and verbs, then, are
absolutely necessary in framing sentences. Without a substantive, there can be no
subject; without a verb, there can be no predicate: and both a subject and a
predicate, as we have seen, are needed to make a sentence.

Adjectives and adverbs are less important than substantives and verbs. Their
function is to modify other parts of speech, that is, to change their meaning in
some way. Thus adjectives modify substantives (by describing or limiting), and
adverbs usually modify verbs (by indicating how, when, or where the action took
place). Without substantives, there would be no use for adjectives; without verbs,
there would be little use for adverbs.

Prepositions and conjunctions are also less important than substantives and verbs.
Their office is to connect and to show relation. Of course, there would be no place
for connectives if there were nothing to connect.

Interjections are the least important of all. They add liveliness to language, but
they are not actual necessities. We could express all the thoughts that enter our
minds without ever using an interjection.

35. A sentence may consist of but two words,—a noun or pronoun (the subject) and a
verb (the predicate). Thus,—
Charles | swims.

Commonly, however, either the subject or the predicate, or both, will contain more
than one word. Thus,—

Young Charles | swims slowly.

Here the complete subject (young Charles) consists of a noun (Charles) and an
adjective (young), which describes Charles. The complete predicate consists of a
verb (swims) and an adverb (slowly), which modifies swim by indicating how the
action is performed. The subject noun (Charles) and the predicate verb (swims) are
the chief words in the sentence, for neither could be omitted without destroying
it. They form, so to speak, the frame or skeleton of the whole. Either of the two
modifiers, the adjective or the adverb, or both, might be omitted, without
destroying the sentence; for this would still exist as the expression of a thought
(Charles swims), though the thought would be less definite and exact than it is
when the modifiers are included.

36. The simple subject of a sentence is a noun or pronoun.

The simple predicate of a sentence is a verb or verb-phrase.

The simple subject, with such words as explain or complete its meaning, forms the
complete subject.

The simple predicate, with such words as explain or complete its meaning, forms the
complete predicate.

In each of the following sentences the complete subject and the complete predicate
are separated by a vertical line, and the simple subject and the simple predicate
are printed in italics:—

The spider | spreads her web.

The fiery smoke | rose upward in billowing volumes.

A nameless unrest | urged me forward.

Our frantic horses | swept round an angle of the road.

The infirmities of age | came early upon him.

The general feeling among the English in Bengal | was strongly in favor of the
Governor General.

Salutes | were fired from the batteries.

The Clives | had been settled ever since the twelfth century on an estate of no
great value near Market Drayton in Shropshire.

I | have written repeatedly to Mr. Hobhouse.

37. Two or more simple subjects may be joined to make one compound subject, and two
or more simple predicates to make one compound predicate.

1. Charles and Henry | play tennis well.

2. Moore and I | passed some merry days together.

3. Frances and she | are friends.

4. Hats, caps, boots, and gloves | were piled together in confusion.

5. The watch | sank and was lost.

6. The balloon | rose higher and higher and finally disappeared.

7. He | neither smiled nor frowned.

8. Snow and ice | covered the ground and made our progress difficult.

38. A compound subject or predicate consists of two or more simple subjects or

predicates, joined, when necessary, by conjunctions.

Either the subject or the predicate, or both, may be compound.

In the first example in § 37, two simple subjects (Charles and Henry) are joined by
the conjunction and to make a compound subject. In the fourth, four substantives
(hats, caps, boots, gloves) form a series in which the last two are joined by and.
In the fifth, sixth, and seventh, the predicates are compound; in the eighth, both
the subject and the predicate.

39. The following conjunctions may be used to join the members of a compound
subject or predicate: and (both ... and), or (either ... or; whether ... or), nor
(neither ... nor).

SUBSTITUTES FOR PARTS OF SPEECH

PHRASES

40. A group of words may take the place of a part of speech

The Father of Waters is the Mississippi.

A girl with blue eyes stood at the window.

You are looking well.

The Father of Waters is used as a noun, since it names something.

With blue eyes takes the place of an adjective (blue-eyed), and modifies girl.

At the window indicates, as an adverb might, where the girl stood, and modifies
stood.

Are looking could be replaced by the verb look.

41. A group of connected words, not containing a subject and a predicate, is called
a phrase.

A phrase is often equivalent to a part of speech.

1. A phrase used as a noun is called a noun-phrase.

2. A phrase used as a verb is called a verb-phrase.

3. A phrase used as an adjective is called an adjective phrase.

4. A phrase used as an adverb is called an adverbial phrase.

In the examples in § 40, The Father of Waters is a noun-phrase; with blue eyes, an
adjective phrase; at the window, an adverbial phrase; are looking, a verb-phrase.

42. Many adjective and adverbial phrases consist of a preposition and its object,
with or without other words.

Your umbrella is in the corner.

He has a heart of oak.

A cup with a broken handle stood on the shelf.

My house of cards fell to the floor in a heap.

Adjective or adverbial phrases consisting of a preposition and its object, with or

without other words, may be called prepositional phrases.

CLAUSES—COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES

43. Phrases must be carefully distinguished from clauses. The difference is that a
clause contains a subject and a predicate and a phrase does not.

44. A clause is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and that contains a
subject and a predicate.

The lightning flashed | and | the thunder roared.

The train started | when the bell rang.

Each of these sentences contains two clauses; but the relation between the clauses
in the first sentence is very different from that between the clauses in the
second.

In the first example, each of the two clauses makes a separate and distinct
statement, and might stand by itself as a simple sentence,—that is, as a sentence
having but one subject and one predicate. These clauses are joined by the
conjunction and, which is not a part of either. No doubt the speaker feels that
there is some relation in thought between the two statements, or he would not have
put them together as clauses in the same sentence. But there is nothing in the form
of expression to show what that relation is. In other words, the two clauses are
grammatically independent, for neither of them modifies (or affects the meaning of)
the other. The clauses are therefore said to be coördinate,—that is, of the same
“order” or rank, and the sentence is called compound.

In the second example, on the contrary, the relation between the two clauses is
indicated with precision. One clause (the train started) makes the main statement,—
it expresses the chief fact. Hence it is called the main (or principal) clause. The
other clause (when the bell rang) is added because the speaker wishes to modify the
main verb (started) by defining the time of the action. This clause, then, is used
as a part of speech. Its function is the same as that of an adverb (promptly) or an
adverbial phrase (on the stroke of the bell). For this purpose alone it exists, and
not as an independent statement. Hence it is called a dependent (or subordinate)
clause, because it depends (that is, “hangs”) upon the main clause, and so occupies
a lower or “subordinate” rank in the sentence. When thus constructed, a sentence is
said to be complex.

45. An ordinary compound sentence (as we have seen in § 44) is made by joining two
or more simple sentences, each of which thus becomes an independent coördinate
clause.

In the same way we may join two or more complex sentences, using them as clauses to
make one compound sentence:—

The train started when the bell rang, | and | Tom watched until the last car
disappeared.

This sentence is manifestly compound, for it consists of two coördinate clauses

(the train started when the bell rang; Tom watched until the last car disappeared)
joined by and. Each of these two clauses is itself complex, for each could stand by
itself as a complex sentence.

Similarly, a complex and a simple sentence may be joined as coördinate clauses to

make a compound sentence.

The train started when the bell rang, | and | Tom gazed after it in despair.

Such a sentence, which is compound in its structure, but in which one or more of
the coördinate clauses are complex, is called a compound complex sentence.9

46. A clause is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and that contains a
subject and a predicate.

A clause used as a part of speech is called a subordinate clause. All other clauses
are said to be independent.

Clauses of the same order or rank are said to be coördinate.

Sentences may be simple, compound, or complex.

1. A simple sentence has but one subject and one predicate, either or both of which
may be compound.

2. A compound sentence consists of two or more independent coördinate clauses,

which may or may not be joined by conjunctions.

3. A complex sentence consists of two or more clauses, one of which is independent

and the rest subordinate.

A compound sentence in which one or more of the coördinate clauses are complex is
called a compound complex sentence.

I. Simple Sentences

Iron rusts.

George V is king.

Dogs, foxes, and hares are quadrupeds. [Compound subject.]

The defendant rose and addressed the court. [Compound predicate.]

Merton and his men crossed the bridge and scaled the wall. [Both subject and
predicate are compound.]

II. Compound Sentences

Shakspere was born in 1564; he died in 1616. [Two coördinate clauses; no

conjunction.]

A rifle cracked, and the wolf fell dead. [Two clauses joined by the conjunction
and.]

You must hurry, or we shall lose the train. [Two clauses joined by or.]

James Watt did not invent the steam engine, but he greatly improved it. [Two
clauses joined by but.]
Either you have neglected to write or your letter has failed to reach me. [Two
clauses joined by either ... or.]

The following conjunctions may be used to join coördinate clauses: and (both ...
and), or (either ... or), nor (neither ... nor), but, for.

III. Complex Sentences

Examples will be found in §§ 48–50.

Clauses as Parts of Speech

47. Subordinate clauses, like phrases, are used as parts of speech. They serve as
substitutes for nouns, for adjectives, or for adverbs.

1. A subordinate clause that is used as a noun is called a noun (or substantive)

clause.

2. A subordinate clause that modifies a substantive is called an adjective clause.

3. A subordinate clause that serves as an adverbial modifier is called an adverbial

clause.

48. I. Noun (or Substantive) Clauses.

{Success | That we should succeed in this plan} is improbable.

The thought in these two sentences is the same, but in the second it is more fully
expressed. In the first sentence, the subject is the noun success; in the second,
the subject is the noun clause, that we should succeed in this plan. This clause is
introduced by the conjunction that; the simple subject of the clause is the pronoun
we, and the simple predicate is the verb-phrase should succeed. The first sentence
is simple; the second is complex.

Substantive clauses are often introduced by the conjunction that.

49. II. Adjective Clauses. The following sentences illustrate the use of (1) an
adjective, (2) an adjective phrase, (3) an adjective clause, as a modifier of the
subject noun.

{An honorable man | A man of honor | A man who values his honor} will not lie.

{A seasonable word | A word in season | A word that is spoken at the right moment}
may save a soul.

{My native land | The land of my birth | The land where I was born} lies far across
the sea.

The first two sentences in each group are simple, the third is complex.

50. III. Adverbial Clauses. The following sentences illustrate the use of (1) an
adverb, (2) an adverbial phrase, (3) an adverbial clause, as a modifier of the
predicate verb (or verb-phrase).

The lightning struck {here. | on this spot. | where we stand.}

Mr. Andrews lives {near. | in this neighborhood. | where you see that elm.}

The game began {punctually. | on the stroke of one. | when the clock struck.}

The banker will make the loan {conditionally. | on one condition. | if you endorse
my note.}

The first two sentences in each group are simple, the third is complex.

51. Adjective clauses may be introduced (1) by the pronouns who, which, and that,
or (2) by adverbs like where, whence, whither, when.

Adverbial clauses may be introduced (1) by the adverbs where, whither, whence,
when, while, before, after, until, how, as, or (2) by the conjunctions because,
though, although, if, that (in order that, so that), lest, etc.

Note. The use of phrases and clauses as parts of speech increases enormously the
richness and power of language. Though English has a huge stock of words, it cannot
provide a separate noun or adjective or adverb for every idea. By grouping words,
however, in phrases and clauses we, in effect, make a great variety of new nouns,
adjectives, and adverbs, each precisely fitted to the needs of the moment in the
expression of thought.

SUMMARY OF DEFINITIONS

The Sentence

1. Language is thought expressed in words.

2. To express thought words are combined into sentences.

3. A sentence is a group of words which expresses a complete thought.

4. Sentences may be declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory.

(1) A declarative sentence declares or asserts something as a fact.

(2) An interrogative sentence asks a question.

(3) An imperative sentence expresses a command or a request.

(4) An exclamatory sentence expresses surprise, grief, or some other emotion in the
form of an exclamation or cry.

A declarative, an interrogative, or an imperative sentence may also be exclamatory.

Subject and Predicate

5. Every sentence consists of a subject and a predicate.

The subject of a sentence designates the person, place, or thing that is spoken of;
the predicate is that which is said of the subject.

6. The simple subject of a sentence is a noun or pronoun.

The simple predicate of a sentence is a verb or verb-phrase.

7. The simple subject, with such words as explain or complete its meaning, forms
the complete subject.

The simple predicate, with such words as explain or complete its meaning, forms the
complete predicate.

8. A compound subject or predicate consists of two or more simple subjects or

predicates, joined, when necessary, by conjunctions.

Either the subject or the predicate, or both, may be compound.

The Parts of Speech

9. In accordance with their use in the sentence, words are divided into eight
classes called parts of speech,—namely, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs,
adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.

(1) A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing.

(2) A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. It designates a person, place, or

thing without naming it.

Nouns and pronouns are called substantives.

The substantive to which a pronoun refers is called its antecedent.

(3) An adjective is a word which describes or limits a substantive.

This it usually does by indicating some quality.

An adjective is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits.

An adjective which describes is called a descriptive adjective; one which points
out or designates is called a definitive adjective.

(4) A verb is a word which can assert something (usually an action) concerning a
person, place, or thing.

Some verbs express state or condition rather than action.

A group of words that is used as a verb is called a verb-phrase.

Certain verbs, when used to make verb-phrases, are called auxiliary (that is,
“aiding”) verbs, because they help other verbs to express action or state of some
particular kind.

Is (in its various forms) and several other verbs may be used to frame sentences in
which some word or words in the predicate describe or define the subject. In such
sentences, is and other verbs that are used for the same purpose are called
copulative (that is, “joining”) verbs.

(5) An adverb is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

A word or group of words that changes or modifies the meaning of another word is
called a modifier.

Adjectives and adverbs are both modifiers.

(6) A preposition is a word placed before a substantive to show its relation to

some other word in the sentence.

The substantive which follows a preposition is called its object.

(7) A conjunction connects words or groups of words.

(8) An interjection is a cry or other exclamatory sound expressing surprise, anger,

pleasure, or some other emotion or feeling.

10. The meaning of a word in the sentence determines to what part of speech it
belongs.

The same word may be sometimes one part of speech, sometimes another.

11. The infinitive is a verb-form which partakes of the nature of a noun. It is

commonly preceded by the preposition to, which is called the sign of the
infinitive.

12. The participle is a verb-form which has no subject, but which partakes of the
nature of an adjective and expresses action or state in such a way as to describe
or limit a substantive.

A participle is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits.

The chief classes of participles are present participles and past participles, so
called from the time which they denote.
Substitutes for the Parts of Speech

Phrases

13. A group of connected words, not containing a subject and a predicate, is called
a phrase.

A phrase is often equivalent to a part of speech.

(1) A phrase used as a noun is called a noun-phrase.

(2) A phrase used as a verb is called a verb-phrase.

(3) A phrase used as an adjective is called an adjective phrase.

(4) A phrase used as an adverb is called an adverbial phrase.

14. Adjective or adverbial phrases consisting of a preposition and its object, with
or without other words, may be called prepositional phrases.

Clauses

15. A clause is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and that contains a
subject and a predicate.

16. A clause used as a part of speech is called a subordinate clause. All other
clauses are said to be independent.

17. Clauses of the same order or rank are said to be coördinate.

18. Sentences may be simple, compound, or complex.

(1) A simple sentence has but one subject and one predicate, either or both of
which may be compound.

(2) A compound sentence consists of two or more independent coördinate clauses,

which may or may not be joined by conjunctions.

(3) A complex sentence consists of two or more clauses, one of which is independent
and the rest subordinate.

A compound sentence in which one or more of the coördinate clauses are complex is
called a compound complex sentence.

19. Subordinate clauses, like phrases, are used as parts of speech. They serve as
substitutes for nouns, for adjectives, or for adverbs.

(1) A subordinate clause that is used as a noun is called a noun (or substantive)
clause.

(2) A subordinate clause that modifies a substantive is called an adjective clause.

(3) A subordinate clause that serves as an adverbial modifier is called an
adverbial clause.

PART TWO

INFLECTION AND SYNTAX

CHAPTER I

INFLECTION

52. Inflection is a change of form in a word indicating some change in its meaning.
A word thus changed in form is said to be inflected.

Thus the nouns man, wife, dog, may change their form to man’s, wife’s, dog’s, to
express possession; or to men, wives, dogs, to show that two or more are meant.

The pronouns I, she, may change their form to our, her.

The adjectives large, happy, good, may change their form to larger, happier,
better, to denote a higher degree of the quality; or to largest, happiest, best, to
denote the highest degree.

The verbs look, see, sing, may change their form to looked, saw, sang, to denote
past time.

The examples show that a word may be inflected (1) by the addition of a final
letter or syllable (dog, dogs; look, looked), (2) by the substitution of one letter
for another (man, men), or (3) by a complete change of form (good, better, best).

53. The inflection of a substantive is called its declension; that of an adjective

or an adverb, its comparison; that of a verb, its conjugation.

Note. Some forms which we regard as due to inflection are really distinct words.
Thus we is regarded as a form of the pronoun I, but it is in fact an altogether
different word. Such irregularities, however, are not numerous, and are properly
enough included under the head of inflection.

The table below gives a summary view of inflection, and may be used for reference
with the following chapters.

Substantives (Nouns and Pronouns) Gender Masculine (male)

Feminine (female)

Neuter (no sex)

Number Singular (one)

Plural (more than one)

Person First (speaker)

Second (spoken to)

Third (spoken of)

Case Nominative (subject case)

Possessive (ownership)

Objective (object case)

Adjectives and Adverbs Comparison Positive Degree

Comparative Degree

Superlative Degree

Verbs Number (Verb agrees with Subject) Singular

Plural

Person (Verb agrees with Subject) First

Second

Third
Tense Simple Tenses Present

Past

Future

Compound Tenses Perfect (or Present Perfect)

Pluperfect (or Past Perfect)

Future Perfect

Mood Indicative (all six tenses)

Imperative (Present Tense only)

Subjunctive (Present, Past, Perfect, Pluperfect)

Voice Active (Subject acts)

Passive (Subject receives the action)

Infinitives (Present and Perfect)

Participles (Present, Past, and Perfect)

CHAPTER II

NOUNS

CLASSIFICATION—COMMON NOUNS AND PROPER NOUNS

54. A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing.

55. Nouns are divided into two classes—proper nouns and common nouns.

1. A proper noun is the name of a particular person, place, or thing.

Examples: Lincoln,

Napoleon,

Ruth,

Gladstone,

America,

Denver,

Jove,

Ohio,

Monday,

December,

Yale,

Christmas,

Britannia,

Niagara,

Merrimac,

Elmwood,

Louvre,

Richardson,

Huron,

Falstaff.

2. A common noun is a name which may be applied to any one of a class of persons,
places, or things.

Examples: general,

emperor,

president,

clerk,

street,
town,

desk,

tree,

cloud,

chimney,

childhood,

idea,

thought,

letter,

dynamo,

cruiser,

dictionary,

railroad.

Proper nouns begin with a capital letter; common nouns usually begin with a small
letter.

Note. Although a proper noun is the name of a particular person, place, or thing,
that name may be given to more than one individual. More than one man is named
James; but when we say James, we think of one particular person, whom we are
calling by his own name. When we say man, on the contrary, we are not calling any
single person by name: we are using a noun which applies, in common, to all the
members of a large class of persons.

Any word, when mentioned merely as a word, is a noun. Thus,—

And is a conjunction.

56. A common noun becomes a proper noun when used as the particular name of a ship,
a newspaper, an animal, etc.

Nelson’s flagship was the Victory.

Give me this evening’s Herald.

My dog is named Rover.

The Limited Express is drawn by the Pioneer.

57. A proper noun often consists of a group of words, some of which are perhaps
ordinarily used as other parts of speech.

Examples: James Russell Lowell,

Washington Elm,

Eiffel Tower,

Firth of Clyde,

North Lexington Junction,

Stony Brook,

Westminster

Abbey,

Measure for Measure,

White House,

Brooklyn Bridge,

Atlantic Railroad,

Sherman Act,

The Return of the Native,

Flatiron Building.

Note. These are (strictly speaking) noun-phrases (§ 41); but, since all are
particular names, they may be regarded as proper nouns.

58. A proper noun becomes a common noun when used as a name that may be applied to
any one of a class of objects.

The museum owns two Rembrandts and a Titian.

I exchanged my old motor car for a new Halstead.

My fountain pen is a Blake.

Lend me your Webster.

He was a Napoleon of finance.

I am going to buy a Kazak.

59. Certain proper nouns have become common nouns when used in a special sense.
These generally begin with a small letter.
Examples: macadam (crushed stone for roads, so called from Macadam, the inventor),

mackintosh (a waterproof garment),

napoleon (a coin),

guinea (twenty-one shillings),

mentor (a wise counsellor),

derringer (a kind of pistol).

60. A lifeless object, one of the lower animals, or any human quality or emotion is
sometimes regarded as a person.

This usage is called personification, and the object, animal, or quality is said to
be personified.

Each old poetic Mountain

Inspiration breathed around.—Gray.

Who’ll toll the bell?

“I,” said the Bull,

“Because I can pull.”

His name was Patience.—Spenser.

Smiles on past Misfortune’s brow

Soft Reflection’s hand can trace;

And o’er the cheek of Sorrow throw

A melancholy grace.—Gray.

Love is and was my lord and king,

And in his presence I attend.—Tennyson.

Time gently shakes his wings.—Dryden.

The name of anything personified is regarded as a proper noun and is usually

written with a capital letter.

Note. The rule for capitals is not absolute. When the personification is kept up
for only a sentence or two (as frequently in Shakspere), the noun often begins with
a small letter.
SPECIAL CLASSES OF NOUNS

61. An abstract noun is the name of a quality or general idea.

Examples: blackness,

freshness,

smoothness,

weight,

height,

length,

depth,

strength,

health,

honesty,

beauty,

liberty,

eternity,

satisfaction,

precision,

splendor,

terror,

disappointment,

elegance,

existence,

grace,

peace.

Many abstract nouns are derived from adjectives.

Examples: greenness (from green),

depth (from deep),

freedom (from free),

wisdom (from wise),

rotundity (from rotund),

falsity or falseness (from false),

bravery (from brave).

62. A collective noun is the name of a group, class, or multitude, and not of a
single person, place, or thing.

Examples: crowd,

group,

legislature,

squadron,

sheaf,

battalion,

squad,

Associated Press,

Mediterranean Steamship Company,

Senior Class,

School Board.

The same noun may be abstract in one of its meanings, collective in another.

They believe in fraternity. [Abstract.]

The student joined a fraternity. [Collective.]

63. Abstract nouns are usually common, but become proper when the quality or idea
is personified (§ 60).

Collective nouns may be either proper or common.

64. A noun consisting of two or more words united is called a compound noun.

Examples: (1) common nouns,— tablecloth,

sidewalk,

lampshade,
bedclothes,

steamboat,

fireman,

washerwoman,

jackknife,

hatband,

headache,

flatiron,

innkeeper,

knife-edge,

steeple-climber,

brother-in-law,

commander-in-chief,

window curtain,

insurance company;

(2) proper nouns,— Johnson,

Williamson,

Cooperstown,

Louisville,

Holywood,

Elk-horn,

Auburndale,

Stratford-on-Avon,

Lowell Junction.

As the examples show, the parts of a compound noun may be joined (with or without a
hyphen) or written separately. In some words usage is fixed, in others it varies.
The hyphen, however, is less used than formerly.
Note. The first part of a compound noun usually limits the second after the manner
of an adjective. Indeed, many expressions may be regarded either (1) as compounds
or (2) as phrases containing an adjective and a noun. Thus railway conductor may be
taken as a compound noun, or as a noun (conductor) limited by an adjective
(railway).

INFLECTION OF NOUNS

65. In studying the inflection of nouns and pronouns we have to consider gender,
number, person, and case.

1. Gender is distinction according to sex.

2. Number is that property of substantives which shows whether they indicate one
person or thing or more than one.

3. Person is that property of substantives which shows whether they designate (1)
the speaker, (2) the person spoken to, or (3) the person or thing spoken of.

4. Substantives have inflections of case to indicate their grammatical relations to

verbs, to prepositions, or to other substantives.

These four properties of substantives are included under inflection for

convenience. In strictness, however, nouns are inflected for number and case only.
Gender is shown in various ways,—usually by the meaning of the noun or by the use
of some pronoun. Person is indicated by the sense, by the pronouns used, and by the
form of the verb.

I. GENDER

66. Gender is distinction according to sex.

Nouns and pronouns may be of the masculine, the feminine, or the neuter gender.

1. A noun or pronoun denoting a male being is of the masculine gender.

Examples: Joseph,

boy,

cockerel,

buck,

footman,

butler,

brother,
father,

uncle,

he.

2. A noun or pronoun denoting a female being is of the feminine gender.

Examples: girl,

Julia,

hen,

waitress,

maid,

doe,

spinster,

matron,

aunt,

squaw,

she.

3. A noun or pronoun denoting a thing without animal life is of the neuter gender.

Examples: pencil,

light,

water,

star,

book,

dust,

leaf,

it.

A noun or pronoun which is sometimes masculine and sometimes feminine is often said
to be of common gender.

Examples: bird,
speaker,

artist,

animal,

cat,

European,

musician,

operator,

they.

67. A pronoun must be in the same gender as the noun for which it stands or to
which it refers.

Each of the following pronouns is limited to a single gender:

Masculine: he, his, him.

Feminine: she, her, hers.

Neuter: it, its.

All other pronouns vary in gender.

Robert greeted his employer. [Masculine.]

A mother passed with her child. [Feminine.]

This tree has lost its foliage. [Neuter.]

Who laughed? [Masculine or feminine.]

How do you do? [Masculine or feminine.]

They have disappeared. [Masculine, feminine, or neuter.]

I do not care for either. [Masculine, feminine, or neuter.]

68. A neuter noun may become masculine or feminine by personification (§ 60).

Thou who didst waken from his summer dreams

The blue Mediterranean.—Shelley.

Stern daughter of the Voice of God!

O Duty!—Wordsworth.
Nature from her seat

Sighing through all her works, gave signs of woe.—Milton.

69. In speaking of certain objects, such as a ship and the moon, it is customary to
use she and her. In like manner, he is used in speaking of the sun and of most
animals, without reference to sex, although it often designates an insect or other
small creature, and even a very young child.

Who and which are both used in referring to the lower animals. Which is the
commoner, but who is not infrequent, especially if the animal is thought of as an
intelligent being.

Thus one would say, “The dog which is for sale is in that kennel,” even if one
added, “He is a collie.” But which would never be used in such a sentence as, “I
have a dog who loves children.”

70. The gender of masculine and of feminine nouns may be shown in various ways.

1. The male and the female of many kinds or classes of living beings are denoted by
different words.

Masculine Feminine

father mother

husband wife

uncle aunt

king queen

monk nun

wizard witch

lord lady

horse mare

gander goose

drake duck

cock hen

ram ewe

bull cow

hart hind

buck doe
fox vixen10

2. Some masculine nouns become feminine by the addition of an ending.

Masculine Feminine

heir heiress

baron baroness

lion lioness

prince princess

emperor empress

tiger tigress

executor executrix

administrator administratrix

hero heroine

Joseph Josephine

sultan sultana

Philip Philippa

Note. The feminine gender is often indicated by the ending ess. Frequently the
corresponding masculine form ends in or or er: as,—actor, actress; governor,
governess; waiter, waitress. The ending ess is not so common as formerly. Usage
favors proprietor, author, editor, etc., even for the feminine (rather than the
harsher forms proprietress, authoress, editress), whenever there is no special
reason for emphasizing the difference of sex.

3. A few feminine words become masculine by the addition of an ending. Thus,—widow,

widower; bride, bridegroom.

4. Gender is sometimes indicated by the ending man, woman, maid, boy, or girl.

Examples: salesman, saleswoman;

foreman, forewoman;

laundryman;

milkmaid;

cash boy, cash girl.

5. A noun or a pronoun is sometimes prefixed to a noun to indicate gender.

Examples: manservant, maidservant;

mother bird;

cock sparrow, hen sparrow;

boy friend, girl friend;

he-wolf, she-wolf.

6. The gender of a noun may be indicated by some accompanying part of speech,

usually by a pronoun.

My cat is always washing his face.

The intruder shook her head.

I was confronted by a pitiful creature, haggard and unshaven.

Note. The variations in form studied under 2 and 3 (above) are often regarded as
inflections. In reality, however, the masculine and the feminine are different
words. Thus, baroness is not an inflectional form of baron, but a distinct noun,
made from baron by adding the ending ess, precisely as barony and baronage are made
from baron by adding the endings y and age. The process is rather that of
derivation or noun-formation than that of inflection.

II. NUMBER

71. Number is that property of substantives which shows whether they indicate one
person, place, or thing or more than one.

There are two numbers,—the singular and the plural.

The singular number denotes but one person, place, or thing. The plural number
denotes more than one person, place, or thing.

72. Most nouns form the plural number by adding s or es to the singular.

Examples: mat, mats;

wave, waves;

problem, problems;

bough, boughs;

John, Johns;

nurse, nurses;

tense, tenses;
bench, benches;

dish, dishes;

class, classes;

fox, foxes.

Special Rules

1. If the singular ends in s, x, z, ch, or sh, the plural ending is es.

Examples: loss, losses;

box, boxes;

buzz, buzzes;

match, matches;

rush, rushes.

2. Many nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant also take the ending es in the
plural.

Examples: hero, heroes;

cargo, cargoes;

potato, potatoes;

motto, mottoes;

buffalo, buffaloes;

mosquito, mosquitoes.

3. Nouns ending in o preceded by a vowel form their plural in s: as,—cameo, cameos;

folio, folios.

4. The following nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant also form their plural
in s:—

banjo

bravo

burro
cantocasino

chromo

contralto

duodecimo

dynamo

halo11

junto

lasso

memento11

octavo

piano

proviso

quarto

solo

soprano

stiletto

torso

tyro

zero11

73. In some nouns the addition of the plural ending alters the spelling and even
the sound of the singular form.

1. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant change y to i and add es in the

plural.

Examples: sky, skies;

fly, flies;

country, countries;

berry, berries.

(Contrast: valley, valleys;

chimney, chimneys;

monkey, monkeys;
boy, boys;

day, days.)

Most proper names ending in y, however, take the plural in s.

Examples: Mary, Marys;

Murphy, Murphys;

Daly, Dalys;

Rowley, Rowleys;

May, Mays.

2. Some nouns ending in f or fe, change the f to v and add es or s.

Examples: wharf, wharves;

wife, wives;

shelf, shelves;

wolf, wolves;

thief, thieves;

knife, knives;

half, halves;

calf, calves;

life, lives;

self, selves;

sheaf, sheaves;

loaf, loaves;

leaf, leaves;

elf, elves;

beef, beeves.

74. A few nouns form their plural in en.

These are: ox, oxen;

brother, brethren (or brothers);

child, children.

Note. Ancient or poetical plurals belonging to this class are: eyne (for eyen, from
eye), kine (cows), shoon (shoes), hosen (hose).

75. A few nouns form their plural by a change of vowel.

These are: man, men;

woman, women;

merman, mermen;

foot, feet;

tooth, teeth;

goose, geese;

mouse, mice;

louse, lice.

Also compound words ending in man or woman, such as fireman, firemen;

saleswoman, saleswomen;

Dutchman, Dutchmen.

Note. German, Mussulman, Ottoman, dragoman, firman, and talisman, which are not
compounds of man, form their plurals regularly: as,—Germans, Mussulmans. Norman
also forms its plural in s.

76. A few nouns have the same form in both singular and plural.

Examples: deer,

sheep,

heathen,

Japanese,

Portuguese,

Iroquois.

Note. This class was larger in older English than at present. It included, for
example, year, which in Shakspere has two plurals:—“six thousand years,” “twelve
year since.”
77. A few nouns have two plurals, but usually with some difference in meaning.

Singular Plural

brother brothers (relatives)

brethren (members of the same society)

horse horses (animals)

horse (cavalry)

foot feet (parts of the body)

foot (infantry)

sail sails (on vessels)

sail (vessels in a fleet)

head heads (in usual sense)

head (of cattle)

fish fishes (individually)

fish (collectively)

penny pennies (single coins)

pence (collectively)

cloth cloths (pieces of cloth)

clothes (garments)

die dies (for stamping)

dice (for gaming)

The pennies were arranged in neat piles.

English money is reckoned in pounds, shillings, and pence.

78. When compound nouns are made plural, the last part usually takes the plural
form; less often the first part; rarely both parts.

Examples: spoonful, spoonfuls;

bathhouse, bathhouses;

forget-me-not, forget-me-nots;

editor-in-chief, editors-in-chief;

maid-of-honor, maids-of-honor;
gentleman usher, gentlemen ushers;

Knight Templar, Knights Templars;

Lord Justice, Lords Justices;

manservant, menservants.

79. Letters of the alphabet, figures, signs used in writing, and words regarded
merely as words take ’s in the plural.

“Embarrassed” is spelled with two r’s and two s’s.

Your 3’s look like 8’s.

Tell the printer to change the §’s to ¶’s.

Don’t interrupt me with your but’s!

80. Foreign nouns in English sometimes retain their foreign plurals; but many have
an English plural also.

Some of the commonest are included in the following list:12

Singular Plural

alumna (feminine) alumnæ

alumnus (masculine) alumni

amanuensis amanuenses

analysis analyses

animalculum animalcula13

antithesis antitheses

appendix appendices

appendixes

axis axes

bacillus bacilli

bacterium bacteria

bandit banditti

bandits

basis bases
beau beaux

beaus

candelabrum candelabra

cumulus cumuli

cherub cherubim

cherubs

crisis crises

curriculum curricula

datum data

ellipsis ellipses

erratum errata

formula formulæ

formulas

genius genii

geniuses

genus genera

gymnasium gymnasia

gymnasiums

hippopotamus hippopotami

hypothesis hypotheses

larva larvæ

memorandum memoranda

memorandums

nebula nebulæ

oasis oases

parenthesis parentheses

phenomenon phenomena

radius radii

seraph seraphim
seraphs

species species

stratum strata

synopsis synopses

tableau tableaux

tempo tempi

terminus termini

thesis theses

trousseau trousseaux

vertebra vertebræ

The two plurals sometimes differ in meaning: as,—

Michael Angelo and Raphael were geniuses.

Spirits are sometimes called genii.

This book has two indices.

The printer uses signs called indexes.

81. When a proper name with the title Mr., Mrs., Miss, or Master, is put into the
plural, the rules are as follows:—

1. The plural of Mr. is Messrs. (pronounced Messers14). The name remains in the
singular. Thus,—

Mr. Jackson, plural Messrs. (or the Messrs.) Jackson.

2. Mrs. has no plural. The name itself takes the plural form. Thus,—

Mrs. Jackson, plural the Mrs. Jacksons.

3. In the case of Miss, sometimes the title is put into the plural, sometimes the
name. Thus,—

Miss Jackson, plural the Misses Jackson or the Miss Jacksons.

The latter expression is somewhat informal. Accordingly, it would not be used in a

formal invitation or reply, or in addressing a letter.

4. The plural of Master is Masters. The name remains in the singular. Thus,—

Master Jackson, plural the Masters Jackson.

Other titles usually remain in the singular, the name taking the plural form: as,—
the two General Follansbys. But when two or more names follow, the title becomes
plural: as,—Generals Rolfe and Johnson.
82. Some nouns, on account of their meaning, are seldom or never used in the
plural.

Such are many names of qualities (as cheerfulness, mirth), of sciences (as
chemistry15), of forces (as gravitation).

Many nouns, commonly used in the singular only, may take a plural in some special
sense. Thus,—

earth (the globe) earths (kinds of soil)

ice (frozen water) ices (food)

tin (a metal) tins (tin dishes or cans)

nickel (a metal) nickels (coins)

83. Some nouns are used in the plural only.

Such are: annals,

athletics,

billiards,

dregs,

eaves,

entrails,

lees,

nuptials,

oats,

obsequies,

pincers,

proceeds,

riches,

scissors,

shears,

suds,

tweezers,

tongs,

trousers,
victuals,

vitals;

and (in certain special senses) ashes,

goods,

links,

scales,

spectacles,

stocks.

84. A few nouns are plural in form, but singular in meaning.

Such are: gallows,

news,

measles,

mumps,

small pox (for small pocks),

politics,

and some names of sciences (as, civics,

economics,

ethics,

mathematics,

physics,

optics).

Note. These nouns were formerly plural in sense as well as in form. News, for
example, originally meant “new things.” Shakspere uses it both as a singular and as
a plural. Thus,—“This news was brought to Richard” (King John, v. 3. 12); “But
wherefore do I tell these news to thee?” (1 Henry IV, iii. 2. 121). In a few words
modern usage varies. The following nouns are sometimes singular, sometimes plural:
alms, amends, bellows, means, pains (in the sense of “effort”), tidings.

III. PERSON
85. Person is that property of substantives which shows whether they denote (1) the
speaker, (2) the person spoken to, or (3) the person spoken of.

A substantive is in the first person when it denotes the speaker, in the second
person when it denotes the person spoken to, in the third person when it denotes
the person or thing spoken of.

I, the king, command his presence. [First person.]

You, Thomas, broke the window. [Second person.]

Charles, come here. [Second person.]

He, the fireman, saved the train. [Third person.]

The diver sinks slowly from our view. [Third person.]

The tower suddenly collapsed. [Third person.]

The examples show (1) that the person of a noun has nothing to do with its form,
but is indicated by the sense or connection; (2) that certain pronouns denote
person with precision. Thus, I is always of the first person; you of the second;
and he of the third. These personal pronouns will be treated in Chapter III.

IV. CASE

86. Substantives have inflections of case to indicate their grammatical relations

to verbs, to prepositions, or to other substantives.

There are three cases,—the nominative, the possessive, and the objective.

The possessive case is often called the genitive.

The nominative and the objective case of a noun are always alike in form. In some
pronouns, however, there is a difference (as,—I, me; he, him).

Declension of Nouns

87. The inflection of a substantive is called its declension. To decline a noun is

to give its case-forms in order, first in the singular number and then in the
plural. Thus,—

Singular

Nominative boy horse fly chimney calf lass man deer

Possessive boy’s horse’s fly’s chimney’s calf’s lass’s man’s deer’s

Objective boy horse fly chimney calf lass man deer

Plural

Nominative boys horses flies chimneys calves lasses men deer

Possessive boys’ horses’ flies’ chimneys’ calves’ lasses’ men’s deer’s

Objective boys horses flies chimneys calves lasses men deer

Nominative Case

88. The nominative case is used in the following constructions: (1) the subject,
(2) the predicate nominative, (3) the vocative, (or nominative of direct address),
(4) the exclamatory nominative, (5) appositive with a nominative, (6) the
nominative absolute.

1. The subject of a verb is in the nominative case.

Water freezes.

Charles climbed the mountain.

The boy’s face glowed with health and exercise.

A thousand men were killed in this battle.

In the third example, face is the simple subject; the complete subject is the boy’s
face. In the fourth, men is the simple subject; the complete subject is a thousand
men. Both face and men are in the nominative case; face is in the singular number;
men in the plural.

2. A substantive standing in the predicate, but describing or defining the subject,

agrees with the subject in case and is called a predicate nominative.

A predicate nominative is also called a subject complement or an attribute.

Lobsters are crustaceans.

A good book is a faithful friend.

Shakspere was a native of Stratford-on-Avon.

Arnold proved a traitor.

Adams was elected president.

The rule for the case of the predicate nominative is particularly important with
respect to pronouns (§ 119).

I am he. Are you she?

It is I. It was we who did it.

The predicate nominative is commonest after the copula is (in its various forms).
It will be further studied in connection with intransitive and passive verbs (§§
214, 252).

3. A substantive used for the purpose of addressing a person directly, and not
connected with any verb, is called a vocative.

A vocative is in the nominative case, and is often called a nominative by direct

address or a vocative nominative.

Come, Ruth, give me your hand.

Turn to the right, madam.

Herbert, it is your turn.

Come with me, my child.

Note. A vocative word is sometimes said to be independent by direct address,

because it stands by itself, unconnected with any verb. That a vocative is really
in the nominative case may be seen in the use of the pronoun thou in this
construction: as,—I will arrest thee, thou traitor (see § 115).

4. A substantive used as an exclamation is called an exclamatory nominative (or

nominative of exclamation).

Peace, be still.

Fortunate Ruth!

A drum! a drum! Macbeth doth come.

Look! a balloon!

The sun! then we shall have a fine day.

Certain exclamatory nominatives are sometimes classed as interjections (§ 375).

5. A substantive added to another substantive to explain it and signifying the same

person or thing, is called an appositive and is said to be in apposition.

An appositive is in the same case as the substantive which it limits.

Hence a substantive in apposition with a nominative is in the nominative case.

Mr. Scott, the grocer, is here. [Apposition with subject.]

Tom, old fellow, I am glad to see you. [Apposition with vocative.]

The discoverer of the Pacific was Balboa, a Spaniard. [Apposition with predicate
nominative.]

Note. Apposition means “attachment”; appositive means “attached noun or pronoun.”

An appositive modifies the noun with which it is in apposition much as an adjective
might do (compare “Balboa, a Spaniard” with “Spanish Balboa”). Hence it is classed
as an adjective modifier.

Possessive Case

89. The possessive case denotes ownership or possession.

John’s yacht lies at her moorings.

The duck’s feet are webbed.

The mutineer’s pistol burst when he fired.

Note. Most uses of the possessive come under the general head of possession in some
sense. Special varieties of meaning are source (as in “hen’s eggs”) and authorship
(as in “Wordsworth’s sonnets”).

A possessive noun or pronoun modifies the substantive to which it is attached as an

adjective might do. Hence it is classed as an adjective modifier.

Forms of the Possessive Case

90. The possessive case of most nouns has, in the singular number, the ending ’s.

Examples: the owl’s feathers,

Elizabeth’s hat,

the officer’s name.

Plural nouns ending in s take no further ending for the possessive. In writing,
however, an apostrophe is put after the s to indicate the possessive case.

Examples: the owls’ feathers,

the officers’ names,

the artists’ petition,

the engineers’ ball.

Plural nouns not ending in s take ’s in the possessive.

Examples: the firemen’s ball,

the policemen’s quarters,

the children’s hour.

Note. In older English the possessive of most nouns was written as well as
pronounced with the ending -es or -is. Thus, in Chaucer, the possessive of child is
childës or childis; that of king is kingës or kingis; that of John is Johnës or
Johnis. The use of an apostrophe in the possessive is a comparatively modern
device, due to a misunderstanding. Scholars at one time thought the s of the
possessive a fragment of the pronoun his; that is, they took such a phrase as
George’s book for a contraction of George his book. Hence they used the apostrophe
before s to signify the supposed omission of part of the word his. Similarly, in
the possessive plural, there was thought to be an omission of a final es; that is,
such a phrase as the horses’ heads was thought to be a contraction of the horseses
heads. Both these errors have long been exploded.

91. Nouns like sheep and deer, which have the same form in both the singular and
the plural, usually take ’s in the possessive plural.

Thus, the deer’s tracks would be written, whether one deer or more were meant.

92. Possessive Singular of Nouns ending in s.

1. Monosyllabic nouns ending in s or an s-sound usually make their possessive

singular by adding ’s.

Examples: Charles’s hat,

Forbes’s garden,

Mr. Wells’s daughter,

Rice’s carriage,

Mrs. Dix’s family,

a fox’s brush.

Note. Most of these monosyllabic nouns in s are family names. The rule accords with
the best usage; but it is not absolute, for usage varies. Hence forms like Charles’
and Wells’ cannot be condemned as positively wrong, though Charles’s and Wells’s
are preferable. In speaking, the shorter form is often ambiguous, for there is no
difference in sound between Dix’ and Dick’s, Mr. Hills’ and Mr. Hill’s, Dr. Childs’
and Dr. Child’s.

2. Nouns of two or more syllables ending in s or an s-sound, and not accented on

the last syllable, may make their possessive singular by adding ’s, or may take no
ending in the possessive.

In the latter case, an apostrophe is added in writing, but in sound there is no

difference between the possessive and the nominative.

Examples: Burrows’s (or Burrows’) Hotel,

Æneas’s (or Æneas’) voyage,

Beatrice’s (or Beatrice’) gratitude,

Felix’s (or Felix’) arrival,

for conscience’s (or conscience’) sake.

Most of the nouns in question are proper names. In speaking, one must often use the
longer form to prevent ambiguity; for Williams’ and William’s, Roberts’ and
Robert’s, Robbins’ and Robin’s, are indistinguishable in sound.

Note. Nouns of two or more syllables ending in s or an s-sound and accented on the
last syllable, follow the rule for monosyllables. Thus,—Laplace’s mathematics (not
Laplace’); Alphonse’s father (not Alphonse’).

When final s is silent (as in many French names), ’s must of course be added in the
possessive. Thus,—Descartes’s philosophy (pronounced Daycárt’s).

Use of the Possessive Case

93.16 Possession may be denoted by a phrase with of as well as by the possessive

case. The distinction between the two forms cannot be brought under rigid rules,
but the following suggestions will be of use.

I. In older English and in poetry the possessive case of nouns is freely used, but
in modern prose it is rare unless the possessor is a living being. A phrase with of
is used instead.

The mayor of Detroit (NOT Detroit’s mayor).

The top of the post (NOT the post’s top).

The prevalence of the epidemic (NOT the epidemic’s prevalence).

Contrast the poetic use:—

Belgium’s capital had gathered then

Her beauty and her chivalry.—Byron.

Other prepositions are sometimes used: as,—“the explosion in New York” (NOT “New
York’s explosion”), “the station at Plymouth.”

II. When the possessor is a living being, good usage varies.

1. If there is actual ownership or possession of some material thing, the

possessive case is generally used in the singular: as,—“John’s hat” (not “the hat
of John”). The possessive plural, however, is often replaced by a phrase with of,
to avoid ambiguity or harshness: as,—“the jewels of the ladies” (rather than “the
ladies’ jewels”)17, “the wings of the geese” (rather than “the geese’s wings”).

2. With nouns denoting a quality, an act, or the like, either the possessive or the
of-phrase is proper: as,—“John’s generosity,” or “the generosity of John”; “John’s
condition,” or “the condition of John”; “the guide’s efforts,” or “the efforts of
the guide”; “Cæsar’s death,” or “the death of Cæsar.”

When there is any choice, it usually depends on euphony (that is, agreeable sound),
and is therefore a question of style. Sometimes, however, there is a distinction in
sense. “John’s fear,” for example, indicates that John is afraid; but “the fear of
John” means the fear which John inspires in others.

III. The following phrases are established idioms with the possessive. In some of
them, however, the possessive may be replaced by of and its object.

(1) The earth’s surface,

the sun’s rays,

the moon’s reflection,

the pit’s mouth,

a rope’s end,

his journey’s end,

at his wit’s end,

the ship’s keel,

the water’s edge,

the cannon’s mouth,

out of harm’s way,

at swords’ points,

for pity’s sake,

for conscience’ sake;

(2) a moment’s pause,

a year’s time,
a hand’s breadth,

a boat’s length,

a month’s salary,

a week’s notice,

a night’s rest,

a day’s work,

a stone’s throw,

a feather’s weight,

an hour’s delay,

a dollar’s worth,

not a foot’s difference.

In the second group of phrases (“a moment’s pause,” etc.), the possessive denotes
not ownership, but measure or extent.

IV. The possessive case of certain pronouns (my, our, your, his, her, its, their)
is more freely used than that of nouns in expressions that do not denote actual
ownership.

I know him to my sorrow. [Compare: to his loss, to our detriment, to his

advantage.]

The brass has lost its polish.

This question must be decided on its merits.

His arguments did not fail of their effect.

For the inflection of these pronouns, see § 115. For the use of whose, see § 152.

94. When a thing belongs to two or more joint owners, the sign of the possessive is
added to the last name only.

Brown, Jones, and Richardson’s factories. [Brown, Jones, and Richardson are
partners.]

It is George and William’s turn to take the boat. [George and William are to go in
the boat together.]

On the other hand, in order to avoid ambiguity we should say, “Brown’s, Jones’s,
and Richardson’s factories,” if each individual had a factory of his own; and
“George’s and William’s answers were correct,” if each boy answered independently
of the other.
95. In compound nouns the last part takes the possessive sign. So also when a
phrase is used as a noun.

My father-in-law’s home is in Easton.

We had a quarter of an hour’s talk.

Other examples are the following:—

My brother-in-law’s opinion;

the commander-in-chief’s orders;

the lady-in-waiting’s duties;

the coal dealer’s prices;

Edward VII’s reign;

the King of England’s portrait;

half a year’s delay;

in three or four months’ time;

a cable and a half’s length;

the pleasure of Major Pendennis and Mr. Arthur Pendennis’s company (Thackeray).

Note. Noun-phrases often contain two substantives, the second of which is in

apposition with the first. In such phrases, of is generally preferable to the
possessive. Thus, we may say either “Tom the blacksmith’s daughter” or “the
daughter of Tom the blacksmith”; but “the son of Mr. Hill the carpenter” is both
neater and clearer than “Mr. Hill the carpenter’s son.” The use of ’s is also
avoided with a very long phrase like “the owner of the house on the other side of
the street.”

An objective may stand in apposition with a possessive, the latter being equivalent
to of with an object. Thus,—“I am not yet of Percy’s mind [= of the mind of Percy],
the Hotspur of the North” (Shakspere).

96. The noun denoting the object possessed is often omitted when it may be readily
understood, especially in the predicate.

Conant’s [shop] is open until noon.

I buy my hats at Bryant’s [shop].

We will dine at Pennock’s [restaurant].

That camera is mine. (See § 122.)

This construction is common in such expressions as:—

He was a relative of John’s.

That careless tongue of John’s will get him into trouble.

In the first example, “a relative of John’s” means “a relative of (= from among)

John’s relatives.” The second example shows an extension of this construction by
analogy. See § 122.

Objective Case

97. The objective case, as its name implies, is the case of the object. Most of its
uses are covered by the following rule:—

The object of a verb or preposition is in the objective case.

The object of a preposition has already been explained and defined (§§ 20–21).

98. The object of a verb may be (1) the direct object, (2) the predicate objective,
(3) the indirect object, (4) the cognate object. Of these the direct object is the
most important.

The objective is also used (5) adverbially (§ 109), (6) in apposition with another
objective (§ 110), and (7) as the subject of an infinitive (§ 111).

1. Direct Object

99. Some verbs may be followed by a substantive denoting that which receives the
action or is produced by it. These are called transitive verbs. All other verbs are
called intransitive.

1. That man struck my dog.

2. The arrow hit the target.

3. Cæsar conquered Gaul.

4. Mr. Holland sells flour.

5. The farmer raises corn.

6. Mr. Eaton makes stoves.

7. My grandfather built that house.

In Nos. 1–4, the verb is followed by a noun denoting the receiver of the action.
Thus, in the first sentence, the dog receives the blow; in the second, the target
receives the action of hitting. In Nos. 5–7, the verb is followed by a noun
denoting the product of the action. For example, the corn is produced by the action
expressed by the verb raises.

In each example, the noun that follows the verb completes the sense of the verb.
“That man struck ——.” “Struck whom?” “He struck the dog.” Until dog is added the
sense of the verb struck is incomplete.

100. A substantive that completes the meaning of a transitive verb is called its
direct object, and is said to be in the objective case.

Thus, in the examples above, dog is the direct object of the transitive verb
struck; target is the direct object of hit,—and so on. Each of these nouns is
therefore in the objective case.

The direct object is often called the object complement, or the object of the verb.

101. Intransitive verbs have no object.

The lion roared.

The visitor coughed gently.

The log drifted downstream.

We all listened intently.

Compare these sentences with those in § 99. We observe that the verbs (unlike those
in § 99) admit no object, since their meaning is complete without the addition of
any noun to denote the receiver or product of the action. “The man struck——”
prompts the inquiry, “Struck whom?” But no such question is suggested by “The lion
roared”; for “Roared what?” would be an absurdity.

102. The predicate nominative (§ 88, 2) must not be confused with the direct
object. They resemble each other in two particulars: (1) both stand in the
predicate, and (2) both complete the meaning of the verb. But they differ utterly
in their relation to the subject of the sentence. For—

The predicate nominative describes or defines the subject. Hence both substantives
denote the same person or thing.

Charles [SUBJECT] {is | was | became | was elected} captain [PREDICATE NOMINATIVE].

The direct object neither describes nor defines the subject. On the contrary, it
designates that upon which the subject acts. Hence the two substantives regularly18
denote different persons or things.

Charles [SUBJECT] {struck James [OBJECT]. | threw a stone [OBJECT]. | built a boat
[OBJECT].}
Both the direct object and the predicate nominative are classed as complements,
because they are used to complete the sense of the predicate verb (§ 483).

103. A verb of asking sometimes takes two direct objects, one denoting the person
and the other the thing.

She asked the boy his name.

Ask me no favors.

I asked the lawyer his opinion.

2. Predicate Objective

104. Verbs of choosing, calling, naming, making, and thinking may take two objects
referring to the same person or thing.

The first of these is the direct object, and the second, which completes the sense
of the predicate, is called a predicate objective.

We chose Oscar president. [Oscar is the direct object of chose; president is the
predicate objective.]

I call John my friend.

They thought the man a coward.

Make my house your home.

The predicate objective is often called the complementary object or the objective
attribute. It is classed as a complement.

An adjective may serve as predicate objective.

I call this ship unseaworthy.

Your letter made your sister anxious.

What makes Edwin so careless?

3. Indirect Object and Similar Idioms

105. Some verbs of giving, telling, refusing, and the like, may take two objects, a
direct object and an indirect object.

The indirect object denotes the person or thing toward whom or toward which is
directed the action expressed by the rest of the predicate.
Direct Object only Direct Object and Indirect Object

Dick sold his bicycle. Dick sold John his bicycle.

I gave permission. I gave this man permission.

He paid a dollar. He paid the gardener a dollar.

She taught Latin. She taught my children Latin.

Most of the verbs that admit an indirect object are included in the following list:
—

allot,

allow,

assign,

bequeath,

bring,

deny,

ensure,

fetch,

fling,

forbid,

forgive,

give,

grant,

guarantee,

hand,

lease,

leave,

lend,

let,

owe,

pardon,

pass,
pay,

refund,

refuse,

remit,

restore,

sell,

send,

show,

sing,

spare,

teach,

tell,

throw,

toss,

vouchsafe.

Pronouns are commoner as indirect objects than nouns.

They denied her the necessities of life.

I guaranteed them a handsome profit.

The king vouchsafed them an audience.

It is always possible to insert the preposition to before the indirect object

without changing the sense.

Since the indirect object is equivalent to an adverbial phrase, it is classed as a

modifier of the verb.

Thus, in “Dick sold John his bicycle,” John is an adverbial modifier of the
predicate verb sold.

The indirect object is sometimes used without a direct object expressed. Thus,—

He paid the hatter.

Here hatter may be recognized as an indirect object by inserting to before it and
adding a direct object (“his bill,” “his money,” or the like).

106. The objective case sometimes expresses the person for whom anything is done.

William made his brother a kite [= made a kite for his brother].

Sampson built me a boat [= built a boat for me].

This construction may be called the objective of service.

Note. The objective of service is often included under the head of the indirect
object. But the two constructions differ widely in sense, and should be carefully
distinguished. To do an act to a person is not the same thing as to do an act for a
person. Contrast “John paid the money to me,” with “John paid the money for me”;
“Dick sold a bicycle to me,” with “Dick sold a bicycle for me.”

107. The objective case is used after like, unlike, near, and next, which are
really adjectives or adverbs, though in this construction they are often regarded
as prepositions.

She sang like a bird. [Like is an adverb.]

The earth is like a ball. [Like is an adjective.]

My office is near the station. [Near is an adjective.]

That answer was unlike Joseph. [Unlike is an adjective.]

This man walks unlike Joseph. [Unlike is an adverb.]

A stream ran near the hut. [Near is an adverb.]

The use of the objective after these words is a peculiar idiom similar to the
indirect object (§ 105). The nature of the construction may be seen (as in the
indirect object) by inserting to or unto (“She sang like unto a bird”).

Note. The indirect object, the objective of service, and the objective after like,
unlike, and near are all survivals of old dative constructions. Besides the case of
the direct object (often called accusative), English once had a case (called the
dative) which meant to or for [somebody or something]. The dative case is easily
distinguished in Greek, Latin, and German, but in English it has long been merged
in form with the ordinary objective.

4. Cognate Object

108. A verb that is regularly intransitive sometimes takes as object a noun whose
meaning closely resembles its own.

A noun in this construction is called the cognate object of the verb and is in the
objective case.

He ran a race.

The mayor coughed a dubious, insinuating cough.

A scornful laugh laughed he.

The trumpeter blew a loud blast.

She sleeps the sleep of death.

Note. Cognate means “kindred” or “related.” The cognate object repeats the idea of
the verb, often with some modification, and may be classed as an adverbial
modifier. Its difference from the direct object may be seen by contrasting “The
blacksmith struck the anvil” with “The blacksmith struck a mighty blow” (cf.
“struck mightily”). For the pronoun it as cognate object, see § 120.

5. Adverbial Objective

109. A noun, or a phrase consisting of a noun and its modifiers, may be used
adverbially. Such a noun is called an adverbial objective.

We have waited years for this reform.

I am years older than you are.

The river is miles away.

The water rose three feet.

This is an inch too long.

My brother is twenty years old.

I will stay a short time.

Wait a moment.

Come here this instant!

Turn your eyes this way.

This silk is several shades too light.

A group of words consisting of an adverbial object with its modifier or modifiers

forms an adverbial phrase (§ 41).
6. Objective in Apposition

110. A substantive in apposition with an objective is itself in the objective case.

Yesterday I saw Williams the expressman. [Apposition with the direct object of
saw.]

Tom gave his friend John a book. [Apposition with the indirect object friend.]

He lives with Andrews the blacksmith. [Apposition with the object of the
preposition with.]

This rule follows from the general principle that an appositive is in the same case
as the substantive to which it is attached (§ 88, 5).

7. Subject of an Infinitive

111. The subject of an infinitive is in the objective case.

This construction will be treated in connection with the uses of the infinitive (§
325).

Parsing

112. To parse a word is to describe its grammatical form and to give its
construction.

In parsing a noun, we mention the class to which it belongs, give its gender,
number, person, and case, and tell why it is in that case. Thus,—

1. Frank shot a wolf.

Frank is a proper noun of the masculine gender, in the singular number and third
person. It is in the nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb shot.

Wolf is a common noun of the masculine or feminine [or common] gender, in the
singular number and third person. It is in the objective case, because it is the
object [or direct object] of the transitive verb shot.
2. Jane, come here.

Jane is a proper noun of the feminine gender, in the singular number and second
person. It is in the nominative case, being used as a vocative (or in direct
address).

3. The rope is fifteen feet long.

Feet is a common noun of the neuter gender, in the plural number and third person.
It is in the objective case, being used as an adverbial modifier of the adjective
long.

4. Edgar’s boat is a sloop.

Edgar’s is a proper noun of the masculine gender, in the singular number and third
person. It is in the possessive case, modifying the noun boat.

CHAPTER III

PRONOUNS

113. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. It designates a person, place, or

thing without naming it.

The substantive to which a pronoun refers is called its antecedent.

A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender, number, and person (§ 11).

Pronouns have in general the same constructions as nouns.

114. Pronouns may be classified as (1) personal, (2) adjective, (3) relative, and
(4) interrogative.

Under adjective pronouns are included (a) demonstrative pronouns and (b) indefinite
pronouns.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS

115. The personal pronouns serve to distinguish (1) the speaker, (2) the person
spoken to, and (3) the person, place, or thing spoken of (§ 85).

They are declined as follows:—

The Pronoun of the First Person: I SINGULAR PLURAL

Nominative I Nominative we

Possessive my or mine Possessive our or ours

Objective me Objective us

The Pronoun of the Second Person: thou SINGULAR PLURAL

Nominative thou Nominative you or ye

Possessive thy or thine Possessive your or yours

Objective thee Objective you or ye

The Pronoun of the Third Person: he, she, it Singular Plural

MASCULINE FEMININE NEUTER MASCULINE, FEMININE, and NEUTER

Nominative he she it they

Possessive his her or hers its their or theirs

Objective him her it them

Unlike nouns, most of the personal pronouns have distinct forms for the nominative
and the objective.

Note. The possessive case of personal pronouns never has the apostrophe. Thus,—its,
yours, theirs.

The form it’s is proper only as a contraction of it is.

GENDER AND NUMBER

116. The pronouns of the first and second persons (I and thou) may be either
masculine or feminine.

The pronouns of the third person have different forms for masculine, feminine, and
neuter in the singular (he, she, it); but in the plural the form they serves for
all three genders.
Note. In the oldest English his was both masculine and neuter. The neuter use
lasted until the seventeenth century. Thus,—

That same eye whose bend doth awe the world

Did lose his lustre.—Shakspere, Julius Cæsar, i. 2. 123.

117. Thou, thy, thine, thee, and ye are old forms still found in poetry and the
solemn style.

In ordinary prose, you, your, and yours are the only forms used for the second
person, whether singular or plural. Yet you, even when denoting a single person,
always takes the verb-forms that go with plural subjects. Thus,—

My friend, you were [NOT was] in error.

Hence you may best be regarded as always plural in form, but may be described as
singular in sense when it stands for one person only.

Note. Members of the Society of Friends (commonly called Quakers) and of some other
religious bodies use thee and thy in their ordinary conversation.

Ye was formerly the regular nominative plural, and you the objective; but the forms
were afterwards confused. Ye has gone out of use except in poetry and the solemn
style, and you is now the regular form for both nominative and objective.

Where an objective form ye is found printed instead of you (as often in Shakspere,
—“A southwest blow on ye”), it represents an indistinct pronunciation of you rather
than the old nominative ye. This indistinct sound may still be heard in rapid or
careless speech (“I’ll tell yer the truth”).

Ye as an abbreviation for the (as in “ye old town”) has nothing to do with the
pronoun ye. The y simply stands for the character þ (an old sign for th), and the
abbreviation was pronounced the, never ye.

118. They, you, and we are often used indefinitely for “one” or “people in
general.”

They say that Joe has gone to sea.

To shut off the steam, you close both valves of the radiator.

Note. We, our, and us are used in editorial articles instead of I, my, and me,
because the writer represents the whole editorial staff. This practice should not
be followed in ordinary composition.
A sovereign ruler may use we, our, and us when speaking of himself in proclamations
and other formal documents. This construction is often called “the plural of
majesty.” Thus,—

Know that we have divided

In three our kingdom.—Shakspere.

The form ’em (as in “Tell me your counsels; I will not disclose ’em,” in Julius
Cæsar) is not a contraction of them, but of hem, an old objective plural of he.

CASE OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS

Nominative Case

119. Nominative constructions of the personal pronouns are the same as those of
nouns (§ 88).

I am ready. [Subject.]

It is I. [Predicate nominative.]

Here, you rascal, what are you about? [Vocative, direct address.]

Poor you! [Nominative of exclamation.]

General Austin, he and no other, won the battle. [Apposition.]

For the nominative absolute, see § 345.

Care must be taken not to use an objective form when a predicate nominative is
required.

It is I [NOT me].

It is we [NOT us] who did it.

It was he [NOT him] who told us.

It was they [NOT them] who were to blame.

120. It has several peculiar uses in the nominative.

1. It is used as the subject in many expressions like “It rains,” “It snows,” “It
lightens,” “It is cold,” where no definite subject is thought of. In this use, it
is said to be impersonal.

Note. An impersonal it also occurs as a cognate object (§ 108) in colloquial

language: as,—“Hang it!” “Go it!” “He went it.” “He farmed it for a year.” Other
examples of the indefinite and impersonal it in various constructions are: “We are
roughing it.” “Keep it up.” “You’ll catch it.” “Let it all go.” “He made a poor job
of it.” “He made a success of it.”

2. It often serves as grammatical subject merely to introduce the verb is, the real
subject of the thought standing in the predicate. In this use it is called an
expletive (or “filler”).

It is he.

It is Christmas.

It was a tiresome ride.

In these examples, the subject of the thought (he, Christmas, ride) appears as a
predicate nominative.

3. The antecedent of it is often a group of words.

Wearing tight shoes is foolish. It deforms the feet.

121. In imperative sentences the subject (you) is commonly omitted: as,—“Shut the
door.”

Note. The subject I is sometimes omitted in wishes (as, “Would he were here!” for
“I would that he were here”). So also in “Thank you,” “Pray tell me” (compare
prithee for “I pray thee”).

Expressions like “Canst tell?” (for “Canst thou tell?”), “Art there?” (for “Art
thou there?”) are common in poetry and older English. These come from the gradual
wearing away and final disappearance of the pronoun thou (canst thou, canstow,
canstë, canst).

Possessive Case

122. The possessive forms my, thy, our, your, her, and their are used when a noun
follows; mine, thine, ours, yours, hers, and theirs cannot be followed by a noun,
and stand commonly in the predicate. His may be used in either way.

My brother has arrived. The fault is mine.

Our work is done. Those seats are ours.

I have torn your glove. This pencil is yours.

Their turn has come. That field is theirs.

His hair is black. The book is not his.

Examples of mine, yours, etc. not in the predicate are:

Mine was a terrier; yours was a pointer.

Theirs is a red motor car.

Ours broke down last night.

His leaked badly.

His name is Martin; hers is Smith.

In such cases the pronoun is always emphatic. The construction is chiefly

colloquial.

Note. In older English and in poetry mine and thine are common instead of my and
thy before words beginning with a vowel or h: as,—

Mine eyes dazzle: she died young.—John Webster.

The very minute bids thee ope thine ear.—Shakspere.

Mine is sometimes used after a vocative noun: as,—brother mine.

For expressions like “a friend of mine,” “that unruly tongue of yours,” see § 96.

123. When two or more separate objects are spoken of as possessed, a possessive
should precede the name of each if there is danger of ambiguity.

I will send for our secretary and our treasurer. [Two persons.]

I will send for our secretary and treasurer. [One person.]

I have called for my bread and my milk. [Two things.]

I have called for my bread and milk. [A mixture.]

Have you Bacon’s “Essays and Apophthegms”? [One book.]

Have you Bacon’s “Essays” and his “Advancement of Learning”? [Two books.]

Objective Case
124. The commonest constructions in which personal pronouns take the objective case
are the following:—

1. Object of a preposition (§ 97): as,—

Take it from him.

2. Direct object of a transitive verb (§ 99): as,—

I will find you.

3. Indirect object of a transitive verb (§ 105): as,—

He gave me a dollar.

4. Subject of an infinitive (see § 325).

Note. In poetry the objective me is sometimes used in exclamations: as,—“Me

miserable!” (Milton).

In methinks and meseems (“it seems to me”), me is a remnant of the old dative, as
in the indirect object (see § 107).

The compounds thereof, therewith, therefrom, etc., are equivalent to of it, with
it, from it, etc.: as,—“Proclaim liberty throughout all the land unto all the
inhabitants thereof” (Leviticus xxv. 10).

For the impersonal it as cognate object, see § 120.

THE SELF-PRONOUNS (COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS)

125. The three compound personal pronouns are made by adding the word self to
certain forms of the personal pronouns. Thus,—

myself, plural ourselves;

thyself or yourself, plural yourselves;

himself, herself, itself, plural themselves.

To these may be added the indefinite oneself, more commonly written as two words,
one’s self (§ 139).

Observe that yourself is singular, and yourselves plural. Hisself and theirselves
are incorrect forms. Ourself (not ourselves) is the compound pronoun corresponding
to the royal we (§ 118).

What touches us ourself shall be last served.—Shakspere.

126. 1. The compound personal pronouns may be used to emphasize substantives.

In this use they are called intensive pronouns.

I myself will go.

King Alfred himself took the field.

They did the work themselves.

An intensive pronoun is in apposition with the substantive to which it refers.

2. The compound personal pronouns may be used as the objects of transitive verbs or
of prepositions when the object denotes the same person or thing as the subject.

In this use they are called reflexive pronouns.

I have hurt myself.

King Alfred interested himself in his subjects.

These schemers deceived themselves.

Mary was talking to herself.

He gave himself a holiday. [Indirect object.]

These pronouns are called reflexive (that is, “bending back”) because they refer
back to the subject and repeat its meaning in an object construction.

Note. A reflexive pronoun sometimes refers to a substantive in the objective case:

as,—“Our captors left us to ourselves.”

In older English the simple personal pronouns me, thee, etc., were often used
reflexively: as,—“I held me [= myself] still”; “Yield thee [= thyself] captive”;
“They built them [= for themselves] houses” (see § 106). This idiom survives in
colloquial language (as, “I have hurt me,” “I have bought me a rifle”), but it is
avoided in writing except in a few expressions such as: “I must look about me”; “We
gazed about us”; “Look behind you.”
127. The adjective own is sometimes inserted between the first and the second part
of the self-pronouns for emphasis.

Examples: my own self,

your own self,

his own self,

our own selves,

their own selves.

In this use, self is in strictness a noun limited by the possessive and by the
adjective own, but the phrases may be regarded as compound pronouns. Other
adjectives are sometimes inserted between the possessive and self: as,—my very
self, his worthless self.

128. The intensive pronouns are sometimes used without a substantive. Thus,—

It is myself. [Myself = I myself.]

You are hardly yourself to-day.

In poetry and older English, the intensives are even found as subjects: as,
—“Ourself will mingle with society” (Macbeth).

129. The intensive pronouns should not be used as simple personal pronouns.

Thus we should say:—“He was kind to Mary and me” (NOT myself); “They invited my
wife and me (NOT myself).”

ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS

130. Some words are used either as adjectives or as pronouns. Such words are called
adjective pronouns.

Adjective pronouns are classified, according to their meaning, as (1) demonstrative

pronouns and (2) indefinite pronouns.

I. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS

131. The demonstratives are this (plural, these), that (plural, those). They point
out persons or things for special attention.

The demonstratives may be used either as adjectives or as pronouns.

I. As adjectives:— This sailor saved my life. These girls are energetic.

Be kind to this child. I am not alarmed by these threats.

Give this boy a dime. These cherries are sour.

This fire is too hot. Look at these acorns.

That saw is dull. Those trees are dying.

We must cross that stream. Take those dishes away.

That train is late. Who are those strangers?

Send that dog home. Do you see those rocks?

I am tired of that tune. I am sorry for those children.

II. As pronouns:— This is a fine morning.19 These are cowboys.

This is my uncle. Robert gave me these.

Can you do this? I never saw these before.

This is the road. Who are these?

Look at this. These are our rackets.

That is Ellen in the canoe. Those are deer.

That would please him. Those are nasturtiums.

That must be he. What are those?

What is that? Those are kangaroos.

If the demonstrative is followed by a noun which it limits (as in “this sailor”),

it is an adjective. If the demonstrative points out something which it does not
name (as in “This is a fine morning”), it takes the place of a noun and is
therefore a pronoun. The simple subject of the sentence “This camera is expensive”
is the noun camera, which is modified by the adjective this. The subject of the
sentence “This is expensive” is the pronoun this.

Note. Yon, yond, and yonder are common as demonstratives in older English and in
poetry. Thus,—“Nerissa, cheer yon stranger” (Merchant of Venice). “Question yond
man” (As You Like It). “Is not yond Diomed?” (Troilus and Cressida). “Call yonder
fellow hither” (Henry V). “Is yonder the man?” (As You Like It).

132. Demonstratives have only the inflection of number. They have the same form for
all three genders. The nominative and objective cases are alike; the possessive is
replaced by of with the objective.
Singular Plural

Nom. and Obj. this Nom. and Obj. these

Possessive [of this] Possessive [of these]

Nom. and Obj. that Nom. and Obj. those

Possessive [of that] Possessive [of those]

Yon, yond, and yonder are not inflected.

133. A demonstrative pronoun may be used to avoid the repetition of a noun.

My dog and that [= the dog] of my friend John have been fighting.

Compare these maps with those [= the maps] on the blackboard.

134. The singular forms this and that (not the plurals these and those) are used
with the nouns kind and sort.

I like this kind of grapes.

I have met this sort of people before.

That kind of apples grows in Idaho.

II. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS

135. The indefinite pronouns point out objects less clearly or definitely than
demonstratives do.

Examples: each,

every,

either,

both,

neither,

some,

any,

such,

none,

other,
another,

each other,

one another.

Each has its merits.

Some are missing.

I cannot give you any.

Either is correct.

He knows neither of you.

I like both.

136. Most indefinites may be either pronouns or adjectives. But none is always a
substantive in modern use, and every is always an adjective.

137. None may be either singular or plural. When it means distinctly not one, it is
singular. In many instances either construction is permissible.

None of us has the key.

None was (or were) left to tell the tale.

138. Each other and one another are regarded as compound pronouns. They designate
related persons or things.

My neighbor and I like each other.

We must bear with one another.

The relation indicated by these pronouns is that of reciprocity. Hence they are
often called reciprocal pronouns.

There is no real distinction between each other and one another. The rules
sometimes given for such a distinction are not supported by the best usage.

139. One (possessive one’s) is often used as an indefinite personal pronoun. Thus,—

One does not like one’s [NOT his or their] motives to be doubted.
The use of his (for one’s) to refer back to a preceding one is found in respectable
writers, but is contrary to the best usage.

For the indefinite use of we, you, they, see § 118.

140. All, several, few, many, and similar words are often classed as indefinites.
They may be used as adjectives or as substantives. Everybody, everything, anybody,
anything, somewhat, aught, naught,20 etc., are called indefinite nouns.

141. Care should be taken in framing such sentences as the following:—

Everybody has his [NOT their] faults.

If anybody wishes to go, he [NOT they] may.

If anybody objects, let him [NOT them] speak.

Every member of this class must hand in his [NOT their] composition to-day.

Each hurries toward his [NOT their] home.

Each of us must lead his [NOT their] own life.

In sentences of this kind, the personal pronoun (he, his, him) must be in the
singular to agree with its antecedent (everybody, anybody, etc.) (see § 113).

Note. When the antecedent is of common gender (as in the last example), the
personal pronouns (he, his, him) may be regarded as of common gender also. In very
precise or formal language, one may say he or she, his or her: as,—“Each of us must
lead his or her own life”; but this form of expression is to be avoided unless the
distinction is clearly necessary.

142. When used as adjectives, none of the indefinites have any forms of inflection.
The same is true when they are pronouns, except as follows:—

Others is used as the plural of another. The possessive forms are:—singular,

another’s; plural, others’. The other (possessive, the other’s) has in the plural
the others (possessive, the others’). Each other and one another add ’s in the
possessive. One has a possessive one’s; the one becomes the ones in the plural.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS

143. Relative pronouns have a peculiar function in the sentence, since they serve
both as pronouns and as connectives. Their use may be seen by comparing the two
sentences that follow:—

1. This is the sailor, and he saved my life.

2. This is the sailor who saved my life.

Each consists of two parts or clauses (§ 44). In No. 1, the two clauses are
connected by the conjunction and, which belongs to neither; the pronoun he, which
stands for sailor, is the subject of the second clause. In No. 2, there is no
conjunction; instead, we find the word who, which replaces and he. This who is a
pronoun, since it stands for sailor (precisely as he does in No. 1) and (like he)
is the subject of the verb saved. But who is also a connective, since it joins the
two parts of the sentence as and does in No. 1. Such words (which serve both as
pronouns and as connectives) are called relative pronouns.

In No. 1, the two clauses are coördinate. Neither serves as a modifier, and each
might stand alone as a complete sentence (“This is the sailor.” “He saved my
life”). The sentence is compound (§ 44). In No. 2, on the contrary, the clause who
saved my life is a subordinate or dependent clause, for it is used as an adjective
modifier of the noun sailor, which it limits by showing what particular sailor is
meant. The sentence is complex (§ 44). The dependent clause (who saved my life) is
connected with the main clause (this is the sailor) by the pronoun who, which
refers to sailor.

144. Relative pronouns connect dependent clauses with main clauses by referring
directly to a substantive in the main clause.21

This substantive is the antecedent of the relative (§ 11).

Thus in § 143 the noun sailor is the antecedent of who.

Relative means “carrying back.” These pronouns are so called because they carry the
mind back directly to the antecedent.

145. The simple relative pronouns are who, which, that, as, and what.

Who and which are declined as follows in both the singular and the plural:—

Nominative who which

Possessive whose whose

Objective whom which

That, as, and what are not inflected. They have the same form for both nominative
and objective and are not used in the possessive case.

146. As may be used as a relative pronoun when such stands in the main clause.

Such of you as have finished may go.

I have never seen such strawberries as these [are].

Use such powers as you have.

147. As is often used as a relative after the same.

This color is the same as that [is].

Other relatives are also used after the same.

This is the same book that (or which) you were reading yesterday.

This is the same man that (or whom) I saw on the pier last Friday.

148. Who is either masculine or feminine; which and what are neuter; that and as
are of all three genders.

All who heard, approved.

Here is the lad whose story interested you.

The first woman whom I saw was Mary.

He answered in such English as he could muster.

I saw nobody that I knew.

This is the road that leads to London.

In older English the which is often used for which: as,—

Our foster-nurse of nature is repose,

The which he lacks.—Shakspere.

For other uses of as, see §§ 368, 428–429. For but in such sentences as “There was
nobody but believed him,” see § 370.

149. A relative pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender, number, and
person.

The sentences in § 148 illustrate the agreement of the relative with its antecedent
in gender.

Since relative pronouns have the same form for both numbers and for all three
persons, their number and person must be discovered, in each instance, by observing
the number and person of the antecedent.

It is I who am wrong. [First person, singular number: antecedent, I.]

All you who are ready may go. [Second person plural: antecedent, you.]

Give help to him who needs it. [Third person, singular: antecedent, him.]
The road that leads to the shore is sandy. [Third person singular: antecedent,
road.]

The roads that lead to the shore are sandy. [Third person plural: antecedent,
roads.]

To determine the number and person of a relative pronoun is particularly necessary

when it is the subject of the clause, for the form of the verb varies (as the
examples show) according to the number and person of the subject (§ 222). Hence the
rule for the agreement of a relative with its antecedent is of much practical
importance.

150. The case of a relative pronoun has nothing to do with its antecedent, but
depends on the construction of its own clause.

The servant who opened the door wore livery. [Who is in the nominative case, being
the subject of opened.]

He discharged his servant, who immediately left town. [Who is in the nominative
case, since it is the subject of left, although its antecedent (servant) is in the
objective.]

The servant whom you discharged has returned. [Whom is in the objective case, since
it is the direct object of discharged. The antecedent (servant) is, on the other
hand, in the nominative, because it is the subject of has returned.]

Here is such money as I have. [As is in the objective case, being the object of
have. The antecedent (money) is in the nominative.]

151. A relative pronoun in the objective case is often omitted.

Here is the book which you wanted. Here is the book you wanted.

The noise that I heard was the wind. The noise I heard was the wind.

The man whom I met was a carpenter. The man I met was a carpenter.

Note. In older English a relative in the nominative is often omitted: as,—“There’s

two or three of us have seen strange sights” (Julius Cæsar), that is, “There are
two or three of us who have seen,” etc. The same omission is often made in rapid or
careless colloquial speech. It is approved in clauses with there in such sentences
as “He is one of the best men there are in the world” (§ 232).

152. Certain questions of gender call for particular attention.

1. Which is commonly used in referring to the lower animals unless these are
regarded as persons. This is true even when he or she is used of the same animals
(§ 69).

This is the dog which I mentioned. Isn’t he a fine fellow?

We have one cow which we prize highly. She is a Jersey.

2. The possessive whose may be used of any object that has life.

This is the man whose watch was stolen.

I have a cat whose name is Tabby.

This is the tree whose leaves were destroyed. It is quite dead.

3. In the case of things without animal life, of which and whose are both common.
The tendency is to prefer of which in prose, but whose is often used because of its
more agreeable sound. In poetry, whose is especially frequent.

A broad river, the name of which I have forgotten, forms the northern boundary of
the province.

Jack was fishing with a bamboo rod, to the end of which he had tied a short piece
of ordinary twine.

She was gazing into the pool, whose calm surface reflected her features like a
mirror. [“The surface of which” would not sound so well.]

Note. In older English, which is often used for who or whom: as,—“He which hath
your noble father slain, pursued my life” (Hamlet).

The compounds whereof, wherefrom, wherewith, etc., are equivalent to of which, from
which, etc. (cf. § 124). Thus,—“Esau hated Jacob because of the blessing wherewith
his father blessed him” (Genesis xxvii. 41).

DESCRIPTIVE AND RESTRICTIVE RELATIVES

153. The clause introduced by a relative pronoun is an adjective clause, since it

serves as an adjective modifier of the antecedent (§ 143). There are two different
ways in which the antecedent may be thus modified.

1. The Italian, who wore a flower in his coat, smiled at me.

2. The Italian who wore a flower in his coat smiled at me.

In the first sentence, the italicized relative clause serves simply to describe the
Italian, not to identify him. The flower is a mere detail of the picture.

In the second sentence, the relative clause serves not merely to describe the
Italian, but also to distinguish him from all others. The flower is mentioned as a
means of identification. The relative clause confines or restricts the meaning of
the antecedent (Italian).

154. A relative pronoun that serves merely to introduce a descriptive fact is

called a descriptive relative.

A relative pronoun that introduces a clause confining or limiting the application

of the antecedent is called a restrictive relative.

Thus in the first example in § 153, who is a descriptive relative; in the second,
it is a restrictive relative.

155. Before a descriptive relative we regularly make a pause in speaking, but never
before a restrictive relative. Hence the rule:—

A descriptive relative is preceded by a comma; a restrictive relative is not.

Three sailors, who were loitering on the pier, sprang to the rescue.

A clumsy weapon, which I took for a blunderbuss, hung over the fireplace.

I told the news to the first man that (or whom) I met.

The coins that (or which) you showed me are doubloons.

Nothing that I have ever read has moved me more profoundly than the third act of
“King Lear.”

156. Who, which, and that are all used as restrictive relatives; but some writers
prefer that to which, especially in the nominative case.

Note. That is not now employed as a descriptive relative, though it was common in
this use not very long ago. Thus in 1844 Disraeli wrote: “The deer, that abounded,
lived here in a world as savage as themselves” (Coningsby, book iii, chapter 5).

The omission of the relative (§ 151) is possible only when the relative is
restrictive.

The boy [whom] I saw at your house has left town. [Restrictive.]

Charles, whom I saw yesterday, had not heard the news. [Descriptive.]

THE RELATIVE PRONOUN WHAT

157. The relative pronoun what is equivalent to that which, and has a double
construction:—(1) the construction of the omitted or implied antecedent (that); (2)
the construction of the relative (which).

{What | That which} was said is true. [Here what, being equivalent to that which,
serves as the subject both of was said and of is.]

Tom always remembers {what | that which} is said to him. [Here what, being
equivalent to that which, serves as both the object of remembers and as the subject
of is said.]
Tom always remembers {what | that which} he learns. [Here what serves both as the
object of remembers and as the object of learns.]

In parsing what, mention both of its constructions.

Note. Another method of dealing with the relative what is to regard the whole
clause (what was said; what is said to him; what he learns) as a noun clause. Thus
the clause what was said in the first sentence would be the subject of is; in the
second and third sentences, the clause would be the object of remembers. What, in
the first sentence, would be parsed as the subject of was said; in the second, as
the subject of is said; and in the third, as the object of learns. Neither view is
incorrect, and each has its special advantages. The student may well be familiar
with both methods, remembering that grammar cannot be treated like mathematics.

COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS

158. The compound relative pronouns are formed by adding ever or soever to who,
which, and what.

They are declined as follows:—

Singular and Plural Nominative whoever (whosoever) whichever (whichsoever)

Possessive whosever (whosesoever) ————

Objective whomever (whomsoever) whichever (whichsoever)

Whatever (whatsoever) has no inflection. The nominative and the objective are
alike, and the possessive is supplied by the phrase of whatever (of whatsoever).

The phrase of whichever (of whichsoever) is used instead of whosever exactly as of

which is used instead of whose (§ 152).

159. The compound relative pronouns may include or imply their own antecedents and
hence may have a double construction.

Whoever calls, he must be admitted. [Here he, the antecedent of whoever, is the
subject of must be admitted, and whoever is the subject of calls.]

Whoever calls must be admitted. [Here the antecedent he is omitted, being implied
in whoever. Whoever has therefore a double construction, being the subject of both
calls and must be admitted.]

He shall have whatever he wishes.

I will do whichever you say.

In such sentences, care should be taken to use whoever and whomever correctly. The
nominative (whoever) is required when the relative is the subject of its own
clause.

He asked whoever came.

He told the story to whoever would listen.

He asked whomever he knew.

He told the story to whomever he met.

160. The compound relatives are sometimes used without an antecedent expressed or
implied.

Whoever deserts you, I will remain faithful.

Whomever it offends, I will speak the truth.

Whatever he attempts, he is sure to fail.

Whichever you choose, you will be disappointed.

Note. This construction is closely related to that explained in § 159. “Whoever

deserts you, I will remain faithful,” is practically equivalent to “Whoever deserts
you, let him desert you! I will remain faithful.” No antecedent, however, is felt
by the speaker, and hence none need be supplied in parsing. Compare concessive
clauses (§ 401).

161. Which, what, whichever, and whatever are often used as adjectives.

Use what (or whatever) powers you have.

Whichever plan you adopt, you have my best wishes.

162. A noun limited by the adjectives what, whichever, and whatever, may have the
same double construction that these relatives have when they are used as pronouns
(§ 159). Thus,—

Take whichever pen is not in use. [Here pen is both the direct object of take, and
the subject of is.]

Whoso for whosoever and whatso for whatsoever are common in older English.
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS

163. The interrogative pronouns are who, which, and what. They are used in asking
questions.22

Who is your neighbor?

Who goes there?

Whom have you chosen?

From whom did you learn this?

Whose voice is that?

Which shall I take?

Which is correct?

What did he say?

What is lacking?

With what are you so delighted?

164. Who has a possessive whose, and an objective whom. Which and what are not
inflected.

Who may be either masculine or feminine; which and what may be of any gender.

165. The objective whom often begins a question (as in the third example in § 163).
Care should be taken not to write who for whom.

166. Which and what are used as interrogative adjectives.

Which street shall I take?

What village is this?

167. The interrogative adjective what may be used in a peculiar form of exclamatory
sentence. Thus,—

What a cold night this is!

What courage he must have had!

What! by itself often serves as an exclamation: as,—“What! do you really think so?”
In this use what may be regarded as an interjection.

168. In parsing pronouns the following models may be used:—

1. He was my earliest friend.

He is a personal pronoun of the third person. It is in the masculine gender, the

singular number, and the nominative case, being the subject of the verb was.

2. A policeman whom I met showed me the house.

Whom is a relative pronoun of the masculine gender, singular number, and third
person, agreeing with its antecedent, policeman. It is in the objective case, being
the direct object of the transitive verb met.

3. The corporal, whose name was Scott, came from Leith.

Whose is a relative pronoun of the masculine gender, singular number, and third
person, agreeing with its antecedent, corporal. It is in the possessive case,
modifying the noun name.

4. Whose birthday do we celebrate in February?

Whose is an interrogative pronoun in the masculine or feminine gender, singular

number, and possessive case, modifying the noun birthday.

5. He injured himself severely.

Himself is a compound personal pronoun of the third person, used reflexively. It is

of the masculine gender, singular number, and third person, agreeing with its
antecedent, he. It is in the objective case, being the direct object of the
transitive verb injured.

CHAPTER IV

ADJECTIVES
CLASSIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES

169. An adjective is a word which describes or limits a substantive.

An adjective is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits.

An adjective which describes is called a descriptive adjective; one which points

out or designates is called a definitive adjective (§ 13).

Most adjectives are descriptive: as,—round, cold, red, angry, graceful, excessive,
young, sudden, Roman.

Note. Many descriptive adjectives are compound (see § 64): as,—steadfast, lionlike,
fireproof, downright, heartsick, everlasting, brown-eyed, broad-shouldered, ill-
tempered, dear-bought, far-fetched, never-ending, self-evident, self-important. “He
was a matter-of-fact person.” “Tom is hail-fellow-well-met with everybody.” “This
is an out-of-the-way place.” “A dashing, down-at-the-heel youth answered my knock.”

170. A proper noun used as an adjective, or an adjective derived from a proper

noun, is called a proper adjective and usually begins with a capital letter.

Examples: a Panama hat,

Florida oranges,

a Bunsen burner;

Virginian,

Spenserian,

Newtonian,

Icelandic,

Miltonic,

Byronic,

Turkish,

English,

Veronese.

Note. Many so-called proper adjectives begin with a small letter because their
origin is forgotten or disregarded: as,—china dishes, italic type, mesmeric power,
a jovial air, a saturnine expression, a mercurial temperament, a stentorian voice.

171. Definitive adjectives include:—pronouns used as adjectives (as, this

opportunity; those pictures; either table; what time is it?); numeral adjectives
(as, two stars; the third year); the articles, a (or an) and the.

Pronouns used as adjectives (often called pronominal adjectives) have been studied
under Pronouns—demonstratives (§§ 131–134), indefinites (§§ 135–142), relatives (§§
143–162), interrogatives (§§ 163–167).

Numeral adjectives will be treated, along with other numerals (nouns and adverbs),
in §§ 204–208.

The articles will be treated in §§ 173–180.

172. Adjectives may be classified, according to their position in the sentence, as

attributive, appositive, and predicate adjectives.

1. An attributive adjective is closely attached to its noun and regularly precedes

it.

The angry spot doth glow on Cæsar’s brow.

O you hard hearts, you cruel men of Rome!

Yond Cassius has a lean and hungry look.

2. An appositive adjective is added to its noun to explain it, like a noun in

apposition (§ 88, 5).

Noun in Apposition Appositive Adjective

The castle, a ruin, stood on the edge of the cliff. The castle, ancient and
ruinous, stood on the edge of the cliff.

Bertram, the ringleader, refused to surrender. Bertram, undaunted, refused to

surrender.

3. A predicate adjective completes the meaning of the predicate verb, but describes
or limits the subject.

Predicate adjectives are common after is (in its various forms) and other
copulative verbs, particularly become and seem (§ 17).

The sea is rough to-day.

Burton soon became cautious in his judgments.

You seem anxious about your future.

The air grew hot and sultry.

Our first experiment proved unsuccessful.

The milk turned sour.

Our agent proved trustworthy.

Note. The construction of the predicate adjective is similar to that of the

predicate nominative (§ 88, 2). Both are known as complements, because they
complete the meaning of a verb.
After look, sound, taste, smell, feel, a predicate adjective is used to describe
the subject. Thus,—

Your flowers look thrifty. [Not: look thriftily.]

Their voices sound shrill. [Not: sound shrilly.]

This apple tastes sweet. [Not: tastes sweetly.]

The air smells good. [Not: smells well.]

The patient feels comfortable. [Not: feels comfortably.]

For predicate adjectives after passive verbs, see § 492.

For the use of an adjective as predicate objective, see § 104.

THE ARTICLES

173. The adjectives a (or an) and the are called articles.

1. The definite article the points out one or more particular objects as distinct
from others of the same kind.

The train is late.

Here is the key.

The children are in the next room.

2. The indefinite article a (or an) designates an object as merely one of a general
class or kind.

Lend me a pencil.

I have a cold.

A young man answered my knock.

The article a is a fragment of ān (pronounced ahn), the ancient form of the numeral
one; an keeps the n, which a has lost. The is an old demonstrative, related to
that.

174. The with a singular noun sometimes indicates a class or kind of objects.

The scholar is not necessarily a dryasdust.

The elephant is the largest of quadrupeds.

The aëroplane is a very recent invention.

Resin is obtained from the pine.

Note. In this use the is often called the generic article (from the Latin genus,
“kind” or “sort”). The singular number with the generic the is practically
equivalent to the plural without an article. Thus in the first example the sense
would be the same if we had, “Scholars are not necessarily dryasdusts.”

175. An adjective preceded by the may be used as a plural noun.

The brave are honored.

The rich have many cares.

The strong should protect the weak.

176. An is used before words beginning with a vowel or silent h; a before other
words. Thus,—

an owl;

an apple;

an honest man;

a stone;

a pear.

177. Special rules for a or an are the following:—

1. Before words beginning with the sound of y or w, the form a, not an, is used.

Examples: a union,

a university,

a yew,

a ewe,

a eulogy,

a Utopian

scheme,

such a one.
This rule covers all words beginning with eu and many beginning with u. Note that
the initial sound is a consonant, not a vowel. An was formerly common before such
words (as,—an union, such an one), but a is now the settled form.

2. Before words beginning with h and not accented on the first syllable, an is
often used. Thus, we say—

a his´tory;

BUT, an histor´ical novel.

In such cases, the h is very weak in sound, and is sometimes quite silent, so that
the word practically begins with a vowel. Usage varies, but careful writers favor
the rule here given. An was formerly more common before h than at present.

178. With two or more connected nouns or adjectives the article should be repeated
whenever clearness requires (cf. § 123).

I have consulted the secretary and the treasurer. [“The secretary and treasurer”
would imply that the same person held both offices.]

I found an anchor and a chain. [“An anchor and chain” would suggest that the chain
was attached to the anchor.]

In some towns there are separate schools for the boys and the girls; in others the
boys and girls attend the same schools.

He waved a red and white flag.

He waved a red and a white flag.

179. A is often used distributively, in the sense of each.

I paid five dollars a pair for my shoes.

The letter-carrier calls twice a day.

My class meets three times a week.

In such phrases a is better than per, except in strictly commercial language.

180. When used with adjectives, the articles precede, except in a few phrases: as,—

Such an uproar was never heard.

Many a man has tried in vain.

For the adverb the, which is quite distinct from the article in use and meaning,
see § 195.
For the preposition a (as in “He went a-fishing”), see § 352.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

181. In comparing objects with each other, we may use three different forms of the
same adjective.

Thomas is strong.

William is stronger than Thomas.

Herbert is strongest of the three.

This inflection of adjectives is called comparison, and the three forms are called
degrees of comparison.

182. The degrees of comparison indicate by their form in what degree of intensity
the quality described by the adjective exists.

There are three degrees of comparison,—the positive, the comparative, and the
superlative.

1. The positive degree is the simplest form of the adjective, and has no special
ending.

It merely describes the quality, without expressing or suggesting any comparison.

Thomas is strong.

Thus, the positive degree of the adjective strong is strong.

2. The comparative degree of an adjective is formed by adding the termination er to

the positive degree.

It denotes that the quality exists in the object described in a higher degree than
in some other object.

William is stronger than Thomas.

Thus, the comparative degree of the adjective strong is stronger.

3. The superlative degree is formed by adding est to the positive degree.

It denotes that the quality exists in the highest degree in the object described.
Herbert is strongest of the three.

Other examples of the comparison of adjectives are:—

Positive Degree Comparative Degree Superlative Degree

rich richer richest

poor poorer poorest

fast faster fastest

firm firmer firmest

183. Rules of Spelling.

1. Adjectives ending in silent e drop this letter before the comparative ending er
and the superlative ending est. Thus,—

wise, wiser, wisest;

pure, purer, purest;

handsome, handsomer, handsomest.

2. Most adjectives ending in y change y to i before the endings er and est. Thus,—

silky, silkier, silkiest;

glossy, glossier, glossiest;

sorry, sorrier, sorriest.

3. Adjectives having a short vowel and ending in a single consonant double this
before the endings er and est. Thus,—

dim, dimmer, dimmest;

sad, sadder, saddest;

fit, fitter, fittest;

big, bigger, biggest;

red, redder, reddest;

hot, hotter, hottest.

184. Many adjectives are compared by prefixing the adverbs more and most to the
positive degree.

Many adjectives of two syllables and most adjectives of three or more syllables are
so compared. Thus,—

recent, more recent, most recent;

terrible, more terrible, most terrible;

triumphant, more triumphant, most triumphant;

economical, more economical, most economical.

Some adjectives may be compared in either way.

Examples: intense, intenser, intensest;

OR intense, more intense, most intense.

So also— profound,

sublime,

unkind.

Note. The adverbs less and least may be used with an adjective, if one wishes to
run down the scale of comparison: as,—terrible, less terrible, least terrible. This
idiom, however, should not be regarded as comparison of the adjective.
“Superlative” means “in the highest degree,” and is not applicable to least
terrible, which means “terrible in the lowest degree.”

IRREGULAR COMPARISON

185. Several adjectives have irregular comparison.23

Positive Comparative Superlative

bad (evil, ill) worse worst

far farther farthest

—— further furthest

good better best

late later, latter latest, last

well (in health) better ——

little less, lesser least

much, many more most

Old has comparative older or elder, superlative oldest or eldest. Elder or eldest
may be used with certain nouns of relationship, or in the phrases the elder and the
eldest.

This is my elder brother. My brother is older than yours.

Jane was the eldest of six children. I shall wear my oldest clothes.

Elder is also used as a noun: as,—“You should respect your elders.”

Next is a superlative of nigh. It is used only in the sense of “the very nearest.”

I live in the next street.

The next time he comes, I shall refuse to see him.

186. A few superlatives end in -most. With these, one or both of the other degrees
are commonly wanting.

Positive Comparative Superlative

—— (former) foremost

hind hinder hindmost

—— inner inmost, innermost

(out, adverb) outer outmost, outermost

(utter) utmost, uttermost

(up, adverb) upper uppermost

—— —— endmost

—— nether nethermost

top —— topmost

—— —— furthermost

north —— northmost

northern (more northern) northernmost

south —— southmost

southern (more southern) southernmost

east, eastern (more eastern) easternmost

west, western (more western) westernmost

Note. The ending -most is not the adverb most. It is a very old superlative ending
-mest changed under the influence of the adverb most.

187. For adjectives incapable of comparison, see § 202. For special rules for the
use of comparative and superlative, see §§ 199–203.

188. In parsing an adjective, tell whether it is descriptive or definitive, mention

the substantive to which it belongs, and specify the degree of comparison.

CHAPTER V

ADVERBS

189. An adverb is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

The storm ceased suddenly.

A very disastrous storm swept the coast.

The storm ceased very suddenly.

190. Adverbs are classified according to their meaning as: (1) adverbs of manner;
(2) adverbs of time; (3) adverbs of place; (4) adverbs of degree.24

1. Adverbs of manner answer the question “How?” “In what way?”

They modify verbs or adjectives, rarely adverbs. Most of them are formed from
adjectives by adding ly.

Tom answered courageously.

The poor child looked helplessly about.

Softly and silently fell the snow.

The pain was terribly severe.

The river rose surprisingly fast.

2. Adverbs of time answer the question “When?” They usually modify verbs. Thus,—

The old castle is now a museum.

He was recently promoted.

I have been disturbed lately.

My friend arrives to-day.

James was then a boy of seven.

I have already rung the bell.

Afterwards he regretted his haste.

3. Adverbs of place answer the question “Where?” They usually modify verbs. Thus,—

Come here.

Yonder stands the culprit.

An old sailor came forward.

My sister is out.

I was abroad that winter.

4. Adverbs of degree answer the question “To what degree or extent?” They modify
verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Thus,—

Arthur is rather tall.

Father was much pleased.

Father was very much pleased.

The task seemed utterly hopeless.

That is hardly possible.

That is not possible.

191. Some adverbs have the same form as the corresponding adjectives.

You have guessed right.

How fast the tide ebbs!

The horse was sold cheap.

Tired men sleep sound.

Other examples are:— wrong,

straight,
early,

late,

quick,

hard,

far,

near,

slow,

high,

low,

loud,

ill,

well,

deep,

close,

just,

very,

much,

little.

Under this head come certain adverbs of degree used to modify adjectives.

His eyes were dark blue. [Compare: very blue.]

That silk is light yellow. [Compare: rather yellow.]

These flowers are deep purple. [Compare: intensely purple.]

The water was icy cold. [Compare: extremely cold.]

That dark, light, etc., are adverbs in this use appears from the fact that they
answer the question “How?” Thus,—“His eyes were blue.” “How blue?” “Dark blue.”

Note. In the oldest English many adverbs ended in -ë, as if formed directly from
adjectives by means of this ending. Thus, the adjective for hot was hāt, side by
side with which was an adverb hātë (dissyllabic), meaning hotly. In the fourteenth
century this distinction was still kept up. Thus, Chaucer used both the adjective
hōt and the dissyllabic adverb hōtë, meaning hotly. Between 1400 and 1500 all weak
final e’s disappeared from the language. In this way the adverb hotë, for example,
became simply hot. Thus these adverbs in -ë became identical in form with the
corresponding adjectives. Hence in the time of Shakspere there existed, in common
use, not only the adjective hot, but also the adverb hot (identical in form with
the adjective but really descended from the adverb hotë). One could say not only
“The fire is hot” (adjective), but “The fire burns hot” (adverb of manner).

The tendency in modern English has been to confine the form without ending to the
adjective use and to restrict the adverbial function to forms in -ly. Thus, a
writer of the present time would not say, in prose, “The fire burns hot,” but “The
fire burns hotly.” Nevertheless, a number of the old adverbs without ending still
remain in good use, and must not be regarded as erroneous.

In poetry, moreover, such adverbs are freely employed; as,—“The boy like a gray
goshawk stared wild.” [In prose: stared wildly.]

For adverbial phrases, see §§ 41–42, 475.

For the adverbial objective, see § 109.

192. Yes and no are peculiar adverbs used in assenting and denying. Thus,—

Are you hungry?

No.

Note. As now used, yes and no stand for complete sentences. Originally, however,
they were modifiers, and hence they are still classed as adverbs. The original
meaning of no was “never.” Compare never as an emphatic negative in modern English:
as,—“Will you surrender?” “Never!” The oldest affirmative adverb was yea. Yes was
originally a compound of yea with a form of so, and was used in emphatic
affirmatives (like our just so!).

Other adverbs or adverbial phrases are sometimes used like yes or no. Such are
certainly, assuredly, by no means, not at all. In these cases, however, the
modifying effect of the word or phrase may easily be seen when the sentence is
supplied. Thus,—“Will you help me?” “Certainly [I will help you].”

193. There is often used merely to introduce a sentence in the inverted order (§
5).

There is a hole in my shoe.

There are many strangers in town.

There rose a thick smoke from the volcano.

In this use, there is sometimes called an expletive (or “filler”). It is

unemphatic, and has lost all its force as an adverb of place. Contrast “There
[emphatic] stood an Indian under a tree” with, “There [unemphatic expletive] stood
an Indian under a tree.”

RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE ADVERBS

194. Relative adverbs introduce subordinate clauses and are similar in their use to
relative pronouns.

I know a farmhouse {in which | where} we can spend the night.

Where is an adverb of place, modifying can spend. But it also introduces the
subordinate clause, as the relative pronoun which does. Hence where is called a
relative adverb.

195. The principal relative adverbs are:—where, whence, whither, wherever, when,
whenever, while, as, how, why, before, after, till, until, since.

Because of their similarity to conjunctions, these words are often called

conjunctive adverbs.

He had a fever when he was in Spain.

Work while it is day.

As the ship passed, we observed that her decks were crowded with Malays. [Time.]

Keep to the right, as the law directs. [Manner.]

You started before I was ready.

Wait until the car stops.

Since you came, it has rained constantly.

As and since in the sense of “because,” and while in the sense of “although,” are
classed as conjunctions (§ 368).

The clauses introduced by relative adverbs may be either adjective or adverbial (§§
49–50, 379–382).

Note. In “The more you waste, the sooner you will want” (and similar sentences) the
is not an article, but an old case-form of the pronoun that, used as an adverb of
degree. We may expand the sentence as follows: “To what extent you waste more, to
that extent you will want sooner.” Thus it appears that the first the has a
relative force, and the second the a demonstrative force.

196. An interrogative adverb introduces a question.

Where, when, whence, whither, how, why, may be used as interrogative adverbs. Thus,
—

Where are you going?

Why must you go?

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS

197. Adverbs have three degrees of comparison,—the positive, the comparative, and
the superlative.

1. Most adverbs are compared by means of more and most.

John came promptly. [Positive.]

Richard came more promptly than John. [Comparative.]

Henry came most promptly of all. [Superlative.]

2. A few adverbs are compared by means of the endings er and est. Thus,—

Positive Comparative Superlative

near nearer nearest

soon sooner soonest

Further examples are:— cheap,

dear,

early,

fast,

hard,

high,

long,

loud,

quick,

slow,

deep.25

Some adverbs are compared in both ways. Thus,—

often, oftener or more often,

oftenest or most often.

198. Several adverbs have irregular comparison.

Positive Comparative Superlative

far farther farthest

forth further furthest

ill worse worst

badly

nigh nigher nighest

next

well better best

late later latest

last

little less least

much more most

These adverbs in the main have the same forms as the adjectives studied in § 185
above. Note, however: (1) that good and bad are never adverbs; (2) that ill and
well, better and best, worse and worst, may be either adverbs or adjectives. Rather
is now used in the comparative only.

USE OF THE COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE

199. The comparative degree, not the superlative, is used in comparing two persons
or things.

The superlative is used in comparing one person or thing with two or more.

Right: Mary is the more agreeable of the two.

Mary is the most agreeable of all the family.

Wrong: I like both Mary and Jane, but I am fondest of Mary.

I am studying Latin, history, and geometry, but I dislike the latter.

The same principle applies to adverbs.

John runs faster than Tom. [Here the acts of two persons are compared.]

Which of you three can run fastest? [Here the acts of more than two are compared.]

Note. In older English the superlative sometimes occurs when only two objects are
thought of. This use is still found in a few proverbial phrases: as,—“Put your best
foot foremost.”

200. The superlative is sometimes used merely for emphasis, without implying any
definite comparison: as—“My dearest Kate!”

The superlative of emphasis is very common with most.

Most potent, grave, and reverend signiors.—Shakspere.

Justice had been most cruelly defrauded.—Wordsworth.

Excessive use of this construction (like frequent repetition of very) is tiresome

and weakens style.

Double comparison (as more worthier, most unkindest) is common in older English,
but is now a gross error.

201. When two adjectives or adverbs are contrasted by means of than, more is used
with the first.

Such indulgence is more kind than wise.

This scheme is more clever than honest.

He acts more boldly than discreetly.

Note. The adverb rather is often used with the first adjective or adverb (as,
—“rather kind than wise” or “kind rather than wise”), but in a slightly different
sense.

202. Many adjectives and adverbs are, from their meaning, incapable of comparison.
Such are:—

1. Adjectives expressing a quality as absolute or complete, and adverbs derived

from such adjectives.

Examples: unique,

universal,

single,

matchless,
instantaneous,

triangular,

everlasting,

infinite,

mortal;

uniquely,

singly,

eternally,

mortally.

2. The adverbs here, there, then, now, when, and the like.

Note. Words like perfect, exact, straight, etc., are commonly said to be incapable
of comparison, but this is an error. For each of these words may vary in sense.
When perfect (for example) denotes absolute perfection, it cannot be compared. But
perfect has also another sense: namely, “partaking in a higher or lower degree of
the qualities that make up absolute perfection,” so that we may describe one statue
as more perfect than another, or one of three statues as the most perfect of them
all. In this use, which is unobjectionable, we simply admit that nothing in the
world is absolutely flawless, and assert that the three statues approach ideal
perfection in various degrees.

203. An adjective phrase may sometimes be compared by means of more and most.

I was never more out of humor [= more vexed].

I think your last suggestion most in keeping [= most appropriate].

NUMERALS—ADJECTIVES, NOUNS, AND ADVERBS

204. Words indicating number are called numerals. They are adjectives, nouns, or
adverbs.

There are seven days in the week. [Adjective.]

Twelve make a dozen. [Noun.]

I have called twice. [Adverb.]

205. The chief classes of numerals are cardinals and ordinals.

1. Cardinal numeral adjectives (one, two, three, four, etc.) are used in counting,
and answer the question “How many?”

I had to pay three dollars.

There were forty-two vessels in the fleet.

Note. In such expressions as “The boy was sixteen,” the numeral is a predicate
adjective limiting boy (§ 172, 3). We need not expand sixteen to “sixteen years
old.”

2. Ordinal numeral adjectives (first, second, third, etc.) denote the position or
order of a person or thing in a series.

Carl plays the second violin.

Your friend is sitting in the fifth row.

206. All the cardinal and ordinal numerals may become nouns and may take a plural
ending in some of their senses.

One is enough.

Four are missing.

The nine played an excellent game.

Three twos are six.

The men formed by fours.

Thousands perished by the way.

Eight is two thirds of twelve. [So regularly in fractional parts.]

Note. Hundred, thousand, million were originally nouns, but are now equally common
as adjectives. Other numeral nouns are:—twain, couple, pair, brace, trio,
quartette, quintette, foursome, dozen, score, century.

207. Certain numeral adjectives (single, double, triple, etc.) indicate how many
times a thing is taken or of how many like parts it consists.

A double row of policemen stood on guard.

A fourfold layer of chilled steel forms the door.

Some of these words may be used as adverbs.

The cabman charged double.

His fear increased tenfold.

208. Certain numeral adverbs and adverbial phrases indicate how many times an
action takes place.

Once my assailant slipped.

I rang the bell twice.

The river hath thrice flow’d, no ebb between.—Shakspere.

The only adverbs of this kind in ordinary use are once and twice. For larger
numbers an adverbial phrase (three times, four times, etc.) is employed. Thrice,
however, is still common in poetry and the solemn style.

CHAPTER VI

VERBS

CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS

209. A verb is a word which can assert something (usually an action) concerning a
person, place, or thing (§ 14).

Most verbs express action. Some, however, merely express state or condition. Thus,—

1. We jumped for joy.

Rabbits burrow into the sides of hills.

2. While memory lasts, I can never forget you.

This mountain belongs to the Appalachian range.

A verb-phrase is a group of words that is used as a verb (§ 15).

The leaves are turning.

The money has been found.

210. Certain verbs, when used to make verb-phrases, are called auxiliary (that is,
“aiding”) verbs, because they help other verbs to express action or state of some
particular kind (§ 16).

The auxiliary verbs are is (are, was, were, etc.), may, can, must, might, shall,
will, could, would, should, have, had, do, did.

I am writing.

We must go.

You will fall.

He has forgotten me.

We had failed.

I do see him.

The auxiliary verb may be separated from the rest of the verb-phrase by other
words.

I have always liked him.

I shall soon send for you.

Robert was completely bewildered.

He has hardly ever spoken to me.

211. Verbs are either transitive or intransitive (§ 99).

Some verbs may be followed by a substantive denoting that which receives the action
or is produced by it. These are called transitive verbs. All other verbs are called
intransitive.

A substantive that completes the meaning of a transitive verb is called its direct
object.

In the following sentences, the first four verbs are transitive (with objects), the
last five are intransitive (without objects):—

Lightning shattered the oak.

Clouds darkened the sky.

Chemists extract radium from pitchblende.

The orator quoted Tennyson incorrectly.

Look where he stands and glares!

The bankrupt absconded.

The orange sky of evening died away.

The words differ in a single letter.

212. A verb which is transitive in one of its senses may be intransitive in
another.

Transitive (with Object) Intransitive (without Object)

Boys fly kites. Birds fly.

The pirates sank the ship. The stone sank.

I closed my eyes. School closed yesterday.

Tom tore his coat. The cloth tore easily.

213. Many transitive verbs may be used absolutely,—that is, merely to express
action without any indication of the direct object.

Transitive Verb with Object expressed Transitive Verb used absolutely

The horses drank water. The horses drank from the brook.

The farmer plows his fields. The farmer plows in the spring.

Charles is drawing a picture. Charles is drawing.

There is a sharp contrast between a transitive verb used absolutely and a real
intransitive verb. To the former we can always add an object; with the latter no
object is possible.

214. Is (in its various forms) and several other verbs may be used to frame
sentences in which some word or words in the predicate describe or define the
subject (§ 17).

Such verbs are called copulative (that is, “joining”) verbs.

Is in this use is often called the copula (or “link”).

Time is money.

Grant was a tireless worker.

Macbeth became a tyrant.

His swans always prove geese.

The current is sluggish.

Lions are carnivorous.

This village looks prosperous.

The consul’s brow grew stern.

The queen turned pale.

In the first four examples, the copulative verb (the simple predicate26) is
followed by a predicate nominative (§ 88, 2); in the last five by a predicate
adjective (§ 172, 3).

The copulative verbs are intransitive, since they take no object. Sometimes,
however, they are regarded as a third class distinct both from transitive and
intransitive verbs.

215. The verb is is not always a copula. It is sometimes emphatic and has the sense
of exist.

I think. Therefore I am. [That is, I exist.]

Whatever is, is right. [The second is is the copula.]

Most of the other copulative verbs may be used in some sense in which they cease to
be copulative.

The lawyer proved his case.

Walnut trees grow slowly.

Mr. Watson grows peaches.

The wheel turned slowly on the axle.

He turned his head and looked at me.

INFLECTION OF VERBS

216. Verbs have inflections of tense, person and number, and mood. They also have
the distinction of voice, which is expressed by the help of verb-phrases.

Tense indicates time; person and number correspond with person and number in
substantives; mood shows the manner in which the action is expressed; voice
indicates whether the subject acts or is acted upon.

TENSE OF VERBS

217. The tense of a verb indicates its time.27

Verbs have forms of tense to indicate present, past, or future time.

1. A verb in the present tense refers to present time.

2. A verb in the past tense refers to past time.28

3. A verb in the future tense refers to future time.

The present, the past, and the future are called simple tenses.

Present Tense Past Tense Future Tense

He lives here. He lived here. He will live here.

The sun shines. The sun shone. The sun will shine.

I know him. I knew him. I shall know him.

FORMS OF THE PRESENT AND THE PAST

218. The present and the past tense have special forms of inflection.

For the moment we will consider the form which the verb has when its subject is the
first personal pronoun I.

In the present tense the verb has its simplest form, without any inflectional
ending.

I like it.

I hope for the best.

I dwell in the wilderness.

I find him amusing.

219. The past tense is formed in two ways, and a verb is classed as weak or strong
in accordance with the way in which it forms this tense.

1. Weak verbs form the past tense by adding ed, d, or t to the present.

Examples: mend, mended;

select, selected;

fill, filled;

glow, glowed;

talk, talked;

revere, revered;

dwell, dwelt.

2. Strong verbs form the past tense by changing the vowel of the present, without
the addition of an ending.

Examples: drink, drank;

begin, began;

come, came;

rise, rose;

bind, bound;

cling, clung;

stick, stuck;

wear, wore.29

Weak verbs are sometimes called regular, and strong verbs irregular verbs.

For a list of the strong verbs see pp. 291–297.

Note. The terms strong and weak were first applied to verbs for a somewhat fanciful
reason. The strong verbs were so called because they seemed to form the past tense
out of their own resources, without calling to their assistance any ending. The
weak verbs were so called because they could not form the past tense without the
aid of the ending ed, d, or t.

220. The ending that is written ed is fully pronounced only when d or t precedes
(as,—thread, threaded; attract, attracted). Otherwise, e is silent, so that the
ending becomes, in pronunciation, d or t (as,—entered, pronounced enter’d; rocked,
pronounced rockt).

In poetry and the solemn style, however, the silent e in the ending ed is sometimes
restored to its ancient rights.

221. Many weak verbs show special irregularities in the past tense.

1. Make has made in the past, and have has had.

2. Some verbs in -nd and -ld form their past tense by changing this d to t.

Examples: bend, bent;

send, sent;

lend, lent;

rend, rent;

spend, spent;

build, built.

3. A few verbs add d or t in the past and also change the vowel of the present.
Thus,—

sell sold

tell told

shoe shod

say said (pronounced sed)

hear heard (pronounced herd)

bring brought

buy bought

catch caught

seek sought

beseech besought

teach taught

methinks methought

Work has an old past tense wrought, common in poetry; its usual past is worked. For
must, would, etc., see p. 299.

4. Some verbs that have a long vowel sound in the present have in the past a short
vowel sound before the ending t.

Examples: creep, crept;

keep, kept;

sleep, slept;

sweep, swept;

weep, wept;

feel, felt;

deal, dealt (pronounced delt);

mean, meant (pronounced ment);

lose, lost;

leave, left.30

5. Some verbs in d or t preceded by a long vowel sound have a short vowel in the
past but add no ending.

Examples: bleed, bled;

breed, bred;

feed, fed;

speed, sped;

lead, led;

read (pronounced reed), read (pronounced red);

meet, met;

light, lit (also lighted).

6. Some verbs in d or t have in the past the same form as in the present.

Examples: shed, past shed;

spread, past spread;

bet, past bet;

hit, past hit;

set, past set;

put, past put;

shut, past shut;

cut, past cut;

hurt, past hurt;

cast, past cast.

Note. The verbs in 5 and 6 might appear to be strong verbs, since they have no
ending in the past and some of them change the vowel. They are, however, all weak
verbs. Their lack of ending is due to the fact that the d or t of the termination
has been absorbed in the final d or t of the verb itself. Thus, the past set was
originally settë (dissyllabic), and this form, after the loss of -ë, became
indistinguishable in sound from set, the present.

For lists of irregular weak verbs, see pp. 291–299.

PERSON AND NUMBER—THE PERSONAL ENDINGS

222. A verb must agree with its subject in number and person.
Verbs, like substantives, have two numbers (singular and plural) and three persons
(first, second, and third).

The singular number denotes a single person or thing. The plural number denotes
more than one person or thing.

The first person denotes the speaker; the second person denotes the person spoken
to; the third person denotes the person or thing spoken of.

223. The inflections of person and number in verbs may be seen by framing sentences
with the personal pronouns as subjects. Thus,—

Present Tense

SINGULAR PLURAL

1. I walk. 1. We walk.

2. Thou walk-est. 2. You walk.

3. He walk-s [old form, walk-eth]. 3. They walk.

Past Tense

SINGULAR PLURAL

1. I walked. 1. We walked.

2. Thou walked-st. 2. You walked.

3. He walked. 3. They walked.

From the sentences it is evident (1) that the person and number of a verb are
usually shown by its subject only, but (2) that some verb-forms have special
endings which denote person and number.

224. The endings by means of which a verb indicates person and number are called
personal endings.

1. In the present tense a verb has two personal endings, est for the second person
singular and s for the third person singular (old form eth).

The first person singular and all three persons of the plural are alike. The
simplest form of the verb is used and no personal ending is added.

2. The past tense has but one personal ending,—est or st in the second person
singular.31

The forms in est or st are confined to poetry and the solemn style. In ordinary
language, the second person plural is used to address a single person.

The following table shows the personal endings of the present and the past tense:—

Personal Endings Present Tense Past Tense

SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL

1. [no ending] 1. [no ending] 1. [no ending] 1. [no ending]

2. -est, -st 2. [no ending] 2. -est, -st 2. [no ending]

3. -s [old, -eth] 3. [no ending] 3. [no ending] 3. [no ending]

Conjugation of the Present and the Past

225. The inflection of a verb is called its conjugation (§ 53). When we inflect a
verb we are said to conjugate it.

Conjugation of the Weak Verb Walk Present Tense

SINGULAR PLURAL

1. I walk. 1. We walk.

2. Thou walkest.32 2. You walk.

3. He walks. 3. They walk.

Past Tense

SINGULAR PLURAL

1. I walked. 1. We walked.

2. Thou walkedst. 2. You walked.

3. He walked. 3. They walked.

Conjugation of the Strong Verb Find Present Tense

SINGULAR PLURAL

1. I find. 1. We find.

2. Thou findest. 2. You find.

3. He finds. 3. They find.

Past Tense

SINGULAR PLURAL

1. I found. 1. We found.

2. Thou foundest. 2. You found.

3. He found. 3. They found.

Conjugation of the Copula Present Tense

SINGULAR PLURAL

1. I am. 1. We are.

2. Thou art. 2. You are.

3. He is. 3. They are.

Past Tense

SINGULAR PLURAL

1. I was. 1. We were.

2. Thou wast. 2. You were.

3. He was. 3. They were.

Note. The English verb formerly had more personal endings. In Chaucer, for
instance, the typical inflection of the present is:—

Singular Plural

1. I walkë. 1. We walken (or walkë).

2. Thou walkest. 2. Ye walken (or walkë).

3. He walketh. 3. They walken (or walkë).

The disappearance of all weak final e’s in the fifteenth century (§ 191) reduced
the first person singular and the whole plural to the single form walk. Later,
walks (a dialect form) was substituted for walketh, and still later the second
person singular was replaced in ordinary use by the plural. The result has been
that in modern speech there are only two common forms in the present tense,—walk
and walks. In poetry and the solemn style, however, walkest and walketh are still
in use. The plural in en is frequently adopted by Spenser as an ancient form (or
archaism): as,—“You deemen the spring is come.”

Special Rules of Number and Person

226. When the subject is compound (§ 38), the number of the verb is determined by
the following rules:—

1. A compound subject with and usually takes a verb in the plural number.

My brother and sister play tennis.

The governor and the mayor are cousins.

2. A compound subject with or or nor takes a verb in the singular number if the
substantives are singular.

Either my brother or my sister is sure to win.

Neither the governor nor the mayor favors this appointment.

3. A compound subject with and expressing but a single idea sometimes takes a verb
in the singular number.

The sum and substance [= gist] of the matter is this.

Note. This construction is rare in modern English prose. It is for the most part
confined to such idiomatic phrases as end and aim (= purpose), the long and short
of it, etc. The poets, however, use the construction freely (as in Kipling’s “The
tumult and the shouting dies”).

4. If the substantives connected by or or nor differ in number or person, the verb

usually agrees with the nearer.

Either you or he is to blame.

Neither you nor he is an Austrian.

Neither John nor we were at home.

Neither the mayor nor the aldermen favor this law.

But colloquial usage varies, and such expressions are avoided by careful writers.
The following sentences show how this may be done:—

Either you are to blame, or he is.

One of you two is to blame.

Neither of you is an Austrian.

He is not afraid; neither am I.

Both John and we were away from home.

227. In such expressions as the following, the subject is not compound, and the
verb agrees with its singular subject:—

The governor with his staff is present.

John, as well as Mary, is in London.

Tom, along with his friends Dick and Bob, is taking a sail.
228. Nouns that are plural in form but singular in sense commonly take a verb in
the singular number (§ 84).

Economics is an important study.

The gallows has been abolished in Massachusetts.

In some words usage varies. Thus, pains, in the sense of care or effort, is
sometimes regarded as a singular and sometimes as a plural.

Great pains has (or have) been taken about the matter.

229. Collective nouns take sometimes a singular and sometimes a plural verb.

When the persons or things denoted are thought of as individuals, the plural should
be used. When the collection is regarded as a unit, the singular should be used.33

1. The Senior Class requests the pleasure of your company. [Here the class is
thought of collectively, acting as a unit.]

2. The Senior Class are unable to agree upon a president. [Here the speaker has in
mind the individuals of whom the class is composed.]

3. The nation welcomes Prince Joseph. [The whole nation unites as a single
individual to welcome a distinguished guest.]

4. The American nation are descended from every other nation on earth. [The
separate qualities of the individuals who constitute the nation are in the
speaker’s mind.]

230. A number in the sense of “several” or “many” regularly takes the plural; the
number takes the singular.

A number of sailors were loitering on the pier.

The number of tickets is limited.

231. Half, part, portion, and the like, take either the singular or the plural
according to sense.

Half of a circle is a semicircle.

Half of the passengers were lost.

232. A verb which has for its subject a relative pronoun is in the same person and
number as the antecedent. For examples, see § 149.

Errors are especially common in such sentences as,—

This is one of the strangest sights that ever were seen. [The antecedent of that is
sights (not one); hence the relative (that) is plural, and accordingly the verb is
plural (were, not was).]

Mr. Winn’s oration was among the most eloquent that have [NOT has] been delivered
in this state for many years.

This is one of the finest paintings there are in the hall. [For the omission of the
relative, see § 151.]

THE FUTURE TENSE

233. The future tense is a verb-phrase consisting of the auxiliary verb shall or
will followed by the infinitive without to (§ 29).

The following table shows the form of the future for each of the three persons (1)
in assertions and (2) in questions:—

Future Tense Assertions (Declarative)

SINGULAR PLURAL

1. I shall fall. 1. We shall fall.

2. Thou wilt fall. 2. You will fall.

3. He will fall. 3. They will fall.

Questions (Interrogative)

SINGULAR PLURAL

1. Shall I fall? 1. Shall we fall?

2. Shalt thou fall? 2. Shall you fall?

3. Will he fall? 3. Will they fall?

234. Common errors are the use of will for shall (1) in the first person in
assertions and questions, and (2) in the second person in questions.

In the following sentences the first person of the future tense is correctly
formed:—

I shall [NOT will] drown. Shall [NOT will] I drown?

I shall [NOT will] fail. Shall [NOT will] I fail?

We shall [NOT will] sink. Shall [NOT will] we sink?

The verb-phrases with shall express merely the action of the verb in future time.
They do not indicate any willingness or desire on the part of the subject.

Contrast the following sentences, in which I will or we will is used:—

I will go with you.

I will give you what you ask.

I will not endure it.

We will allow you to enter.

We will have the truth.

Here the verb-phrases with will do not (as in the previous examples of I shall)
express the action of the verb in future time. They express the present willingness
or desire or determination of the speaker to do something in the future.

Hence such verb-phrases with will in the first person are not forms of the future
tense. They are special verb-phrases expressing willingness or desire.

235. In the first person shall, not will, is the auxiliary of the future tense in
both assertions and questions. It denotes simple futurity, without expressing
willingness, desire, or determination.

Will in the first person is used in promising, threatening, consenting, and

expressing resolution. It never denotes simple futurity.

I. Simple Futurity (Future Tense)

I shall be eighteen years old in July. [Not: will be.]

Hurry, or we shall miss our train. [Not: will miss.]

We shall be glad to see him. [Not: will be.]

II. Promises, Threats, etc.

I will subscribe to your fund. [Promise.]

We will do our best. [Promise.]

I will discharge you if you are late again. [Threat.]

We will permit you to go. [Consent.]

I will have obedience. [Resolution.]

I’ll and we’ll are contractions of I will and we will and can never stand for I
shall and we shall.

I’ll meet you at noon. [Promise.]

I’ll never consent. [Resolution.]

We’ll be revenged on you. [Threat.]

236. When willingness is expressed by an adjective, I shall is correct; when by an

adverb, I will. Thus,—

I shall be glad to help you.

I will gladly help you.

Note. Such expressions as I shall be glad, I shall be willing, I shall be charmed

to do this, express willingness not by means of shall but in the adjectives glad,
willing, charmed. To say, “I will be glad to do this,” then, would be wrong, for it
would be to express volition twice. Such a sentence could only mean “I am
determined to be glad to do this.”

On the other hand, in “I will gladly help you,” volition is expressed by the verb-
phrase will help and the adverb merely modifies the phrase by emphasizing the
speaker’s willingness. Hence I will is correct.

237. Will, when emphasized, always expresses determination on the part of the
subject, even in the second and third persons.

I WILL go, no matter what you say.

{You WILL | He WILL} act foolishly, in spite of my advice.

238. In the second person Shall you? not Will you? is the proper form of the future
tense in questions.

Will you? always denotes willingness, consent, or determination, and never simple
futurity.

Note that in questions in the second person, the auxiliary used is the same as that
expected in the answer.
I. Future Tense (Simple Futurity)

Shall you be disappointed if he does not come? [I shall.]

Shall you regret his absence? [I shall.]

Shall you go by boat or by train? [I shall go by boat.]

II. Verb-Phrase denoting Willingness, etc.

Will you write often? [I will.]

Will you allow me to help you? [I will.]

Will you be so kind as to open the window? [I will.]

239. Shall in the second and third persons is not the sign of the future tense in
declarative sentences.

It is used in commanding, promising, threatening, and expressing resolution, the

volition being that of the speaker.

Thou shalt not kill. [Command.]

You shall have the hat before Monday. [Promise.]

You shall pay for this insult! [Threat.]

She shall not regret her generosity. [Resolution.]

In prophetic language, shall is common in the second and third persons, even when
there is no idea of commanding or the like.

The sun shall be turned into darkness and the moon into blood.—Joel ii. 31.

240. In military orders and official communications, custom permits the more
courteous will in the place of shall in the second and third persons.

You will immediately report for orders.

Heads of Departments will submit their estimates before January first.

For shall and will in subordinate clauses, see pp. 130–132.

241. Future time may also be expressed by the present tense, or by about or going
with the infinitive (§ 319).

We sail for Havana on Tuesday.

They are about to begin the study of Greek.

COMPLETE OR COMPOUND TENSES

242. Completed action is denoted by special verb-phrases made by prefixing to the

past participle some form of the auxiliary verb have.

These are called the complete or compound tenses.

There are three complete or compound tenses,—the perfect (or present perfect), the
pluperfect (or past perfect), and the future perfect.

1. The perfect (or present perfect) tense denotes that the action of the verb is
complete at the time of speaking. It is formed by prefixing have (hast, has) to the
past participle.

I have learned my lesson.

He has convinced me.

Note. With several verbs of motion the auxiliary be is sometimes used instead of
have: as,—“My friends are gone” (or “have gone”); “Your time is come” (or “has
come”).

2. The pluperfect (or past perfect) tense denotes that the action was completed at
some point in past time. It is formed by prefixing had (hadst) to the past
participle.

Before night fell, I had finished the book.

When Blake had spoken, Allen rose to reply.

3. The future perfect tense denotes that the action will be completed at some point
in future time. It is formed by prefixing the future tense of have (shall have,
etc.) to the past participle.

Before I hear from you again, I shall have landed at Naples.

The future perfect tense is rare except in very formal writing.

243. The forms of the past participle will be studied in § 334. Meanwhile, the
following practical rule will serve every purpose:—

The past participle is that verb-form which is used after I have.

Examples: [I have] mended,

tried,

swept,

bought,

broken,

forgotten,

found,

sunk,

dug.

244. A verb-phrase made by prefixing having to the past participle is called the
perfect participle.

Having reached my destination, I stopped.

A verb-phrase made by prefixing to have to the past participle is called the

perfect infinitive.

I am sorry to have missed you.

245. Three forms of the verb are so important that they are called the principal
parts. These are:—

(1) the first person singular of the present;

(2) the first person singular of the past;

(3) the past participle.

Present Past Past Participle

(I) walk (I) walked walked

(I) think (I) thought thought

(I) see (I) saw seen

(I) come (I) came come

(I) make (I) made made

VOICE—ACTIVE AND PASSIVE

246. Voice is that property of verbs which indicates whether the subject acts or is
acted upon.

There are two voices, active and passive.

1. A verb is in the active voice when it represents the subject as the doer of an
act.

Richard shot the bear.

Mr. Hardy builds carriages.

Dr. Wilson has cured my father.

2. A verb is in the passive voice when it represents the subject as the receiver or
the product of an action.

The bear was shot by Richard.

Carriages are built by Mr. Hardy.

My father has been cured by Dr. Wilson.

247. The passive voice of a verb is expressed by a verb-phrase made by prefixing

some form of the copula (is, was, etc.) to the past participle.

In the passive voice of the complete tenses, the past participle been follows the
proper form of the auxiliary have (as in the third example in § 246, 2).

The passive of the infinitive is made by prefixing to be (perfect, to have been) to

the past participle. Thus,—

Present infinitive passive: to be struck.

Perfect infinitive passive: to have been struck.

248. The following table gives the conjugation of the verb strike in the active and
passive of the six tenses:—

Active Voice Passive Voice

Present Tense

SINGULAR

1. I strike. 1. I am struck.

2. Thou strikest. 2. Thou art struck.

3. He strikes. 3. He is struck.

PLURAL

1. We strike. 1. We are struck.

2. You strike. 2. You are struck.

3. They strike. 3. They are struck.

Past Tense

SINGULAR

1. I struck. 1. I was struck.

2. Thou struckest. 2. Thou wast (or wert) struck.

3. He struck. 3. He was struck.

PLURAL

1. We struck. 1. We were struck.

2. You struck. 2. You were struck.

3. They struck. 3. They were struck.

Future Tense

SINGULAR

1. I shall strike. 1. I shall be struck.

2. Thou wilt strike. 2. Thou wilt be struck.

3. He will strike. 3. He will be struck.

PLURAL

1. We shall strike. 1. We shall be struck.

2. You will strike. 2. You will be struck.

3. They will strike. 3. They will be struck.

Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense

SINGULAR

1. I have struck. 1. I have been struck.

2. Thou hast struck. 2. Thou hast been struck.

3. He has struck. 3. He has been struck.

PLURAL

1. We have struck. 1. We have been struck.

2. You have struck. 2. You have been struck.

3. They have struck. 3. They have been struck.

Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense

SINGULAR

1. I had struck. 1. I had been struck.

2. Thou hadst struck. 2. Thou hadst been struck.

3. He had struck. 3. He had been struck.

PLURAL

1. We had struck. 1. We had been struck.

2. You had struck. 2. You had been struck.

3. They had struck. 3. They had been struck.

Future Perfect Tense

SINGULAR

1. I shall have struck. 1. I shall have been struck.

2. Thou wilt have struck. 2. Thou wilt have been struck.

3. He will have struck. 3. He will have been struck.

PLURAL

1. We shall have struck. 1. We shall have been struck.

2. You will have struck. 2. You will have been struck.

3. They will have struck. 3. They will have been struck.

Use of the Passive Voice

249. Any sentence of which the predicate is a transitive verb followed by an

object, may be changed from the active to the passive form without affecting the
sense.

Active. Richard shot the bear.

Passive. The bear was shot by Richard.

In this change, (1) bear, the object of the active verb shot, becomes the subject
of the passive verb was shot; and (2) Richard, the subject of the active verb shot,
becomes by Richard, an adverbial phrase, modifying the passive verb was shot. Thus
we have the rule:—

The object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive, and the subject
of the active verb becomes in the passive an adverbial phrase modifying the
predicate verb.

Active Voice Passive Voice

My cat caught a bird. A bird was caught by my cat.

Austin thanked Charles. Charles was thanked by Austin.

The bullet penetrated a tree. A tree was penetrated by the bullet.

Sargent painted that portrait. That portrait was painted by Sargent.

The fireman had saved the child. The child had been saved by the fireman.

250. Intransitive verbs are ordinarily used in the active voice only.

The bystanders laughed.

The watchdogs bark.

Snow is falling.

251. An intransitive verb followed by a preposition is often used in the passive,

the object of the preposition becoming the subject of the verb.

Active Voice Passive Voice

Everybody laughed at him. He was laughed at by everybody.

The attorney general has not yet passed upon this bill. This bill has not yet been
passed upon.

He has tampered with this lock. This lock has been tampered with.

The cart ran over me. I was run over by the cart.
Other examples are: talk about (= discuss),

look or inquire into (= investigate),

look upon (= regard),

jeer at (= deride),

reason with,

object to,

insist upon,

act upon.

Note. In this idiom, the preposition is treated like an ending attached to the verb
to make it transitive. In other words, laugh at, pass upon, etc., are treated as
compound verbs, and the object of the preposition is, in effect, the object of the
compound. In the passive, this object becomes the subject and the preposition (now
lacking an object) remains attached to the verb. The passive construction is well
established, but not always graceful.

252. The passive of some verbs of choosing, calling, naming, making, and thinking
may be followed by a predicate nominative (§ 88, 2).

Active Voice Passive Voice

(PREDICATE OBJECTIVE) (PREDICATE NOMINATIVE)

We elected John president. John was elected president.

The Roman people called the chief friend. The chief was called friend by the Roman
people.

The herald proclaimed him emperor. He was proclaimed emperor by the herald.

Note. In the active voice, these verbs may take two objects referring to the same
person or thing,—a direct object and a predicate objective (§ 104). In the passive,
the direct object becomes the subject, and the predicate objective becomes a
predicate nominative, agreeing with the subject (§ 88, 2).

Object of the Passive

253. When a verb takes both a direct and an indirect object, one of the two is
often retained after the passive, the other becoming the subject. Thus,—
1. The indirect object is retained.

Active Voice Passive Voice

My aunt gave me this watch. This watch was given me by my aunt.

We allowed them free choice. Free choice was allowed them.

He allowed each speaker an hour. An hour was allowed each speaker.

Congress granted me a pension. A pension was granted me.

Note. The preposition to is often inserted in the passive construction, especially

with a noun; as,—“A small pension was granted to Dr. Johnson.”

2. The direct object is retained.

Active Voice Passive Voice

We allowed them their choice. They were allowed their choice.

He allowed each speaker an hour. Each speaker was allowed an hour.

They showed me the way. I was shown the way.

Experience has taught me wisdom. I have been taught wisdom by experience.

The direct object after a passive verb is often called the retained object.

Note. This construction, though common, is avoided by many careful writers, except
in a few well-established idioms. Its habitual use gives one’s style a heavy and
awkward air. Instead of “He was given permission,” one may say “He received
permission”; instead of “I was given this watch by my aunt,” either “It was my aunt
who gave me this watch” or “This watch was a present from my aunt.”

254. The verb ask, which may take two direct objects,—one denoting the person, the
other the thing,—sometimes retains its second object in the passive construction (§
103).

Active. We asked him his opinion.

Passive. He was asked his opinion.

PROGRESSIVE VERB-PHRASES

255. In addition to the tense-forms already described, verbs have so-called

progressive forms.

The progressive form of a tense represents the action of the verb as going on or
continuing at the time referred to.
I ate my dinner.

I was eating my dinner.

While I was quietly reading by my fireside, strange things were taking place in the
square.

Both ate and was eating are in the past tense. But ate merely expresses a past
action, whereas was eating describes this action as continuing or in progress in
past time.

256. The progressive form is a verb-phrase made by prefixing to the present

participle some form of the verb to be.

Progressive Form Active Voice Present Tense

SINGULAR PLURAL

1. I am striking. 1. We are striking.

2. Thou art striking. 2. You are striking.

3. He is striking. 3. They are striking.

So in the other tenses:

Past I was striking, etc.

Future I shall be striking, etc.

Perfect I have been striking, etc.

Pluperfect I had been striking, etc.

Future perfect I shall have been striking, etc.

Passive Voice Present I am being struck, etc.

Past I was being struck, etc.

257. In the passive, the progressive forms are confined to the present and the past
tense.

He is being helped by his brother. [Present.]

I am being trained by Arthur Ray. [Present.]

When I called, tea was being served. [Past.]

258. In subordinate clauses, the verb is (in its various forms) with its subject is
often omitted in progressive phrases.
While waiting for the train, I bought a newspaper. [That is, While I was waiting.]

Though [he was] swimming vigorously, he could not stem the tide.

When [I am] reading, I like to have the light shine over my left shoulder.

In parsing, the omitted words should be supplied.

259. For such progressive forms as is building for is being built, see § 352.

EMPHATIC VERB-PHRASES

260. The present or the past of a verb in the active voice may be expressed with
emphasis by means of a verb-phrase consisting of do or did and the infinitive
without to.

Such a phrase is called the emphatic form of the present or past tense.

“I do see you” and “I did go” differ from “I see you” and “I went” merely in
emphasis. Hence do see is called the emphatic form of the present tense of see, and
did go the emphatic form of the past tense of go.

261. In questions and in negative statements the emphatic forms are used without
the effect of emphasis.

Did you go? I did not go.

Note. Do often stands for some other verb which has just been used: as, “Jack swims
better than I do,” “You looked as tired as she did.” This idiom comes from the
omission of the infinitive in the verb-phrase:—“Jack swims better than I do
[swim].”

In poetry and older English the verb-phrase with do or did in declarative sentences
often carries no emphasis, but merely takes the place of the present or past: as,
—“The serpent beguiled me, and I did eat.”

MOOD OF VERBS

262. Mood is that property of verbs which shows the manner in which the action or
state is expressed.

Mood (or mode) is derived from the Latin word modus, “manner.”

Compare the following sentences, noting the form of the verb in each:

Richard is quiet.
Is Richard quiet?

If Richard were quiet, I might study.

Richard, be quiet.

In the first and second sentences, the form is is used to assert or question a
fact; in the third, the form were expresses a condition or supposition that is
contrary to fact; in the fourth, the form be expresses a command or request.

The difference in form seen in the verb in these sentences is called a difference
of mood.

263. There are three moods,—the indicative, the imperative, and the subjunctive.

1. The indicative is the mood of simple assertion or interrogation, but it is used

in other constructions also.

2. The imperative is the mood of command or request.

3. The subjunctive mood is used in certain special constructions of wish,

condition, and the like.

Thus, in the examples in § 262, is is in the indicative, were in the subjunctive,

and be in the imperative mood.

I. INDICATIVE MOOD

264. The ordinary forms of the indicative mood in the active and the passive voice
and in all six tenses,—present, past, future, perfect (or present perfect),
pluperfect (or past perfect), and future perfect,—may be seen in the table on pp.
108–110.

For the progressive form of the indicative, see § 256; for the emphatic form, see §
260.

265. The commonest uses of the indicative mood are in statements or questions as to
matters of fact; but it may express almost any other form of thought. Thus,

Time and tide wait for no man. [Assertion.]

How goes the world with you? [Interrogation.]

How it rains! [Exclamation.]

If the river rises, the dam will be swept away. [Supposition.]

I suspect that he has absconded. [Doubt.]

I hope that John will come soon. [Desire.]

Though Ellen dislikes algebra, she never shirks. [Concession.]

You will report for duty immediately. [Command.]

Will you allow me to use your knife? [Request.]

Note. The indicative and the subjunctive were originally quite distinct in form,
and each had its own set of constructions. But, as our language has grown simpler
in its structure, the forms of these two moods have become almost identical, and
the uses of the indicative have been greatly multiplied at the expense of the
subjunctive. Indeed, there is scarcely any variety of thought expressed by the
subjunctive or the imperative for which the indicative cannot also be employed. It
is therefore impossible to frame any satisfactory definition of the indicative. Its
functions are too varied to be included in one general statement. The indicative is
often described as the mood which asserts thought as a fact, and the subjunctive as
the mood which expresses thought as supposition (or as mere thought). But the
indicative, as well as the subjunctive, may express supposition, condition, doubt,
desire, concession, etc. Hence the definitions in § 263 are as exact as the facts
of the language allow. All the efforts of grammarians to devise more “accurate”
definitions break down when tested by actual usage.

II. IMPERATIVE MOOD

266. The imperative is the mood of command or request.

Hurry!

Lie down.

Shut the door.

Have patience.

Light the lamp.

Show us the way.

Wait a moment.

Come to dinner.

The imperative has both voices, active and passive, but only one tense,—the
present. It has both numbers, the singular and the plural, but only one person, the
second. It has the same form for both the singular and the plural.

267. 1. The imperative active is the verb in its simplest form.

For examples, see § 266.

The imperative of the verb to be is be. Thus,—

Be brave.

Be careful.

Be sure you are right.

Be here at noon.

2. The imperative passive is a verb-phrase consisting of be and a past participle.

Be trusted rather than feared.

Study your failures and be instructed by them.

268. The subject of an imperative is seldom expressed unless it is emphatic.

The subject, when expressed, may precede the imperative: as,—You sit here.

Note. In older English, the subject often followed the imperative: as,—Go thou, Go
you, Hear ye. This use is now confined to the solemn style and to poetry.

269. The emphatic form of the imperative consists of the imperative do, followed by
the infinitive without to.

Do tell me what he said.

Do stand still.

The form with do is often used when the subject is expressed as,—Do you remain.

270. Prohibition (or negative command) is commonly expressed by means of the form
with do.

Do not open a closed door without knocking.

Do not forget to say “thank you.”

In poetry and the solemn style prohibition is often expressed by the simple
imperative with not.

Tell me not what too well I know.

Devise not evil against thy neighbor.

Seek not to learn my name.

271. Commands are sometimes expressed in the indicative by means of shall or will
(§§ 239–240).
Thou shalt not steal.

You will leave the room immediately.

For such expressions as “Forward!” “Off with you!” and the like, see § 530.

For the imperative in conditions, see § 418.

III: SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

Forms of the Subjunctive

272. The subjunctive mood is used in certain special constructions of wish,

condition, and the like.

In older English, the subjunctive forms were common in a variety of uses, as they
still are in poetry and the solemn style. In ordinary prose, however, subjunctive
forms are rare, and in conversation they are hardly ever heard, except in the case
of the copula be.

The subjunctive forms of be are the following:—

Subjunctive Mood Present Tense

SINGULAR PLURAL

1. If I be. 1. If we be.

2. If thou be. 2. If you be.

3. If he be. 3. If they be.

Past Tense

SINGULAR PLURAL

1. If I were. 1. If we were.

2. If thou wert. 2. If you were.

3. If he were. 3. If they were.

Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense

SINGULAR PLURAL

1. If I have been. 1. If we have been.

2. If thou have been. 2. If you have been.

3. If he have been. 3. If they have been.

Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense

SINGULAR PLURAL

1. If I had been. 1. If we had been.

2. If thou hadst been. 2. If you had been.

3. If he had been. 3. If they had been.

If is used in the paradigm because it is in clauses beginning with if that the

subjunctive is commonest in modern English; but if is of course no part of the
subjunctive inflection.

273. In other verbs, the subjunctive active has the same forms as the indicative,
except in the second and third persons singular of the present and the perfect,
which are like the first person:—

Present Perfect

1. If I strike. 1. If I have struck.

2. If thou strike. 2. If thou have struck.

3. If he strike. 3. If he have struck.

In the passive subjunctive, the subjunctive forms of the copula (§ 272) are used as
auxiliaries:—present, If I be struck; past, If I were struck; perfect, If I have
been struck; pluperfect, If I had been struck. (See table, p. 304.)

274. Progressive verb-phrases in the subjunctive may be formed by means of the

copula:—present, If I be striking; past, If I were striking. The present is rare;
the past is common.

Uses of the Subjunctive

Subjunctive in Wishes and Exhortations

275. The subjunctive is often used in wishes or prayers.

Angels and ministers of grace defend us!

Heaven help him!

The saints preserve us!

God bless you!

Long live the king!

O that I had listened to him!

O that we were rid of him!

In the first five examples, the wish is expressed in an independent sentence. In

the last two, the construction is subordinate,—the that-clause being the object of
an unexpressed “I wish” (§ 407).

276. The subjunctive be is often omitted when it may easily be supplied.

Peace [be] to his ashes!

Honor [be] to his memory!

Honor [be] to whom honor is due!

277. Wishes are often introduced by may or would.

May you never want!

Would that he were safe!

Would you were with us! [For Would that.]

May and would in such expressions were originally subjunctives; would stands for I
would, that is, I should wish. Want in the first example is an infinitive without
to (§ 311). For wishes expressed by the infinitive, see § 320.

278. Exhortations in the first person plural sometimes take the subjunctive in
elevated or poetical style.

Hear we the king!

Join we in a hymn of praise!

Exhortation is ordinarily expressed by let us followed by the infinitive without

to.

Let us join hands.

Let us have peace.

Let’s camp here.

Let is a verb in the imperative mood, us is its object, and the infinitive (join,
have, camp) depends on let.
Subjunctives in Concessions, Conditions, etc.

279. The subjunctive is used after though, although, to express an admission or

concession not as a fact but as a supposition.

Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him.

Though he were to beg this on his knees, I should still refuse.

When the concession is stated as an admitted fact, the indicative is regular.

Although he is a foreigner, he speaks good English.

Though he sometimes sings, he is not now in good voice.

280. After if and unless, expressing condition, the subjunctive may be used in a
variety of ways.

1. If this be gold, our fortune is made. [It may or may not be gold.]

2. If he confess, I shall overlook the offence. [He may or may not confess.]

3. Unless he confess, he cannot be convicted. [He may or may not confess.]

4. If this were gold, our fortune would be made. [It is not gold; hence our fortune
is not made.]

5. If he stood before me at this moment, I should tell him my opinion. [He does not
stand before me; hence I do not tell him.]

6. If he had confessed, I should have overlooked his fault. [He did not confess;
hence I did not overlook it.]

7. Unless he had confessed, he could not have been convicted. [He did confess;
hence he was convicted.]

In conditional clauses, the present subjunctive denotes either present or future

time. It puts the supposed case doubtfully, but not necessarily as improbable. (See
examples 1–3.)

The past subjunctive refers to present time. It implies that the supposed case is
not now a fact. (See examples 4 and 5.)

The pluperfect (or past perfect) subjunctive refers to past time. It implies that
the supposed case was not a fact. (See 6 and 7.)

For details of conditional sentences, see pp. 167–172.

281. Concession or condition may be expressed by the subjunctive without though or

if, the verb preceding the subject, which is sometimes omitted.

I. Concession
Try as we may, we cannot swim to that rock.

Say what he will, he can never convince me.

Come what will, I’ll stand my ground.

Be that as it may, my mind is made up.

II. Condition

Were I asked, I could tell all the facts. [If I were asked, etc.]

Had I known, I would have written to you. [If I had known, etc.]

I shall be twenty years old, come Tuesday. [If Tuesday come, etc.]

I will go, rain or shine. [If it rain, or if it shine, etc.]

Be he prince or be he pauper, every guest is welcome here.

Note. The subjunctive in these concessive and conditional uses is really the same
as that in exhortations (§ 278). “Try [we] as we may” means literally, “Let us try
as hard as we can,” and this has the force of “However hard we try” or “Although we
try ever so hard.”

282. After as if (as though), the past subjunctive is used.

He looks as if he were about to speak. [Not: as if he was about to speak.]

I act as if I were crazy. [Not: as if I was crazy.]

283. The subjunctive may express not what is or was, but what would be or would
have been, the case.

It were safer to travel by day. [It would be safer, etc.]

I had been wiser had I forded the river. [I should have been wiser if I had.]

This construction is old-fashioned. Modern English commonly uses should (or would)
be, should (or would) have been, instead.

284. The subjunctive is occasionally used after that, lest, before, until, etc., in
subordinate clauses referring to the future and commonly expressing purpose or
expectation.

Take heed that he escape not. [Purpose.]

Give him food lest he perish. [Purpose.]

Let us tarry until he come. [Expectation.]

This construction is confined to poetry and the solemn or formal style. In ordinary
language the indicative or a verb-phrase with may is used.

Take heed that he does not escape.

Give him food in order that he may not perish.

Let us wait till he comes.

285. The past subjunctive had is common in had rather and similar phrases.

I had rather wait a day.

You had better leave the room.

He had as lief go as stay.

Note. Had in this construction is sometimes condemned as erroneous or inelegant;

but the idiom is well-established.

Might better, would better, and would rather may be used instead of had better,
etc.; but would better is improper in the first person.

286. The subjunctive forms are often replaced by verb-phrases containing the
auxiliaries may, might, could, would, should.

1. In wishes (§ 277).

May you live long and prosper!

May he never repent this act!

Ah, could I but live a hundred years!

2. In concessions and conditions (§§ 279–280).

Though {I | you | he} should fail, there would still be hope.

If {I | you | he} should fail, all would be lost.

3. In sentences expressing not what is or was, but what would be or would have
been, the case (§ 283).

{I should | You would | He would} write to Charles if I knew his address.

It would have been better to telegraph.

4. In subordinate clauses introduced by that, lest, before, until, etc. (§ 284).

I will take care that nothing may prevent.

I took care that nothing {might | should} prevent.

The general determined to wait until fresh troops should arrive.

POTENTIAL VERB-PHRASES

USE OF MODAL AUXILIARIES

287. Several auxiliary verbs are used to form verb-phrases indicating ability,
possibility, obligation, or necessity.

Such verb-phrases are called potential phrases, that is, “phrases of possibility.”

The auxiliary verbs used in potential phrases are:—may, can, must, might, could,
would, and should. They are called modal auxiliaries and are followed by the
infinitive without to.

We may ask him a few questions.

I can manage a motor car.

You must inquire the way.

He might give you a chance.

I could show you his house if you would permit me.

I should enjoy a sea-voyage.

Note. The fact that give, etc., in such phrases as can give, are infinitives may be
seen by comparing “I can strike” with “I am able to strike,” “I may strike” with “I
am permitted to strike,” “I must strike” with “I am obliged to strike,” and so on.
In earlier periods of the language, when the infinitive had a special ending (-an
or -en), the nature of the construction was unmistakable.

288. Potential phrases may be arranged in tables of conjugation, like that on pp.
108–110. They are often called, collectively, the potential mood.

Active Voice Present Tense

SINGULAR PLURAL
1. I may strike.34 1. We may strike.

2. Thou mayst strike. 2. You may strike.

3. He may strike. 3. They may strike.

Past Tense

1. I might strike.35 1. We might strike.

2. Thou mightst strike. 2. You might strike.

3. He might strike. 3. They might strike.

Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense

1. I may have struck.36 1. We may have struck.

2. Thou mayst have struck. 2. You may have struck.

3. He may have struck. 3. They may have struck.

Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense

1. I might have struck.37 1. We might have struck.

2. Thou mightst have struck. 2. You might have struck.

3. He might have struck. 3. They might have struck.

Passive Voice Present Tense

I may be struck, etc. We may be struck, etc.

Past Tense

I might be struck, etc. We might be struck, etc.

Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense

I may have been struck, etc. We may have been struck, etc.

Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense

I might have been struck, etc. We might have been struck, etc.

289. Can (past tense, could) regularly indicates that the subject is able to do
something.

John can ride a bicycle.

Harry could swim.

290. May (past tense, might) indicates (1) permission, (2) possibility or doubtful
intention, (3) a wish.
(1) You may borrow my pencil.

I told him that he might join our party.

(2) He may accept my offer.

You might not like it.

(3) May good fortune attend you!

291. In asking permission, the proper form is “May I?” not “Can I?” With negatives,
however, can is more common than may, except in questions. Thus,—

Question. May I (or mayn’t I) play ball this morning?

Answer. No, you cannot; but you may play this afternoon.

292. Must expresses necessity or obligation.

We must all die sometime.

You must wait for the train.

You must not be discouraged by failure.

Note. Must, though originally a past tense, is in modern English almost always used
as a present. Past necessity may be expressed by had to with the infinitive: as,—“I
had to wait for the train.”

293. Ought with the present infinitive, expresses a present duty or moral
obligation; with the perfect infinitive, a past duty or obligation. Should is often
used in the same sense.

I ought to write that letter. [Present.]

You ought not to object. [Present.]

This roof ought to be mended. [Present.]

I ought to have known better. [Past.]

Your dog ought not to have been unleashed. [Past.]

You should be careful. [Present.]

The garden should have been weeded yesterday. [Past.]

Note. Ought is really an old past tense of the verb owe, but is now always a
present. Its former meaning may be seen in Dame Quickly’s “You ought him a thousand
pound” (Shakspere, 1 Henry IV, iii. 3. 152).
Had should never be prefixed to ought.

Correct Incorrect

You ought to stay at home. You had ought to stay at home.

We oughtn’t to make so much noise. We hadn’t ought to make so much noise.

John ought to begin, oughtn’t he? John ought to begin, hadn’t he?

294. Should and ought sometimes express what would certainly be expected in the
case supposed.

Three weeks {should | ought to} suffice.

If the train is on time, he {should | ought to} arrive at six.

295. Would in all three persons sometimes indicates habitual action in the past.

I would gaze at the sea for hours at a time.

Whenever we asked Edward about his adventures, he would begin to talk of something
else.

SPECIAL RULES FOR SHOULD AND WOULD

296. Should is the past tense of shall, and would is the past tense of will. Hence
the rules for should and would are similar to those for shall and will (§§ 233–
239). But there is much variation, especially in subordinate clauses.

I. IN SIMPLE SENTENCES AND INDEPENDENT CLAUSES

297. Except in certain kinds of subordinate clauses, the distinction between should
and would is practically the same as that between shall and will.

When the auxiliary verb expresses futurity without any idea of wishing, consenting,
or the like, the forms are as follows:—

Assertions (Declarative) SINGULAR PLURAL

1. I should fall. 1. We should fall.

2. Thou wouldst fall. 2. You would fall.

3. He would fall. 3. They would fall.

Questions (Interrogative) SINGULAR PLURAL

1. Should I fall? 1. Should we fall?

2. Shouldst thou fall? 2. Should you fall?

3. Would he fall? 3. Would they fall?

298. Common errors are the use of I would for I should in assertions, and that of
Would I? and Would you? for Should I? and Should you? in questions.

The correct forms are shown in the following sentences.

I. I should (we should) and I would (we would) in assertions:—

1. I should break my neck if I fell.

2. I should hesitate to try this experiment.

3. I shouldn’t wonder if he escaped.

4. We should regret any misunderstanding.

5. I should wish to examine the plans again before deciding.

6. I should be glad to accept any fair offer.

7. I would give five dollars for a ticket.

8. I would help you if I could.

9. I would never agree to such a proposition.

10. We would rather die than surrender.

11. We would pay our bill to-day if we had the money.

12. I would gladly accept any fair offer.

In the first six examples, I (or we) should is correct, because the auxiliary gives
no suggestion of the speaker’s will (or volition). In the last six, on the
contrary, the speaker’s willingness or desire is plainly expressed by the
auxiliary, and I (or we) would is therefore used.

Note. In such sentences as the fifth,—“I should wish to examine the plans again
before deciding,”—wish expresses volition. Hence “I would wish” is incorrect, for
it expresses volition twice and can mean only “I desire to wish.” On the same
principle we say “I should prefer,” “I should be glad,” etc. (see § 236).

Sometimes either I would or I should may be used, but with a difference in meaning.
Thus, in the eighth example, “I should help you” might be substituted for “I would
help you.” This change, however, makes the remark sound less cordial and
sympathetic; for I should (unlike I would) gives no hint of the speaker’s desire to
be of service.

II. Should I (or we)? in questions:—

1. Should I break my neck if I fell?

2. Should I be poisoned if I ate those berries?

3. Should I take cold without my overcoat?

4. Should I disturb you if I were to practise my music lesson?

5. Should we run aground if we missed the channel?

Note. Would I? is confined, for the most part, to questions in which one repeats
the words or thought of another. Thus,—“You would give five dollars for a ticket.”
“Would I? No, I wouldn’t!” In this use it is chiefly colloquial.

III. Should you? and Would you? in questions:—

1. Should you drown if the boat were to capsize? [Yes, I should drown, for I do not
know how to swim.]

2. Should you despair if this plan were a failure? [No, I should not, for I have
other resources.]

3. Should you think that ten yards of velvet would be enough? [Yes, I should think
so.]

4. Should you be offended if I were to speak frankly? [No, I should not be

offended.]

5. Should you wish to examine the plans again before deciding? [Yes, I should (see
note under I, above).]

6. Would you wear a hat or a cap? [I would wear a cap if I were you.]

7. Would you study Greek if you were in my place? [Yes, I would.]

8. Would you accept my apology if it were offered? [Certainly, I would accept it

gladly.]

9. Would you be so kind as to lend me your compasses? [Certainly I would lend them,
if I had not lost them.]

10. Would you allow me to use your name as a reference? [I would.]

The choice between should and would in these sentences corresponds to the form
expected in the answer (§ 238).
299. The chief occasions on which Would you? is correct are:—(1) in asking advice
in a matter of doubt, and (2) in asking consent or permission.

In examples 6 and 7 in § 298, III, the speaker asks advice; in 8, 9, and 10, he
asks consent or permission.

300. Note that the proper forms are I should like, Should I like? and Should you
like?

I should like to read that book.

Should I like to go to Rome? Indeed, I should.

Should you like to receive a copy of our catalogue? [I should like to receive one.]

Note. Would is very common in these phrases, even among writers of repute, but it
is still contrary to the best usage. The reason for should is the same as in I
should wish (§ 298, I, note).

301. I’d and we’d are contractions of I would and we would. Hence they can never
stand for I should and we should (§ 235).

302. Should in the second and third persons may be used in simple declarative
sentences and independent clauses to express the will of the speaker (§ 239).

If I had my way, you should be prosecuted. [That is: I would take care that you
were prosecuted.]

If I had the money, you should be paid immediately. [Compare: You shall be paid.]

If I were you, she should not regret her generosity. [Compare: She shall not regret
it.]

II. SHOULD AND WOULD IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

303. In some kinds of subordinate clauses, the use of should and would differs
considerably from that in simple sentences and principal clauses.

The following classes require attention:—(1) clauses of purpose or expectation (§

304), (2) conditional and concessive clauses (§ 305), (3) clauses expressing
volition not that of the subject (§ 306), (4) clauses stating something as an idea
(§ 307), (5) indirect discourse (§ 308).

304. In subordinate clauses expressing the purpose or expectation with which

anything is done, shall and should are used in all three persons.

Charleton took great pains that {I | you | they} should understand the details of
the treaty.

Scott {is | was} very careful that nothing {shall | should} interfere with his
plans.
They took every precaution lest {I | you | he} should suspect the plot.

Anderson waited patiently until {I | you | they} should arrive with the horses.

We strained every nerve to reach the cave before the storm should break.

305. In conditional or concessive clauses expressing a future supposed case

doubtfully, shall and should are used in all three persons; but will and would are
proper when the subject is thought of as wishing or consenting.

1. What would happen if {I | you | he} should not carry out the commander’s
instructions?

2. If {I | you | he} should miss the steamer, our friends would be alarmed.

3. Whoever {shall | should} violate this law {shall | should} pay the penalty.
[That is: If anybody shall violate, etc.]

4. Whenever {I | you | he} shall find an opportunity, let us try the experiment.
[That is: If ever I shall find, etc.]

5. He promised to assist you whenever you should need help. [Whenever = if ever.]

6. Though {we | you | they} should fail, others would make the attempt.
[Concession.]

7. Though Evans should disappoint me, I should not lose confidence in him.

8. Vernon will do his part if {I | you | they} will coöperate with him.

9. If {I | you | he} will only make the effort, success is certain.

10. Edmund would reveal the secret if {I | you | they} would assist him in his
search for the treasure.

11. If we would take pains, our parents would be satisfied.

12. Whoever will join us may be sure of a pleasant and profitable journey. [That
is: If any one will join us, he may be sure, etc.]

When a future supposed case is admitted or conceded as certain, will may be used in
the second and third persons to denote mere futurity.

Though {you | he} will certainly fail, {you | he} may make the attempt.

Though the ship will not sink for some hours, let us take to the boats.

306. Shall and should are often used in the second and third persons in subordinate
clauses to express volition which is not that of the subject.

Templeton insists that you shall accompany him.

This letter directs where you shall station yourself.

We gave orders that the gates should be closed.

My wish is that {you | he} should remain at home.

The law prescribed when and to whom the tax should be paid.

307. When a clause with that states something, not as a fact but as an idea to be
considered, should is the proper auxiliary in all three persons.

I am not surprised that you should find your lesson rather difficult. [That is:
“When I consider the matter, I do not find the idea surprising.” In “I am not
surprised that you find,” etc., the subordinate clause makes the statement as a
fact.]

It is strange that Tom should neglect his swimming lessons. [Contrast: It is

strange that Tom neglects.]

That Napoleon should have chafed at captivity is only natural. [Contrast: That
Napoleon chafed.]

308. For shall and will, should and would, in indirect discourse, see §§ 438–439.

THE INFINITIVE

309. The infinitive is a verb-form that has some of the properties of a noun (§
28). Its two-sided character comes out clearly when it is used as the subject of a
sentence.

1. To hope is our only resource.

2. To flatter is not my custom.

3. To sleep was an impossibility.

4. To surrender seemed disgraceful.

5. To choose wisely was my greatest difficulty.

6. To scale the wall was the work of a moment.

Each of these infinitives (to hope, to flatter, etc.) is a noun, for each is the
simple subject of a sentence. Besides, an ordinary noun may be substituted for each
infinitive with no change in meaning; as,—“Hope is our only resource”; “Flattery is
not my custom”; “Sleep was an impossibility.”

But each of these infinitives is also a verb,—for (1) it expresses action; (2) it
may be modified by an adverb, as in No. 5; (3) it takes an object if it is
transitive, as in No. 6.

An infinitive (as the examples show) has regularly no subject and therefore lacks
both number and person. Hence it is not bound by the general rule for the agreement
of a verb with its subject (§ 222). From this fact it derives its name, infinitive,
which means “unrestricted” or “free from limitations.”38

310. The infinitive is a verb-form which partakes of the nature of a noun. It

expresses action or state in the simplest possible way, without person or number.

It is commonly preceded by the preposition to, which is called the sign of the
infinitive.

To is not, in strictness, a part of the infinitive, but it may be so regarded for

convenience, since the infinitive, in most of its uses, is preceded by to.

Note. To sometimes stands for an infinitive in careless speech: as,—“You may go if

you wish to” (that is, “if you wish to go”). Such expressions are to be avoided. It
is better to say, “You may go if you wish.”

311. The infinitive often lacks to, especially in verb-phrases with the auxiliaries
will, shall, may, can, must, might, could, would, should, do, did. For examples,
see pp. 102, 114, 124.

312. The infinitive has two tenses,—the present and the perfect.

1. The present infinitive is the verb in its simplest form, usually preceded by to:
as,—to live, to teach, to bind, to strike.

2. The perfect infinitive is made by prefixing the infinitive of the auxiliary verb
have to the past participle (§ 243): as,—to have lived, to have taught, to have
bound, to have struck.

313. An infinitive may be modified by an adverb, an adverbial phrase, or an

adverbial clause.

To write legibly is a valuable accomplishment.

It would be useless to search longer.

They allowed him to go in peace. [Adverbial phrase.]

To dive among those weeds would be folly.

Theodore promises to come when I send for him. [Adverbial clause.]

No modifier should be inserted between to and the infinitive.

I beg you to inquire carefully into this matter. [Not: to carefully inquire.]

Mr. Harris moved to postpone the question indefinitely. [Not: to indefinitely

postpone.]

I expect always to be poor. [Not: to always be poor.]

Note. Careless writers pay slight attention to this rule, and some good writers and
speakers defy it, hoping to break it down. But it is unquestionably still in accord
with the best usage.

314. The infinitive may take an object if its meaning allows.

I long to visit Italy.

My mother feared to enter the house.

To launch a boat was impossible.

To grant your request is a pleasure.

To give him money is useless. [Money is the direct object of to give, and him the
indirect object.]

315. The infinitive is used in a variety of constructions,—(1) as a noun, (2) as an

adjective modifier or adverbial modifier, (3) in the so-called infinitive clause.

I. THE INFINITIVE AS NOUN

316. The infinitive is used in various noun constructions,—as subject, as predicate

nominative, as nominative of exclamation, as appositive, as object of certain
prepositions, as modifier.

317. An infinitive with or without a complement or modifiers, may be used as the

subject of a sentence, as a predicate nominative, or as an appositive.

To descend was extremely difficult. [Subject.]

To secure a seat was impossible.

To sing well requires practice.

His delight was to travel. [Predicate nominative.]

The governor’s policy is to wait.

My wish is to see you immediately.

To decide was to act. [The first infinitive is the subject, and the second is a
predicate nominative.]

Both alternatives, to advance and to retreat, seemed equally hazardous. [Apposition

with the subject.]

My first plan, to tunnel under the wall, proved a failure.

He has but one aim in life, to succeed. [Apposition with the object.]

I have written with a definite purpose, to dissuade you.

I give you three choices,—to buy, to lease, or to build.

318. An infinitive in the predicate is often in apposition with the expletive

subject it.

It was a pleasure to see him. [Instead of: To see him was a pleasure.]

It is easy to understand you.

It will be impossible to forget.

It proved very difficult to find evidence against him.

In this use the infinitive, though grammatically in apposition with it, is really
the subject of the thought (see § 120, 2).

319. The infinitive may be used as the object of the prepositions but, except,
about.

There was nothing to do but walk (or to walk).

He will do anything except resign (or except to resign).

We are about to object. [An idiom expressing futurity.]

The train is about to start.

Note. Can but and cannot but are distinct idioms. (1) In “I can but thank you,” but
is an adverb (= only). The sentence means: “I can only thank you—simply that and
nothing more!” (2) In “I cannot but thank you,” but is a preposition (= except).
The idiom is shortened from “I cannot choose but thank you,”—that is, “I have no
choice except to do so,” or, in other words, “I cannot help it.”

The infinitive after for (now a gross error) was once in good use: as,—

What sweeter music can we bring

Than a carol for to sing.—Herrick.

320. The infinitive may be used as a nominative of exclamation (§ 88, 4).

To sleep! perchance to dream!

To suffer and be silent!

O to be a boy again! [A wish.]

O to have lived in the brave days of old!

II. THE INFINITIVE AS A MODIFIER

321. An infinitive may be used as an adjective modifier of a noun or as an

adverbial modifier of an adjective.

In this use the infinitive is said to depend on the word which it modifies.

With Nouns (Adjective Modifier) With Adjectives (Adverbial Modifier)

An opportunity to advance came. The men are ready to advance.

Determination to win brings success. John is eager to win.

Willingness to oblige makes friends. I shall be glad to oblige you.

I wish I had the ability to swim. We are all able to swim.

His anxiety to please us was laughable. He is anxious to please everybody.

Note. This use is due to the fact that the infinitive with to is really a
prepositional phrase (§ 42). Thus, “determination to win” is equivalent to
“determination for victory,” and “eager to win” to “eager for victory.” The
adjective force of the infinitive comes out clearly in “nothing to eat,” where to
eat is practically synonymous with eatable.

In its adjective use, the present infinitive sometimes shows no distinction in

voice, so that the active and the passive are interchangeable: as,—“a house to let”
or “to be let”; “an axe to grind” or “to be ground.” In such expressions the active
form is usually preferable.

322. The infinitive without to may be used as an adjective modifier after the
direct object of see, hear, feel, and some other verbs of like meaning.

I saw the policeman arrest him.

Hear the sea roar!

Can you feel the ground tremble?

Ruth watched the tide come in.

In this use the infinitive is practically equivalent to a participle. Compare “I

heard him shout” with “I heard him shouting.” Hence the substantive may be regarded
as an object, and the infinitive as its modifier. But the construction closely
approaches that of an infinitive clause (§§ 324–325).

323. An infinitive may modify a verb (1) by completing its meaning, or (2) by
expressing the purpose of the action.
I. Complementary Infinitive

The ship began to roll.

The rain continued to fall heavily.

Every boy desires to succeed.

The officer neglected to watch his men.

The prisoners attempted to escape.

You promised to come to-night.

After dare, the complementary infinitive may or may not have to. Thus,—“I dare not
do it”; “Who will dare to speak?”

II. Infinitive of Purpose

He went to New York to study medicine.

He opened his lips to speak.

She closed her eyes to shut out the sight.

Elsa lifted the cover to see what was inside.

The conductor signalled to stop the train.

Harold waited to assist his teacher.

Both the complementary infinitive and the infinitive of purpose may be regarded as
adverbial phrases modifying the verb.

Note. After some verbs the infinitive approaches the construction of a pure noun
and is often regarded as an object. Thus,—“I desire to see you” (compare “I desire
a sight of you”). It is simpler, however, to regard all such infinitives as
complementary and to treat them as adverbial modifiers. For it is impossible to
distinguish the construction of the infinitive after certain adjectives (as in “I
am eager to see you”) from its construction after such verbs as wish and desire.
III. THE INFINITIVE CLAUSE

324. A peculiar infinitive construction often replaces a that-clause as the object

of a verb. Thus,—

I wished {that he should go. | him to go.}

In the first sentence, the noun clause that he should go is the object of wished;
in the second, this clause is replaced by him to go, but without any change in
meaning. This expression consists of two parts:—(1) him, a pronoun in the objective
case, which replaces the subject he; and (2) an infinitive to go, which replaces
the predicate should go. Thus it is plain that him to go is also a noun clause, of
which him is the subject, and to go the predicate. Such an expression is called an
infinitive clause.

325. A kind of clause, consisting of a substantive in the objective case followed

by an infinitive, may be used as the object of certain verbs.

Such clauses are called infinitive clauses, and the substantive is said to be the
subject of the infinitive.

The subject of an infinitive is in the objective case.

Infinitive clauses are used (1) after verbs of wishing, commanding, advising, and
the like, and (2) after some verbs of believing, declaring, and perceiving.39 Thus,
—

The colonel commanded them to charge [= that they should charge].

I believe him to be trustworthy [= that he is trustworthy].

The judge declared him to be a dangerous man [= that he was, etc.].

After a few verbs the infinitive without to is used in infinitive clauses.

Mr. Esmond bade his servant pack a portmanteau and get horses. [Compare: ordered
his servant to pack, etc.]

What makes him cry? [Compare: What causes him to cry?]

I let him sleep. [Compare: I allowed him to sleep.]

Note. Ordinarily the infinitive cannot assert and hence has no subject (§ 309). The
infinitive clause is, therefore, a peculiar exception, for him to go makes an
assertion as clearly as that he should go does. That him is really the subject of
to go and not the object of wished is manifest, for I wished him makes no sense.
The object of wished is the whole clause (him to go).

Originally, to be sure, the noun or pronoun in the objective was felt to be the
object of the main verb, and this relation may still be felt in “I ordered him to
go”; but even here the real object of ordered is the clause (as may be seen in “I
ordered the castle to be blown up”). The substantive has come to be the real
subject of the infinitive, and should be so treated in parsing.
326. A predicate pronoun after to be in an infinitive clause is in the objective
case, agreeing with the subject of the infinitive.

Care should be taken not to confuse this construction with the predicate nominative
(§ 88, 2).

Predicate Pronoun after to be Predicate Nominative

I believed it to be her. I believed that it was she.

We know the author to be him. We know that the author is he.

The author is known to be he.

He thought Richard to be me. He thought that Richard was I.

Richard was thought to be I.

We suspected the intruders to be them. We suspected that the intruders were they.

Note the case of the relatives and of the predicate pronouns in the following
sentences:—

A boy whom I thought to be honest deceived me. [Whom is the subject of the
infinitive to be and is therefore in the objective case.]

A boy who, I thought, was honest deceived me. [Who is the subject of was and is
therefore nominative. I thought is parenthetical (§ 502).]

A boy whom I believe to be him just passed me.

A boy who, I believe, was he, just passed me.

327. An infinitive clause may be the object of the preposition for. Thus,—

I wrote for him to come. [The clause him to come is the object of for; him is the
subject of to come.]

They are waiting on the shore

For the bark to take them home.—Noel.

I long for him to come back.

328. An infinitive clause with for may be used as a subject, as a predicate

nominative, or as the object of a preposition.

For us to delay would be fatal to your enterprise. [Compare: Our delay would be
fatal.]

Our best plan is for the boat to shoot the rapids. [Predicate nominative agreeing
with the subject plan.]

I see no way out of the difficulty except for them to offer an apology. [Compare:
except the offer of an apology on their part.]

PARTICIPLES

329. Certain words unite in themselves some of the properties of adjectives with
some of the properties of verbs. Such words are called participles (§ 31). Thus,—

Shattered and sinking, but gallantly returning the enemy’s fire, the frigate
drifted out to sea.

Shattered, sinking, and returning are verb-forms which are in some respects similar
to infinitives: for (1) they express action; (2) they have no subject to agree
with, and hence have neither person nor number; and (3) one of them takes a direct
object. They differ from infinitives, however, in that they resemble, not nouns,
but adjectives, for they describe the substantive frigate to which they belong.

Such verb-forms are called participles, because they share (or participate in) the
nature of adjectives.

330. The participle is a verb-form which has no subject, but which partakes of the
nature of an adjective and expresses action or state in such a way as to describe
or limit a substantive.

Who thundering comes on blackest steed?—Byron.

Clinging to the horns of the altar, voiceless she stood.—De Quincey.

Deserted, surrounded, outnumbered, and with everything at stake, he did not even
deign to stand on the defensive.—Macaulay.

Shrouded in such baleful vapors, the genius of Burns was never seen in clear azure
splendor, enlightening the world.—Carlyle.

FORMS OF PARTICIPLES

331. Verbs have three participles,—the present, the past, and the perfect.

332. The present participle ends in -ing. It usually describes an action as taking
place at the same time with some other action.

Tom came sauntering up the path.

The beggar shambled down the steps, grumbling.

Reaching for the flower, I lost my balance.

333. The present participle often refers to time preceding that denoted by the
predicate verb.

Rising from his chair, he bowed. [That is, when he had risen.]

Learning that your brother was in trouble, I hastened to his aid.

334. The past participle is always associated with the idea of past time or
completed action.

1. The past participle of a weak verb has the same form as the past tense.40

Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle

I mend chairs. I mended the chairs. The chairs are mended.

I sweep the rooms. I swept the rooms. The rooms are swept.

I seek treasure. I sought treasure. Treasure is sought.

I lose money. I lost money. The money is lost.

2. The past participle of strong verbs shows a change from the vowel of the present
tense.

All strong verbs had originally the ending en (n) in the past participle, but this
ending has been lost in many verbs.

Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle

He speaks. He spoke. (He has) spoken.

He draws. He drew. (He has) drawn.

He sings. He sang. (He has) sung.

He wins. He won. (He has) won.

The forms show great variety and must be learned by practice. (See pp. 291–297 for
a list.)

335. The perfect participle is made by prefixing having to the past participle.

Having mended the watch, I sent it to the owner.

Having lost his money, James was forced to walk home.

336. The present participle is used in forming the progressive verb-phrases (§§
255–259).

The past participle is used in forming the complete tenses (§§ 242–244) and the
passive voice (§ 247).

CONSTRUCTIONS OF PARTICIPLES

337. Since the participle has adjective properties, its constructions are in the
main like those of adjectives.

338. A participle is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or

limits.

Rupert, missing his companion, stepped to the door. [The present participle missing
belongs to the subject Rupert.]

Rising, she opened the window. [Rising belongs to she.]

I heard the rain falling. [Falling belongs to the object rain.]

Tom’s arm, broken by the blow, hung useless. [The past participle broken belongs to
the subject arm.]

Having climbed the hill with great difficulty, I stopped to rest. [The perfect
participle having climbed belongs to the subject I.]

339. A participle should not be used without some substantive to which it may
belong.

Right: Entering the room, we saw a strange sight. [The participle entering belongs
to the pronoun we.]

Wrong: Entering the room, a strange sight was seen. [Since there is no substantive
to which entering can belong, it has no construction.]

Apparent exceptions are concerning, considering, pending, generally speaking, etc.

The first three may be classed as prepositions (§ 355), the last as an independent
participle.

We fought every day, and, generally speaking, twice every day.—De Quincey.

Note. The rule in § 339 does not apply to such phrases as on entering, after
investigating, etc., in which the words in -ing are not participles, but verbal
nouns (§ 348). Thus the following sentences are grammatical:—“On entering the room,
a strange sight appeared”; “After investigating the subject, the plan was adopted.”
Such expressions, however, should be used with caution, since they are sometimes
awkward or ambiguous.

340. A participle may be modified by an adverb, an adverbial phrase, or an

adverbial clause.

Smiling brightly, she extended her hand. [Adverb.]

He leaped forward, shrieking with all his might. [Adverbial phrase.]

Laughing until he cried, he sank into a chair. [Adverbial clause.]

341. A participle may take an object if its meaning allows.

I found the old man mending his net.

Lifting the box, he moved toward the door.

Giving me a friendly nod, he passed on. [Here nod is the direct object of giving,
and me is the indirect object.]

The participle, with its modifiers and such other words as are attached to it, is
sometimes called a participial phrase.

342. A participle may be used as a pure adjective.

A grinning boy confronted me.

A battered hat hung on the peg.

Kate was playing with a broken doll.

We could hear a rushing stream.

Willing hands make light work.

He was struck by a spent ball.

343. The past participle is often used as a predicate adjective expressing state or
condition.

This construction is easily confused with the passive of verbs. The distinction may
be seen in the following examples:—

The rain began to fall heavily, and every time a gust of wind struck us we were
drenched by it.

When the rain at last ceased, we were drenched [that is, very wet].

In the first sentence, were drenched is the past passive of the verb drench
(compare the active “every time a gust of wind struck us, it drenched us”). In the
second, the participle drenched expresses mere condition, and is therefore a
predicate adjective. The distinction, however, is not always sharp, and in cases of
doubt the phrase may be taken together as a passive verb.

Note. The real test is the following. Whenever a person or thing is distinctly
present to the mind as the doer of the action, we have a passive verb-phrase.
Whenever, on the other hand, the participle merely describes condition with no
thought of its being the result of an antecedent act, the construction is that of a
predicate adjective (§ 172, 3).

Nominative Absolute

344. A substantive, with the participle belonging to it, is often used to make a
peculiar form of adverbial modifying phrase: as,—

The wind failing, we lowered the sail.

Here the wind failing is equivalent to an adverbial phrase (on the failure of the
wind) or an adverbial clause (when the wind failed). It defines the time of the
action.

{The wind failing, | On the failure of the wind, | When the wind failed,} we
lowered the sail.

345. A substantive, with a participle, may express the cause, time, or

circumstances of an action.

This is called the absolute construction.

The substantive is in the nominative case and is called a nominative absolute.

My knife slipping, I cut myself severely. [The phrase my knife slipping is

equivalent to because my knife slipped: it expresses cause.]

Two days having elapsed, we again set forward. [The phrase in italics is equivalent
to when two days had elapsed: it expresses time.]

Evenings he read aloud, his wife sewing by his side. [The phrase expresses one of
the circumstances that attended the reading.]

This done, proceed to business. [The phrase this done is equivalent to the clause
since (or when) this is done, and indicates cause or time.]

Note. This construction is called absolute (that is, “free” or “loosened”) because
the substantive is not in any one of the constructions (subject, object,
apposition, etc.) which ordinarily attach nouns grammatically to other words in the
sentence. Nevertheless, the whole phrase, though standing apart from the rest of
the sentence, is in meaning an adverbial modifier of some verb.
346. The participle being is sometimes omitted in the absolute construction.

Allen once mayor, my chance of advancement would be ruined. [That is: Allen once
being mayor.]

Peter stood before me, his hands in his pockets.

His clothing in shreds, he presented a sorry sight.

VERBAL NOUNS IN -ING (PARTICIPIAL NOUNS)

347. English has a large and important class of verbal nouns that end in -ing, and
that serve as the names of actions.

These are identical in form with present participles, for which they are frequently
mistaken. The distinction, however, is clear, for the present participle is never
used as the name of an action. Hence no such word in -ing that is a subject or an
object, or stands in any other noun construction, can be a participle.

While I was travelling in Mexico, I met with an accident. [Participle.]

Travelling broadens the mind. [Verbal noun, used as subject.]

He enjoys travelling. [Verbal noun, used as object of a verb.]

He spends his time in travelling. [Verbal noun, object of a preposition.]

Tom’s favorite exercise is swimming. [Verbal noun, predicate nominative.]

This sport, fishing, has been called the contemplative man’s recreation. [Verbal
noun, in apposition with sport.]

That nouns in -ing are real nouns may be proved by putting ordinary nouns in their
place.

Travelling broadens the mind. Travel broadens the mind.

Talking is useless. Talk is useless.

He is afraid of falling. He is afraid of a fall.

348. From nearly every English verb there may be formed a verbal noun in -ing.

Verbal nouns in -ing have the form of present participles, but the construction of
nouns.

They are often called participial nouns.

Such nouns are freely used, either by themselves or in a series along with ordinary
nouns.
Mining is a dangerous occupation.

Painting and sculpture are sister arts.

The Indians of Massachusetts spent their time in hunting, fishing, agriculture, and
warfare.

Reading, writing, and arithmetic are jocosely called “the three r’s.”

349. Verbal nouns in -ing have certain properties of the verb.

1. Verbal nouns in -ing may take a direct or an indirect object if their meaning
allows.

Digging gold seems to the uninitiated like finding buried treasure.

Lending him money is useless; it merely fosters his unthrifty habits. [Here the
noun lending, which is the simple subject of the sentence, takes both a direct
object (money) and an indirect object (him), precisely as the verb lend might do.]

2. A verbal noun in -ing may take an adverbial modifier.

Speaking extemporaneously is good practice. [Here the verbal noun speaking is the
simple subject; but it is modified by the adverb extemporaneously, precisely as if
it were a verb.]

But verbal nouns in -ing, like other nouns, may be modified by adjectives.

Extemporaneous speaking is good practice.

3. To the verbal nouns being and having, past participles may be attached, so as to
give the effect of voice and tense.

After being instructed in my duties, I was ordered to wait on the king.

There were grave doubts expressed as to his having seen the mastodon.

After having been treated in so harsh a fashion, I had no wish to repeat the
interview.

Such expressions are verbal noun-phrases.

350. Verbal nouns in -ing are similar in some of their constructions to infinitives
used as nouns (p. 135).
Infinitive as Noun Verbal Noun in -ing

To swim was difficult. Swimming was difficult.

My business is to make shoes. My business is making shoes.

To see is to believe. Seeing is believing.

Nouns in -ing are sometimes called infinitives or gerunds.

351. A noun in -ing may be used as an adjective, or as the adjective element in a

compound noun (§ 64).

The sleeping car was completely wrecked.

William has plenty of spending money.

Note. Other examples are:—a working day, an ironing board, drinking water, smelling
salts, marching orders, a walking tour, a swimming race, a vaulting pole. In such
cases it makes little difference whether the two nouns are taken together as a
compound, or whether the first is regarded as an adjective modifying the second.
The difference between this use and that of the participle is perfectly clear. A
“sleeping dog” is a dog that sleeps; a “sleeping car” is a car for sleeping.
Sometimes, indeed, either explanation is possible. Thus, a “hoisting engine” may be
understood either as an “engine that hoists,” or as an “engine for hoisting.” But
it is better to class these exceptions with the nouns in -ing.

352. When a verbal noun in -ing is preceded by an article or any other adjective,
it cannot take an object.

{Shooting song-birds | The shooting of song-birds} is forbidden.

{Launching a ship | The launching of a ship} requires care and skill.

{Drawing maps | The drawing of maps} is a useful exercise.

{Eating confectionery constantly | Constant eating of confectionery} is bad for the

teeth.

My business is {driving wells. | the driving of wells.}

Observe that, in each instance, the object (song-birds, ship, maps, confectionery,
wells) is replaced by a prepositional phrase when an article or other adjective
precedes the verbal noun.

Note. In such expressions as “I went a-fishing,” a is a shortened form of the

preposition on, and fishing is a verbal noun used as its object. When a is omitted
we have “I went fishing,” “The house is building,” and the like, in which the word
in -ing seems to be a participle, but is really the object of the omitted a (= on).

353. The possessive case of a noun or pronoun may be used to limit a verbal noun in
-ing.
I was sure of its being he. [Not: it.]

I heard of Allen’s being elected. [Not: Allen.]

CHAPTER VII

PREPOSITIONS

354. A preposition is a word placed before a substantive to show its relation to

some other word in the sentence.

The substantive which follows a preposition is called its object and is in the
objective case.

A phrase consisting of a preposition and its object, with or without other words,
is called a prepositional phrase.

On the floor lay a heap of nuts.

He stood behind the tree for some time.

From morning till night he remained at his post.

The fire destroyed everything except a few articles of furniture.

A prepositional phrase may be either adjective or adverbial.

Thus, in the first example, of nuts is an adjective phrase modifying the noun heap,
and on the floor is an adverbial phrase modifying the verb lay. In the second
sentence, the verb stood is modified by two adverbial phrases, behind the tree and
for some time.

355. The following list includes most of the prepositions:

aboard

about

above

according to

across

after

against

along
along with

amid, amidst

among, amongst

apart from

around

as for, as to

at

athwart

barring

because of

before

behind

below

beneath

beside, besides

between

betwixt

beyond

but (= except)

by

by dint of

by means of

by reason of

by virtue of

by way of

concerning

considering

despite

down

during
ere

except, excepting

for

for the sake of

from

from among

from between

from under

in

in accordance with

in addition to

in case of

in compliance with

in consequence of

in consideration of

in front of

in lieu of

in opposition to

in place of

in preference to

in regard to

in spite of

inside (inside of)

instead of

into

notwithstanding

of

off

on
on account of

out of

outside (outside of)

over

over against

past

pending

regarding

respecting

round

round about

save, saving

since

through

throughout

to, unto

touching

toward, towards

under

underneath

until, till

up

upon

with

within

without

with reference to

with regard to

with respect to
Note. Such expressions as by means of, in accordance with, in spite of, etc., are
really phrases, but may be regarded as compound prepositions.

Several participles like concerning, considering, pending, are common in a

prepositional use and are therefore included in the list (§ 339).

For a (a form of on) in abed, asleep, afire, a-fishing, etc., see § 352.

Per is confined to the strictly commercial style except in such expressions as

perforce, per cent, per annum (§ 179).

356. A preposition may stand at the end of a sentence or clause.

Whom did you ask for? [Compare: For whom did you ask?]

The box which it came in has been destroyed. [Compare: The box in which it came.]

Note. This order, though informal, is common in the best authors; but, if
carelessly used, it may result in awkwardness of style. Sometimes a relative which
is the object of the preposition is omitted (see § 151). Thus, in the second
sentence, which might be dropped, and the object of in would then be “which,
understood.” For “He was laughed at,” and the like, see § 251.

In poetry a preposition sometimes follows its object directly: as,—“Barefoot plod I

the cold ground upon” (Shakspere).

357. Certain adverbial expressions like “on Sunday,” “on March first,” occur both
with and without the preposition.

He came Sunday (or, on Sunday).

We sail March first (or, on March first).

Note. The forms without on are good colloquial English, but are avoided in the more
formal style. No preposition need be supplied in parsing. The noun is an adverbial
objective (§ 109).

358. Care is required in the use of pronouns as the objects of prepositions.

{He has been very friendly | The old house will seem lonely | That makes no
difference} to you and me. [Not: you and I.]

{Tom’s carelessness makes trouble | There are letters at the post office} for you
and me.

I have invitations for {you and him. | you and her.}

He will divide the reward between you and me.

{Whom are you waiting for? | Whom were you speaking to?} [Not: who.]
359. Several words are used either as adverbs or prepositions.

As Adverb As Preposition

I fell down. I fell down the steps.

Stand by! He stood by the window.

A big dog ran behind. A dog ran behind the carriage.

Keep off! Keep off the grass.

Other examples are:— aboard,

above,

after,

along,

before,

below,

beneath,

beside,

between,

beyond,

ere,

in,

inside,

on,

outside,

past,

round,

since,

under,

up,

within,

without.
For words used either as prepositions or as conjunctions, see pp. 152–154.

360. Prepositions show various distinctions in use and meaning which must be
learned by practice and by the study of synonyms in a large dictionary.

The following groups afford opportunity for such study:— at, in;

in, into;

between, among, amid;

on, upon;

from, off;

round, around, about;

to, with;

beside, besides;

agree with, agree to;

change for, change with;

disappoint in, of;

differ with, from;

confide in, to;

correspond with, to;

part from, with;

compare to, with;

join with, to;

connect with, to;

come up with, to;

talk to, with;

speak to, with;

hang on, from, to;

live at, in, on;

argue with, against;

contend with, against;

depart from, for, at, on, in.

CHAPTER VIII

CONJUNCTIONS

361. Conjunctions connect words or groups of words.

Conjunctions are either coördinate or subordinate.41

1. A coördinate conjunction connects words or groups of words that are independent

of each other.

1. Hay and grain are sold here.

2. Will you take tea or coffee?

3. He was pale but undaunted.

4. The messenger replied courteously but firmly.

5. The troops embarked rapidly but without confusion.

6. Noon came, and the task was still unfinished.

7. We must hide here until night falls and the street is deserted.

In each of the first four sentences, the conjunction (and, or, but) connects single
words that are in the same construction (subjects, objects, predicate adjectives,
adverbs). In the fifth, but connects an adverb with an adverbial phrase (both being
modifiers of the verb embarked). In the sixth, and joins the two coördinate clauses
of a compound sentence (§ 44). In the seventh, and joins two coördinate clauses
which, taken together, make up the subordinate clause until ... deserted; this
clause may therefore be called a compound subordinate clause (see § 454).

2. A subordinate conjunction connects a subordinate clause with the clause on which

it depends.

Harmon did not quail, though he saw the danger.

Take this seat, if you prefer.

I hesitated because I remembered your warning.

Unless you reform, your career will be ruined.

362. The chief coördinate conjunctions are:—

and (both ... and)

not only ... but also

or (either ... or)

nor (neither ... nor)

but

for

however

moreover

therefore

then

yet

still

nevertheless

notwithstanding

Several of these are much used for transition, whether from sentence to sentence or
from one paragraph to another.

Such are:— however,

moreover,

therefore,

then,

nevertheless,

notwithstanding,

yet,

still.

363. Then is an adverb when it denotes time, a conjunction when it denotes

consequence or the like.

Then the boat glided up to the pier. [Time.]

Men are imperfect creatures: we must not, then, expect them to be angels.
[Consequence.]
364. Yet and still are adverbs when they express time or degree, conjunctions when
they connect.

We have not started yet. [Time.]

It is still raining. [Time.]

This hatchet is dull, but that is duller still. [Degree.]

I miss him, yet I am glad he went. [Conjunction.]

I like dogs; still I do not care to own one. [Conjunction.]

365. For and notwithstanding may be either prepositions or conjunctions.

Prepositions Conjunctions

I am waiting for you. We must go, for it is late.

Jane is coming, notwithstanding the storm. It is a hard storm. She will come,
notwithstanding.

Note. For is sometimes classified as a subordinate conjunction, but the fact that
it may be used to begin an independent sentence (even when such a sentence opens a
paragraph) justifies its inclusion among the coördinates.

366. The chief subordinate conjunctions are:—

although, though

as

as if (as though)

because

if

lest

since (= because)

than

that

unless

whereas

whether (whether ... or)

A few phrases may be regarded as compound conjunctions. Such are:—in order that, so
that, provided that, in case that, but that, as if, as though, even if. Provided,
and in case (without that) may also be used as conjunctions: as,—“I will go
provided it doesn’t rain.”

367. The subordinate conjunction that is often omitted when it may readily be
supplied.

He said [that] he was starving.

They feared [that] they were betrayed.

I cannot believe [that] you would try to injure me.

Note. This omission is similar to that of the relative pronoun (§ 151). It is

extremely common, not only in colloquial language but also in literature, whether
prose or verse.

368. As and since in the sense of “because,” and while in the sense of “though,”
are conjunctions.

When denoting time, as is an adverb, while is a noun or an adverb, and since is an

adverb or a preposition.

As (or since) you will not listen, I will say no more. [Conjunction.]

As we crossed the bridge, I looked down at the rushing stream. [Adverb.]

Ten years have passed since my uncle went to sea. [Adverb.]

The house has been empty since Christmas. [Preposition.]

369. Conjunctions used in pairs are called correlative conjunctions.

The chief correlatives are:—

both ... and

not only ... but also

either ... or

neither ... nor

though ... yet (still)

although ... yet (still)

since ... therefore

if ... then

Examples of correlatives may be seen in the following sentences:—

Both lions and wolves are carnivorous.

The culprit looked both angry and ashamed.

William II is not only German Emperor but also King of Prussia.

Either brass or copper will do.

Neither Keats nor Shelley lived to be old.

He asked me whether I was an Austrian or a Russian.

Though the roads were very bad, yet he managed to reach Utica before midnight.

Although he has wronged me, still I cannot believe he is my enemy.

Since four is the square of two, therefore two is the square root of four.

If Allen’s testimony is true, then Gilbert’s must be false.

370. But is used as a subordinate conjunction in the sense of but that or unless.

There is no doubt but that they are murderers.—Shelley.

Your uncle must not know but [= but that] you are dead.—Shakspere.

Ne’er may I look on day but [= unless] she tells your highness the truth.—
Shakspere. [This use is obsolete.]

There is not a wave of the Seine but is associated in my mind with the first rise
of the sandstones and forest pines of Fontainebleau.—Ruskin.

There was nobody but loved her.

Note. In the last two examples the subject of the subordinate clause is omitted:
—“There is not a wave but [it] is associated,” “There was nobody but [he] loved
her.” In such cases, but is sometimes regarded as a relative pronoun.

Notwithstanding is used as a subordinate conjunction in the sense of though.

I shall go, notwithstanding the road is said to be impassable.

371. Relative adverbs are similar in their use to conjunctions, and are therefore
often called conjunctive adverbs (§§ 194–195).

Note. Most conjunctions, historically considered, are merely adverbs (or adverbial
phrases) which have come to be used in so peculiar a way as to form a special class
among the parts of speech. Thus the adverbs since and while become conjunctions
when they cease to denote time; because is a corruption of the phrase by cause; but
is developed from an old adverb meaning “outside.”
CHAPTER IX

INTERJECTIONS

372. An interjection is a cry or other exclamatory sound expressing surprise,

anger, pleasure, or some other emotion or feeling.

Examples: O (or oh),

ah,

hullo (holloa, halloo),

bah,

pshaw,

fie,

whew,

tut-tut,

st (often spelled hist),

ha,

aha,

ha ha,

ho,

hey,

hum,

hem,

heigh-ho (heigh-o),

alas,

bravo,

lo.

When written, interjections are often followed by an exclamation point (!).

373. Among interjections are properly included calls to animals (like “whoa!”) and
imitations of sounds such as “mew!” “cock-a-doodle-do!” “ding dong!” “swish!” “tu-
whit-tu-who!”

374. Interjections usually have no grammatical connection with the phrases or

sentences in which they stand.

Hence they are counted among the “independent elements” of a sentence (§ 501).

Sometimes, however, a substantive is connected with an interjection by means of a

preposition. Thus,—

O for a camera!

Alas for my hopes!

Adjectives and adverbs are also found in this use: as,—“Good for you!” “Up with
it!”

Note. All such expressions are often regarded as elliptical sentences, as if “O for
a camera!” stood for “O, I wish for a camera!” and “Good for you!” for “That is
good for you!” But it is better to treat them as exclamatory phrases.42 Other
exclamatory phrases are “Dear me!” “Goodness gracious!” “O my!” and the like.

375. Almost any part of speech may be used as an exclamation.

Nonsense! I do not believe it.

Fire!

Halt!

Good! I like that!

Forward!

On!

Away!

Back, villains!

I! not a bit of it!

But——!

Such words are often called interjections, but it is better to describe them as
nouns, adjectives, etc., used in exclamation, and to confine the term interjection
to words which belong to no other part of speech.

Note. Thus nonsense! and fire! are nouns in the exclamatory nominative; I! is a
pronoun in the same construction; halt! is a verb in the imperative (compare hark!
hush! behold! look!); good! is an adjective; forward! on! away! and back! are
adverbs; but! is a conjunction.

The following examples illustrate various exclamatory expressions,—words, phrases,

and sentences:—

1. How late I shuddered on the brink!—Young.

2. “Right! right!” a thousand tongues exclaimed.—Southey.

3. The pale stars are gone!—Shelley.

4. Poor widowed wretch! ’twas there she wept in vain.—Campbell.

5. O heartfelt raptures! Bliss beyond compare!—Burns.

6. ’Tis done! dread Winter spreads his latest glooms.—Thomson.

7. Heigh-ho! sing heigh-ho! unto the green holly.—Shakspere.

8. I had—ah! have I now?—a friend.—Byron.

9. “To arms!” cried Mortimer, and couched his quivering lance.—Gray.

10. O for the gentleness of old Romance!—Keats.

11. “Run!” exclaims she, with a toss of indignant astonishment.—Carlyle.

12. Can he keep himself still if he would! Oh, not he!—Wordsworth.

CHAPTER X

CLAUSES AS PARTS OF SPEECH

376. A clause is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and that contains a
subject and a predicate.

A clause used as a part of speech is called a subordinate clause (§ 46).

377. A subordinate clause may be introduced by (1) a relative or an interrogative

pronoun, (2) a relative or an interrogative adverb, (3) a subordinate conjunction.

The relative pronouns are: who, which, what, that (= who or which), as (after such
or same), and the compound relatives whoever, whichever, whatever. Their uses have
already been studied (pp. 66–73).

The chief relative adverbs are: where, whence, whither, wherever, when, whenever,
while, before, after, till, until, since, as, how, why (p. 86).

The interrogative pronouns are: who, which, what (§§ 163–165).

The interrogative adverbs are: where, when, whence, whither, how, why.

The most important subordinate conjunctions are: because, since (= because),

though, although, if, unless, that (in order that, so that), lest, as, as if, as
though, than, whether (whether ... or).
378. According to their use as parts of speech, subordinate clauses are adjective,
adverbial, or noun clauses.

I. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

379. A subordinate clause that modifies a substantive is called an adjective clause

(§ 47).

{Able men | Men of ability | Men who show ability} can always find employment.

{Treeless spots | Spots without trees | Spots where no trees grew} were plainly
visible.

In each of these groups, a noun (men, spots) is modified (1) by an adjective, (2)
by an adjective phrase, (3) by an adjective clause. The sense remains unchanged.

380. Adjective clauses may be introduced (1) by relative pronouns, (2) by relative
adverbs of place (where, whence, whither, etc.) or time (when, while, etc.).

II. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

381. A subordinate clause that serves as an adverbial modifier is called an

adverbial clause (§ 47).

Jack spoke {thoughtlessly. | without thinking. | before he thought.}

The schoolhouse stands {there. | at the crossroads. | where the roads meet.}

We pay our rent {monthly. | on the first of every month. | when the first of the
month comes.}

In each of these groups, the verb (spoke, stands, pay) is modified (1) by an
adverb, (2) by an adverbial phrase, (3) by an adverbial clause.

382. Adverbial clauses may be introduced (1) by relative adverbs (when, where,
before, etc.); (2) by subordinate conjunctions (if, though, because, etc.); (3) by
relative or interrogative pronouns.

383. Adverbial clauses oftenest modify verbs, but they are also common as modifiers
of adjectives and adverbs.

Angry because he had failed, he abandoned the undertaking. [The clause modifies
angry.]

I am uncertain which road I should take. [The clause modifies uncertain.]

Farther than eye could see extended the waste of tossing waters. [The clause
modifies farther.]

Here, where the cliff was steepest, a low wall protected the path. [The clause
modifies here.]

384. An adverbial clause with that may be used to modify verbs and adjectives.

He rejoiced that the victory was won.

I am glad that you are coming.

He was positive that no harm had been done.

They were unwilling that the case should be brought to trial.

Note. In this use that is equivalent either to “because” or to “as to the fact
that.” The clause may be explained as a noun clause in the adverbial objective
construction (§ 109).

For the classification of adverbial clauses according to their meaning (place,

time, cause, concession, etc.), see pp. 163–182.

III. NOUN (OR SUBSTANTIVE) CLAUSES

385. A subordinate clause that is used as a noun is called a noun (or substantive)
clause (§ 47).

{Agreement | To agree | That we should agree} seemed impossible.

{Victory | To win | That we should win} was out of the question.

The merchant feared {loss. | to lose. | that he might lose money.}

I expect {success. | to succeed. | that I shall succeed.}

In each of these groups a noun (agreement, victory, etc.) is replaced (1) by an

infinitive, (2) by a noun clause. In the first two examples, the noun clause is the
subject; in the last two, it is the object of a verb (feared, expect).

386. Noun clauses may be used in any of the more important constructions of nouns:—
(1) as subject, (2) as direct object of a transitive verb, (3) in apposition with a
substantive, (4) as a predicate nominative.
That Milton was spared has often caused surprise. [Subject.]

Brutus said that Cæsar was a tyrant. [Object of said.]

Cæsar commanded that the prisoners should be spared. [Object.]

I wish that you would work harder. [Object.]

The traveller inquired where he could find the inn. [Object.]

He asked me what my name was. [Second object of asked.]

My fear that the bridge might fall proved groundless. [Apposition with fear.]

One fact is undoubted,—that the state of America has been kept in continual
agitation.—Burke. [Apposition with fact.]

The old saying is that misery loves company. [Predicate nominative.]

387. Noun clauses may be introduced (1) by the subordinate conjunctions that,
whether (whether ... or), and if (in the sense of whether); (2) by the
interrogative pronouns who, which, what; (3) by the interrogative adverbs where,
whence, whither, how, why, when (§ 196).

388. Noun clauses are common as objects of verbs (1) of commanding, desiring, etc.;
(2) of telling, thinking, etc.; (3) of asking, doubting, etc.

See (1) clauses of purpose (§ 406); (2) indirect discourse (§§ 431–437); (3)
indirect questions (§ 443).

Object clauses frequently omit that (§ 367).

Charles said [that] he was sorry.

I hope you will come.

I wish he would help me.

For the infinitive clause replacing a that-clause as object, see §§ 324–325.

389. A noun clause may be used as the retained object of a passive verb (§ 253).

Active Voice (Clause as Object) Passive Voice (Retained Object)

They informed me that the train was late. I was informed that the train was late.

Charles told us that the ice was thin. We were told that the ice was thin.

They asked me whether (or if) I liked tennis. I was asked whether I liked tennis.

390. A noun clause may be the object of a preposition.

I see no reason for a lawsuit except that both parties are stubborn. [Compare:
except the stubbornness of both.]
She never studies, except when she can find nothing else to do.

I could say nothing but [=except] that I was sorry.

Justice was well administered in his time, save where the king was party.—Bacon.

She could see me from where she stood.

There is a dispute as to which of the miners first staked out the claim.

For a noun clause used as an adverbial objective, see § 384.

391. Noun clauses with that are common in the predicate when the expletive it is
the grammatical subject (§ 120, 2).

It was plain that war was at hand.

It was clear that this administration would last but a very short time.

It must be admitted that there were many extenuating circumstances.

It was by slow degrees that Fox became a brilliant and powerful debater.

It was under the command of a foreign general that the British had triumphed at
Minden.

In such sentences the real subject of the thought is the clause. This, however, may
be regarded as grammatically in apposition with it, as if one said “It (that war
was at hand) was plain.”

Note. This useful idiom enables us to adopt a kind of inverted order (§ 5), and
thus to shift the emphasis. Contrast “That war was at hand was plain” with “It was
plain that war was at hand.” In the former sentence, the noun clause is made
prominent; in the latter, the adjective plain.

392. The following sentences, taken from distinguished authors of different

periods, illustrate the usefulness of the noun clause in its various constructions.

1. That the king would ever again have received Becket into favor is not to be
believed.—Southey.

2. That in education we should proceed from the simple to the complex is a truth
which has always been to some extent acted on.—Spencer.

3. How great his reputation was, is proved by the embassies sent to him.—Coleridge.

4. It vexed old Hawkins that his counsel was not followed.—Fuller.

5. It became necessary, at last, that I should arouse both master and valet to the
expediency of removing the treasure.—Poe.

6. There is no doubt that breeds may be made as different as species in many

physiological characteristics.—Huxley.
7. The main definition you could give of old Marquis Mirabeau is, that he was of
the pedant species.—Carlyle.

8. The fact seems to be that we have survived the tremendous explosion.—Brougham.

9. The question is, whether the feigned image of poesy, or the regular instruction
of philosophy, have the more force in teaching.—Sidney.

10. I feared that some serious disaster had befallen my friend.—Poe.

11. I think with you that the most magnificent object under heaven is the great
deep.—Cowper.

12. Aureolus soon discovered that the success of his artifices had only raised up a
more determined adversary.—Gibbon.

13. Harold alleged that he was appointed by Edward.—Temple.

14. That we shall die, we know.—Shakspere.

15. Her Majesty has promised that the treaty shall be laid before her Parliament.—
Swift.

16. Deerslayer proposed that they should circle the point in the canoe.—Cooper.

17. I remembered how soft was the hand of Sleep.—Landor.

18. I cannot see what objection can justly be made to the practice.—Reynolds.

19. No man knew what was to be expected from this strange tribunal.—Macaulay.

20. We may imagine with what sensations the stupefied Spaniards must have gazed on
this horrid spectacle.—Prescott.

21. Observe how graciously Nature instructs her human children.—Coleridge.

22. My friend asked me if there would not be some danger in coming home late.—
Addison.

23. A message came that the committee was sitting at Kensington Palace.—Thackeray.

24. Jeffreys had obtained of the king a promise that he would not pardon her.—
Burnet.

25. The present age seems pretty well agreed in an opinion that the utmost scope
and end of reading is amusement only.—Fielding.

26. He suddenly alarmed me by a startling question—whether I had seen the show of

prize cattle that morning in Smithfield.—Lamb.

27. I am told that the Lancashire system is perfect.—Kingsley.

CHAPTER XI

THE MEANINGS OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

393. Subordinate clauses may be classified not only according to their use as parts
of speech, but also, in quite a different way, in accordance with their various
meanings. These distinctions in idea are of capital importance for the accurate and
forcible expression of thought.

394. The variety of meanings which subordinate clauses may express is great, but
most of these meanings come under the following heads:—(1) place or time, (2)
cause, (3) concession, (4) purpose, (5) result, (6) condition, (7) comparison,43
(8) indirect discourse, (9) indirect question.

The general meaning of the clause is usually indicated by the word which introduces
it.

I. CLAUSES OF PLACE AND TIME

395. An adjective or an adverbial clause may express place or time.

I. Adjective Clauses

The house where the robbery occurred is No. 14.

The bridge over which we rode is in ruins.

There is a point beyond which you cannot go.

The day when (or on which) I was to sail arrived at last.

The day before you came was rainy.

His terror while it thundered was pitiable.

II. Adverbial Clauses

Remain where I can see you.

That belongs where you found it.

Whithersoever I go, fear dogs my steps.

Whenever the bell rings, you must take down the receiver.
Esmond heard the chimes as he sat in his own chamber.

I have lived in Cairo since my father died.

396. Adjective clauses of place and time may be introduced by relative pronouns
(see examples above).

Adjective and adverbial clauses of place and time may be introduced by relative
adverbs. Thus,—

Place: where, whence, whither, wherever, whithersoever, wherefrom, whereto, etc.

Time: when, whenever, while, as, before, after, until, since.

For as and since in causal clauses, see § 398; for while in concessive clauses, see
§ 399.

397. Clauses of time are sometimes shortened by the omission of the copula and its
subject.

When [he was] rescued, he was almost dead.

Tom was attacked by cramp while swimming across the river.

II. CAUSAL CLAUSES

398. An adverbial clause may express cause.

Causal clauses are introduced by the subordinate conjunctions because, since, as,
inasmuch as, and sometimes that.

I came home because I was tired.

As the day was clear, we decided to climb the mountain.

Since you will not relent, you must take the consequences.

We were glad that the wreck was no worse.

Tom was delighted that his friend was safe.

Since is a preposition or an adverb when it denotes time; as is an adverb when it

denotes time. Both since and as are conjunctions when they express cause. For as
used as a relative pronoun, see § 147.
III. CONCESSIVE CLAUSES

399. An adverbial clause may express concession.

A concessive clause is usually introduced by a subordinate conjunction, though,

although, or even if. It admits (or concedes) some fact or supposition in spite of
which the assertion in the main clause is made.

Although I do not like his manners, I respect his character.

We won the game, though we expected to lose.

Even if you fail, you will have gained experience.

Even if you were a king, you would find somebody or something more powerful than
yourself.

Though he should read books forever, he would not grow wise.

Note. While is often used as a weaker or more courteous synonym for although.

The main clause, when it follows the concessive clause, may be emphasized by means
of yet, still, nevertheless.

Although the task was heavy, yet his courage never failed. [Although and yet are
correlative conjunctions (§ 369).]

Though his reputation was great at home, yet it was greater abroad.

Concessive clauses sometimes omit the copula and its subject.

Though [he was] tired, he was not disheartened.

This punishment, though perhaps necessary, seems rather severe.

400. For the distinction between the indicative and the subjunctive in concessive
clauses, see § 279; for that between should and would, see § 305.

401. A concessive clause may be introduced by the conjunction as, or by a relative

pronoun or a relative adverb.

{Whatever you say, | Whichever argument you present, | However much you object,} he
will carry his point.

Weak as I am, I will make the effort.

Gay as the scene was, ’twas but a dreary place for Mr. Esmond.
Note. The adverbial use of however is quite distinct from its use as a coördinate
conjunction (§ 362).

402. Concession is sometimes expressed by a subjunctive clause without a

conjunction to introduce it (§ 281).

Be it ever so humble, there’s no place like home.

I will help you, cost what it may!

IV–V. CLAUSES OF PURPOSE AND OF RESULT

403. A subordinate clause may express purpose or result.

I. Clauses of Purpose

These men died that we might live.

I will take care that you are not harmed.

John worked day and night that the plans might be ready in time.

We threw our ballast overboard, so that the airship might clear the treetops.

All our arrangements have been made with the utmost precision, in order that the
ship may be launched promptly and without accident.

II. Clauses of Result

He has recovered his strength, so that he can now work.

The town stood at the foot of the volcano, so that every building was destroyed.

Quentin started so suddenly that he almost dropped his weapon.

His rancor against the duke was so apparent that one saw it in the first half-
hour’s conversation.

Their minds were so much embittered that they imputed to each other nothing less
than deliberate villany.

You make such a noise that I cannot hear the music.

404. Clauses of purpose may be introduced by the subordinate conjunction that or by
a phrase containing it (so that, in order that, to the end that, etc.).

Negative clauses of purpose may be introduced by that ... not or by lest. For lest
with the subjunctive, see § 284.

Take heed lest thou fall.

I feared lest I might anger thee.—Shakspere.

405. Clauses of result may be introduced by the phrase so that, consisting of the
adverb so and the subordinate conjunction that; or by that alone, especially when
so, such, or some similar word stands in the main clause.

406. A clause of purpose or of result may be either an adverbial clause (as in §

403) or a substantive clause.

I intend that you shall be elected. [Object.]

My intention is that you shall be appointed. [Predicate nominative.]

The result is that he is bankrupt. [Predicate nominative.]

His exertions had this effect, that the vote was unanimous. [Appositive.]

407. A substantive clause of purpose is often used as the object of a verb of

commanding, desiring, or the like.

The general ordered that the fort should be blown up.

The prisoner begged that his fetters might be struck off.

408. For subordinate clauses with shall or should, implying purpose or expectation,
see § 304.

409. Purpose may be expressed by the infinitive with to or in order to, and result
by the infinitive with to or as to.

He abandoned his profession to [or in order to] become a missionary. [Purpose.]

He was kind enough to help me. [Result. Compare: He was so kind that he helped me.]

He was so kind as to help me. [Result.]

Negative result is often expressed by the adverb too and the infinitive.

Iron is too heavy to float. [Compare: Iron is so heavy that it does not float.]
410. Purpose may be expressed by an infinitive clause (§ 325).

The teacher intended us to finish the book. [Compare: The teacher intended that we
should finish the book.]

The foreman ordered the engine to be stopped. [Compare: The foreman ordered that
the engine should be stopped.]

VI. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

411. A clause that expresses a condition introduced by if, or by some equivalent

word or phrase, is called a conditional clause.

A sentence that contains a conditional clause is called a conditional sentence.

If it rains, we shall remain at home.

I shall attend the convention if I am in town.

I will take this book, if you please.

412. A conditional sentence in its simplest form consists of two parts:—

(1) A subordinate (adverbial) clause, commonly introduced by if, and expressing the
condition.

(2) A main clause expressing the conclusion, that is, the statement which is true
in case the condition expressed in the if-clause is true.

Thus in the first example in § 411, the condition is if it rains; the conclusion is
we shall remain at home.

Either the condition or the conclusion may come first.

The conditional clause is often called the protasis, and the conclusion is often
called the apodosis.

The conclusion of a conditional sentence may be declarative, interrogative,

imperative, or exclamatory.

If you go to Philadelphia, where shall you stay? [Interrogative.]

Sit here, if you wish. [Imperative.]

If you win the prize, how glad I shall be! [Exclamatory.]

413. A conditional clause may be introduced by provided (or provided that), granted
that, supposing (or suppose), on condition that.
I will permit you to go, on condition that you come home early.

You may have the money, provided you will put it in the bank.

Supposing (or suppose) it rains, what shall we do?

Suppose is really an imperative and supposing a participle, the clause being the
object.

414. A negative condition is commonly introduced by if ... not or unless.

I will wait for him, if you do not object.

Unless you overcome that habit, you will be ruined.

415. Double (or alternative) conditions may be introduced by whether ... or.

Whether he goes or stays, he must pay a week’s board. [Compare: If he goes or if he

stays, etc.]

He is determined to buy that car, whether you approve or not. [That is: if you
approve or if you do not approve.]

416. A conditional clause may be introduced by whoever, whenever, or some similar

compound (§§ 159, 195).

Whoever offends, is punished. [Compare: If anybody offends, he is punished.]

Whoever shall offend, shall be punished.

Whomever you ask, you will be disappointed. [Compare: If you shall ask anybody.]

He will come whenever [= if ever] he is called.

Note. In older English and in poetry, who is common in this construction: as,—“Who
[= whoever] steals my purse, steals trash” (Shakspere).

417. A conditional clause sometimes omits the copula and its subject.

I will go if [it is] necessary.

If [it is] possible, come to-morrow.

The if-clause is sometimes used as an exclamation, with the conclusion omitted.

If I only had a rifle!

418. A condition may be expressed by means of an assertion, a question, an
imperative, or the absolute construction (§ 345).

We take the receiver from the hook, and the operator answers. We replace it, and
the connection is broken. [Compare: If we take the receiver from the hook, the
operator answers, etc.]

Press that button, and the bell will ring.

Do you refuse? Then you must take the consequences.

We shall sail on Monday, weather permitting.

Note. In such cases, there is no subordinate conditional clause. Thus, in the first
example, we have two independent coördinate clauses, making a compound sentence (§
44).

FORMS OF CONDITIONS

419. Conditional sentences show great variety of form, but it is easy to classify
them according to the time of the supposed case and the degree of doubt that the
speaker expresses.

420. Conditions may be present, past, or future.

Present and Past Conditions

421. Present and past conditions may be either (1) non-committal or (2) contrary to
fact.

1. A condition is non-committal when it implies nothing as to the truth or falsity

of the case supposed.

If James is angry, I am sorry. [Perhaps James is angry, perhaps not.]

2. A condition is contrary to fact when it implies that the supposed case is not or
was not true.

If James were angry, I should be sorry. [James is not angry.]

422. In a non-committal present condition, the if-clause44 takes the present
indicative; in a non-committal past condition, the past, the perfect, or the
pluperfect.

The conclusion may be in any form that the sense allows.

I. Present Condition, Non-committal

If this pebble is a diamond, {it is valuable. | guard it carefully. | you have made
a great discovery. | you will get a large sum for it. | why are you so careless of
it? | what a prize it is!}

If it is raining, shut the window.

If Jack lives in this house, {he is a lucky boy. | ring the bell. | he has moved
since last May.}

II. Past Condition, Non-committal

If that pebble was a diamond, {it was valuable. | why did you throw it away? | go
back and look for it.}

If Tom has apologized, {he has done his duty. | you ought to excuse him. | forgive
him.}

If John had reached home before we started, he must have made a quick journey.

In each of these examples, the speaker declines to commit himself as to the truth
of the supposed case. Perhaps the pebble was a diamond, perhaps not; Tom may or may
not have apologized; whether or not John had reached home, we cannot tell.

423. In a condition contrary to fact, the if-clause takes the past subjunctive when
the condition refers to present time, the pluperfect subjunctive when it refers to
past time.

The conclusion regularly takes should or would (§ 286, 3).

If John were here, I should recognize him. [Present condition, present conclusion.]
If John were here, I should have recognized him before this. [Present condition,
past conclusion.]

If I had offended him, I should have regretted it. [Past condition, past
conclusion.]

If I had then offended him, I should regret it now. [Past condition, present
conclusion.]

In each of these sentences, the speaker distinctly implies that the supposed case
(or condition) is (or was) not a fact. It follows, of course, that the conclusion
is not a fact:—John is not here; therefore I do not recognize him.

424. In conditions contrary to fact, the subjunctive without if is common. In this

use, the subject follows the verb (§ 281).

Were he my friend, I should expect his help. [= If he were my friend. Present

condition, contrary to fact.]

Had he been my friend, I should have expected his help. [= If he had been my
friend. Past condition, contrary to fact.]

Note. In older English, the subjunctive may be used in both clauses: as,—“He were
no lion, were not Romans hinds” (Shakspere).

Future Conditions

425. Future conditions always imply doubt, for no one can tell what may or may not
happen to-morrow.

426. In all future conditions, some verb-form denoting future time is used in both
clauses.

1. In a future condition which suggests nothing as to the probability or

improbability of the case supposed, the present indicative is regularly used in the
if-clause, and the future indicative in the conclusion.

If it rains to-morrow, I shall not go.

In very formal or exact language a verb-phrase with shall may be used in the if-
clause: as,—“If it shall rain to-morrow, I shall not go.”

2. The present subjunctive is sometimes used in the if-clause. This form commonly
suggests more doubt than the present indicative.

If it rain to-morrow, I shall not go.

3. In a future condition which puts the supposed case rather vaguely, often with a
considerable suggestion of doubt, a verb-phrase with should or would is used in
both clauses.

If it should rain to-morrow, I should not go.

For the use of should or would in such clauses, see § 305.

A phrase with were to may replace the should-phrase in the if-clause. This form
often emphasizes the suggestion of doubt.

If it were to rain to-morrow, I should not go.

The past subjunctive may stand in the if-clause instead of the should-phrase.

If it rained to-morrow, I should not go.

Note. The comparative amount of doubt implied in the different kinds of future
conditions cannot be defined with precision; for it varies with the circumstances
or the context, and often depends on emphasis or the tone of the voice. Thus, in
“if it should rain to-morrow,” should may be so emphasized as to make the supposed
case seem highly improbable, whereas an emphasis on to-morrow would have a very
different effect. As to the subjunctive, its use is often due rather to the
writer’s liking for that mood than to any special doubt in his mind.

427. For even if in concessive clauses, see § 399; for as if in clauses of

comparison, see § 428; for if (in the sense of whether) in indirect questions, see
§ 442.

VII. CLAUSES OF COMPARISON

428. An adverbial clause introduced by as if may express comparison.45

You speak as if you were angry.46

He breathes as if he were exhausted.

She cared for me as if I had been her son.

As though is also used, but as if is now preferred by most writers.

The subjunctive were, not the indicative was, is used after as if (§ 282).

429. As and than, as subordinate conjunctions, introduce clauses of comparison or

degree.

You are as old as he [is].

I am younger than you [are].

He weighs as much as I [weigh].

I pity you more than [I pity] her.

When the verb is omitted, the substantive that follows as or than is in the same
case in which it would stand if the verb were expressed. Thus,—

You are stronger than he. [Not: than him.]

I see you oftener than him. [Not: than he.]

He plays a better game than I. [Not: than me.]

They will miss John more than me. [That is: more than they miss me.]

VIII. INDIRECT DISCOURSE

430. A quotation may be direct or indirect.

A direct quotation repeats a speech or thought in its original form.

I replied: “I am sorry to hear it.”

“Henceforth,” he explained, “I shall call on Tuesdays.”

“You must see California,” she insisted.

“Elizabeth no longer lives here,” he said.

“I know nothing about it,” was the witness’s reply.

“Where,” thought I, “are the crew?”47

An indirect quotation repeats a speech or thought in substance, but usually with

some change in its form.
An indirect quotation, when a statement, is a subordinate clause dependent on some
word of saying or thinking, and introduced by the conjunction that.

I replied that I was sorry to hear it. [Direct: I am sorry.]

He explained that henceforth he should call on Tuesdays.

She insisted that I must see California.

A direct quotation begins with a capital letter, unless it is a fragment of a

sentence. It is enclosed in quotation marks.

An indirect quotation begins with a small letter. It usually has no quotation

marks.

431. A substantive clause introduced by that may be used with verbs and other
expressions of telling, thinking, knowing, and perceiving, to report the words or
thought of a person in substance, but usually with some change of form.

Such clauses are said to be in the indirect discourse.

For distinction, a remark or a thought in its original form (as in a direct

quotation) is said to be in the direct discourse.

432. Statements in indirect discourse, being substantive clauses, may be used in

various noun constructions: (1) as object of some verb of telling, thinking, or the
like, (2) as subject, (3) as predicate nominative, (4) as appositive.

He said that the box was empty. [Object.]

That the box was empty was all he could say. [Subject.]

My remark was that the bill is a menace. [Predicate nominative.]

Your remark, that the bill is a menace, has aroused vigorous protest. [Apposition.]

433. The conjunction that is often omitted.

Jack said [that] he was sorry.

I hope [that] you can come.

I know he is too busy a man to have leisure for me.—Cowper.

434. In indirect discourse, after the past or the pluperfect tense, the present
tense of the direct discourse becomes past, and the perfect becomes pluperfect.

1. Direct: I am tired.

Indirect: John {said | had said} that he was tired.

2. Direct: I have won.

Indirect: John {said | had said} that he had won.

But a general or universal truth always remains in the present tense.

Direct: Air is a gas.

Indirect: I told him that air is a gas.

Indirect: I had told him a hundred times that air is a gas.

435. The clause with that in indirect discourse is sometimes replaced by an

infinitive clause (§ 325).

The jury declared him to be innocent. [Compare: The jury declared that he was
innocent.]

Morton admitted them to be counterfeit. [Compare: Morton admitted that they were
counterfeit.]

In these sentences, him and them are, of course, the subjects of the infinitives,
not the objects of declared and admitted.

436. When the verb of telling or thinking is in the passive voice, three
constructions occur:—

1. A clause with that is used as the subject of the passive verb.

That Rogers desires the office is commonly reported.

2. The expletive it is used as the grammatical subject, and a that-clause follows

the passive verb.

It is commonly reported that Rogers desires the office.

3. The subject of the that-clause becomes the subject of the passive verb, and the
verb of the clause is replaced by an infinitive.

Rogers is commonly reported to desire the office.

The choice among these three idioms is largely a matter of emphasis or euphony. The
first may easily become heavy or awkward, and it is therefore less common than
either of the others.

Note. The third of these idioms is often called the personal construction, to
distinguish it from the second, in which the grammatical subject is the impersonal
it (§ 120, 1). The infinitive in this third idiom may be regarded as a peculiar
adverbial modifier of the passive verb.

Further examples of the three constructions with passive verbs of telling,

thinking, etc., are the following:—

That in vivacity, humor, and eloquence, the Irish stand high among the nations of
the world is now universally acknowledged.—Macaulay.

It is admitted that the exercise of the imagination is most delightful.—Shelley.

It must be owned that Charles’s life has points of some originality.—Stevenson.

Porto Bello is still said to be impregnable, and it is reported the Dutch have
declared war against us.—Gray.

He was generally believed to have been a pirate.—Lytton.

Pope may be said to write always with his reputation in his head.—Johnson.

She was observed to flutter her fan with such vehement rapidity that the elaborate
delicacy of its workmanship gave way.—Hawthorne.

This is said to be the only château in France in which the ancient furniture of its
original age is preserved.—Longfellow.

437. A substantive clause with that is common after it seems, it is true, it is

evident, and similar expressions.

It seems that Robert has lost all his money.

It is true that genius does not always bring happiness with it.

It is evident that Andrews tells the truth.

This construction is really the same as that in § 436, 2.

438. The uses of shall and will, should and would, in indirect discourse are the
same as in the direct,48 with the following exception:—

When the first person with shall or should in direct discourse becomes the second
or third person in the indirect, shall or should is retained.

Direct: You say, “I shall die.”

Indirect: You say that you shall die.

Direct: You said, “I shall die.”

Indirect: You said that you should die.

Direct: He says, “I shall die.”

Indirect: He says that he shall die.

Direct: He said, “I shall die.”

Indirect: He said that he should die.

The reason for the retention of shall or should is that, in such cases, the second
or third person of the indirect discourse represents the first person of the
direct.

The change from shall (after says) to should (after said) is a mere change of
tense, according to the rule in § 434.

Note. The general principle is, to retain in the indirect discourse the auxiliary
of the direct, simply changing the tense if necessary (§ 434). This principle of
course covers the use of you or he shall or should to represent I shall or should.
There is, however, one important exception to the general principle: when its
application would result in the use of I will or I would to express mere futurity,
I shall or I should is employed. Thus, John says to Charles, “If you fall
overboard, you will drown”; but Charles, reporting this, must say, “John tells me
that, if I fall overboard, I shall [NOT will] drown.” The general rule, then, may
be stated as follows: The indirect discourse retains the auxiliary of the direct
(with a change in tense, if necessary), unless such retention makes will or would
express simple futurity in the first person,—in that case, shall or should is used.

439. The following sentences illustrate the correct use of shall and will, should
and would, in the indirect discourse:—

1. He writes me that he believes he shall be at Eton till the middle of November.—

Gray. [Direct: I shall be at Eton.]

2. He that would pass the latter part of his life with honor and decency, must,
while he is young, consider that he shall one day be old.—Johnson. [Direct: I shall
one day be old.]

3. Could he but reduce the Aztec capital, he felt that he should be safe.—Prescott.
[Direct: I shall be safe.]

4. Plantagenet took it into his head that he should like to learn to play at bowls.
—Disraeli. [Direct: I should like.]

5. He answered that he should be very proud of hoisting his flag under Sir John’s
command.—Southey. [Direct: I shall (or should) be, etc.]

6. He knew that if he applied himself in earnest to the work of reformation, he

should raise every bad passion in arms against him.—Macaulay. [Direct: If I apply
myself ..., I shall raise, etc.]
7. He was pleased to say that he should like to have the author in his service.—
Carlyle. [Direct: I should like.]

8. Mr. Tristram at last declared that he was overcome with fatigue, and should be
happy to sit down.—Henry James. [Direct: I should be happy.]

9. She vowed that unless he made a great match, she should never die easy.—
Thackeray. [Direct: Unless you make a great match, I shall never die easy.]

10. You think now I shall get into a scrape at home. You think I shall scream and
plunge and spoil everything.—George Eliot. [Direct: She will get into a scrape,
etc.]

11. You in a manner impose upon them the necessity of being silent, by declaring
that you will be so yourself.—Cowper. [Determination: I will be silent.]

12. He [Swift] tells them that he will run away and leave them, if they do not
instantly make a provision for him.—Jeffrey. [Threat: I will run away.]

13. The king declared that he would not reprieve her for one day.—Mackintosh.
[Direct: I will not.]

14. Horace declares that he would not for all the world get into a boat with a man
who had divulged the Eleusinian mysteries.—Cowper. [Direct: I would not.]

15. I called up Sirboko, and told him, if he would liberate this one man to please
me, he should be no loser.—Speke. [Direct: If you will liberate, etc., you shall be
no loser.]

16. We concluded that, if we did not come at some water in ten days’ time, we would
return.—De Foe. [Direct: If we do not, etc., we will return.]

17. With a theatrical gesture and the remark that I should see, he opened some
cages and released half a dozen cats.—W. J. Locke. [Direct: You shall see.]

IX. INDIRECT QUESTIONS

440. A question expressed in the form actually used in asking it is called a direct
question.

What is your name?

“What is your name?” he asked.

The direct form may be retained when the question is quoted or reported, as in the
second example above. Often, however, a question is quoted or reported, not in the
direct form, but in the form of a subordinate clause: as,—

He asked what my name was.

Such a clause is called an indirect question.

441. An indirect question expresses the substance of a direct question in the form
of a subordinate clause.

Indirect questions depend on verbs or other expressions of asking, doubting,

thinking, perceiving, and the like.

Franklin asked where the difficulty lay. [Direct question: “Where does the
difficulty lie?”]

The sergeant wondered how he should escape. [Direct question: “How shall I
escape?”]

I have not decided which train I shall take. [Direct question: “Which train shall I
take?”]

442. Both direct and indirect questions may be introduced (1) by the interrogative
pronouns who, which, what; (2) by the interrogative adverbs when, where, whence,
whither, how, why.

Indirect questions may be introduced by the subordinate conjunctions whether

(whether ... or) and if.

The use of tenses in indirect questions is the same as in the indirect discourse (§
434).

The constable inquired whether (or if) I lived in Casterbridge. [His question was:
Do you live in Casterbridge?]

Your father wishes to know if you have been playing truant. [Direct question: Have
you been playing truant?]

I considered whether I should apply to Kent or to Arnold. [Direct question: Shall I

apply to Kent or to Arnold?]

443. Indirect questions are usually noun clauses. They may be used in various noun
constructions: (1) as object of some verb of asking or the like, (2) as subject,
(3) as predicate nominative, (4) as appositive, (5) as object of a preposition.

The skipper asked what had become of the cook. [Object.]

He was asked what his profession was. [Retained object after the passive (§§ 253,
389).]

How we could escape was a difficult question. [Subject.]

The problem was how they should find food. [Predicate nominative.]

The question who was to blame has never been settled. [Apposition with question.]

They all felt great perplexity as to what they should do. [Object of a
preposition.]
An indirect question may be an adverbial clause.

They were uncertain what course they should take. [The clause modifies uncertain.]

Edmund was in doubt where he should spend the night. [The clause modifies the
adjective phrase in doubt.]

444. Since the pronouns who, which, and what may be either interrogative or
relative, an indirect question may closely resemble a relative clause. These two
constructions, however, are sharply distinguished. A relative clause always asserts
something. An indirect question, on the contrary, has an interrogative sense which
may be seen by turning the question into the direct form.

The sailor who saved the child is a Portuguese. [The clause who saved the child is
a relative clause, for it makes a distinct assertion about the sailor,—namely, that
he saved the child. Who is a relative pronoun and sailor is its antecedent.]

{I asked | I do not know | It is still a question | It is doubtful} who saved the

child. [Here the clause who saved the child makes no assertion. On the contrary, it
expresses a question which may easily be put in a direct form with an interrogation
point: “Who saved the child?” Who is an interrogative pronoun. It has no
antecedent.]

The following examples further illustrate the difference between these two
constructions:—

1. I foresee the course which he will take. [Relative clause.]

I foresee which course he will take. [Indirect question.]

2. I heard what he said. [Relative clause. What = “that which.”]

I wondered what he said. [Indirect question. What is an interrogative pronoun.]

3. This is the man who brought the news. [Relative clause.]

The king asked who brought the news. [Indirect question.]

4. Here is a paper which you must sign. [Relative clause.]

The clerk will tell you which paper you must sign. [Indirect question.]

Note. In such a sentence as “Tom knows who saved the child,” the indirect question
may at first appear to be a relative clause with an omitted antecedent (the man, or
the person). If, however, we insert such an antecedent (“Tom knows the man who
saved the child”), the meaning is completely changed. In the original sentence, it
is stated that Tom knows the answer to the question, “Who saved the child?” In the
new form of the sentence, it is stated that Tom is acquainted with a certain
person, and to this is added an assertion about this person in the form of a
relative clause.

445. An indirect question is sometimes expressed by means of an interrogative

pronoun or adverb followed by an infinitive.

Whom to choose is a serious question. [Direct question: Whom shall we choose?]

John asked what to do. [John’s question was: What shall I do?]

I know where to go. [Direct question: Where shall I go?]

Tell me when to strike the bell.

I was at a loss how to reply.

I am in doubt how to begin this essay.

In the first four examples the italicized phrase is used as a noun (either as
subject or object). In the fifth, the phrase how to reply is adverbial, modifying
the adjective phrase at a loss.

446. The subjunctive was formerly common in indirect questions, and is still
occasionally used after if or whether.

I doubt if it be true.

Elton questioned whether the project were wise.

447. The rule for shall (should) and will (would) in indirect questions is, to
retain the auxiliary used in the direct question, merely changing the tense (shall
to should; will to would) when necessary (§ 442).

I. Mere Futurity 1. Direct: What shall I do?

Indirect: I wonder what I shall do.

You ask me what you shall do.

He asks me what he shall do.

I wondered what I should do.

You asked me what you should do.

He asked me what he should do.

2. Direct: Shall you lose your position?

Indirect: {I ask | He asks} you if you shall lose your position.

{I asked | He asked} you if you should lose your position.

3. Direct: Will Charles lose his position?

Indirect: I ask if Charles will lose his position.

{I | You | Tom} asked if Charles would lose his position.

II. Volition 4. Direct: Will you help me?

Indirect: You ask if I will help you.

He asks if I will help him.

You asked if I would help you.

He asked if I would help him.

{I asked him | You asked him | Tom asked him} if he would {help me. | help you. |
help him.}

Note. There is a single exception to the rule in § 447. When, in changing from a
direct to an indirect question, the third person with will or would becomes the
first, shall or should is substituted unless volition is expressed. Thus, John says
to Thomas, “Will Charles die of his wound?” Charles, reporting John’s question,
says, “John asked Thomas whether I should die of my wound.” Compare § 438, note.

PART THREE

ANALYSIS

CHAPTER I

THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES

448. Analysis is a Greek word which means “the act of dissolving or breaking up.”
In grammar it is applied to the separation of a sentence into its constituent
parts, or elements. To dissect a sentence in this way is to analyze it.

The elements which make up a sentence are: (1) the simple subject; (2) the simple
predicate; (3) modifiers; (4) the complements,—direct object, predicate objective,
predicate adjective, predicate nominative; and (5) the so-called independent
elements,—the interjection, the vocative (or nominative of direct address), the
exclamatory nominative, and various parenthetical expressions (§ 501).

449. The absolute essentials for a sentence are a substantive as subject and a verb
as predicate (§ 35). By combining these two indispensable elements, in various
ways, with modifiers and complements, the sentence may be extended to any length
desired. Indeed, the sole limits are the constructive skill of the writer and the
hearer’s ability to follow the thought without losing the thread.

In the present chapter, we shall consider how sentences are built up, or
constructed. Our starting point in this study will be the simple sentence.

SIMPLE SENTENCES

450. The following statement is a simple sentence, for it contains but one subject
and one predicate (§ 46):—

The polar bear | lives in the Arctic regions.

The framework or skeleton of this simple sentence consists of the subject noun bear
(the simple subject) and the predicate verb lives (the simple predicate). To make
the complete subject, bear takes as modifiers the two adjectives the and polar; to
make the complete predicate, lives takes as modifier the adverbial phrase in the
Arctic regions.

By attaching another simple subject to bear we make a compound subject. Similarly,

we make a compound predicate by adding another verb (§ 38).

The polar bear and the walrus | live and thrive in the Arctic regions.

The compound subject is bear and walrus; the compound predicate is live and thrive.
Both verbs are modified by the adverbial phrase in the Arctic regions. The sentence
itself is still a simple sentence.

In each of the following simple sentences either the subject or the predicate or
both are compound:—

Games and carols closed the busy day.—Rogers.

The stars leap forth, and tremble, and retire before the advancing moon.—George
Meredith.

Madame Defarge knitted with nimble fingers and steady eyebrows, and saw nothing.—
Dickens.
Work or worry had left its traces upon his thin, yellow face.—Doyle.

Crows flutter about the towers and perch on every weathercock.—Irving.

He gained the door to the landing, pulled it open, and rushed forth.—Lytton.

Countrymen, butchers, drovers, hawkers, boys, thieves, idlers, and vagabonds of

every low grade, were mingled together in a dense mass.—Dickens.

There stood the broad-wheeled wains and the antique plows and the harrows.—
Longfellow.

Both Augustus and Peters joined with him in his design and insisted upon its
immediately being carried into effect.—Poe.

Women and children, from garrets alike and cellars, through infinite London, look
down or look up with loving eyes upon our gay ribbons and our martial laurels.—De
Quincey.

COMPOUND SENTENCES

451. If we attach another simple sentence to that in § 450, the result is a

compound sentence.

The polar bear | lives in the Arctic regions, || but || it | sometimes reaches
temperate latitudes.

This is manifestly a compound sentence, for it consists of two coördinate clauses,

joined by the conjunction but (§ 46).

The framework of the second clause consists of the subject it and the simple
predicate reaches. To make the complete predicate, the verb reaches takes not only
a modifier (the adverb sometimes), but a complement,—the direct object latitudes,
which completes the meaning of the verb. This noun is itself modified by the
adjective temperate. Both clauses are simple, for each contains but one subject and
one predicate.

452. Obviously, almost any number of simple sentences may be joined (with or
without conjunctions) to make one compound sentence.

The quiet August noon has come;

A slumberous silence fills the sky;

The fields are still, the woods are dumb,

In glassy sleep the waters lie.—Bryant.

States fall, arts fade, but Nature does not die.—Byron.

The court was sitting; the case was heard; the judge had finished; and only the
verdict was yet in arrear.—De Quincey.

He softly blushed; he sighed; he hoped; he feared; he doubted; he sometimes yielded

to the delightful idea.—Thackeray.

A mob appeared before the window, a smart rap was heard at the door, the boys
hallooed, and the maid announced Mr. Grenville.—Cowper.

His health had suffered from confinement; his high spirit had been cruelly wounded;
and soon after his liberation he died of a broken heart.—Macaulay.

COMPLEX SENTENCES

453. The simple sentence in § 450 may be made complex by means of a subordinate
clause used as a modifier (§ 47).

The polar bear, which lives in the Arctic regions, sometimes reaches temperate
latitudes.

The polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes when the ice drifts southward.

In the first example, the simple subject (bear), besides its two adjective
modifiers (the and polar), takes a third, the adjective clause which lives in the
Arctic regions (§ 47). The sentence, then, is complex: the main clause is the polar
bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes; the subordinate clause is which lives
in the Arctic regions.

The second sentence is also complex. The main clause is the same as in the first
(the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes). The subordinate clause is
when the ice drifts southward, an adverbial modifier of the predicate verb reaches.

COMPOUND AND COMPLEX CLAUSES

454. Two or more coördinate clauses may be joined to make one compound clause.

The polar bear, which lives in the Arctic regions and whose physical constitution
is wonderfully adapted to that frigid climate, sometimes reaches temperate
latitudes.

The polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes when the floes break up and
when the ice drifts southward.
In the first example, the italicized words form a compound adjective clause,
modifying the noun bear. It consists of two coördinate adjective clauses joined by
and. These clauses are coördinate because they are of the same order or rank in the
sentence (§ 46), each being (if taken singly) an adjective modifier of the noun.

In the second example, the predicate verb reaches is modified by a compound

adverbial clause, similarly made up.

455. A clause is complex when it contains a modifying clause.

The polar bear, which lives in the Arctic regions when it is at home, sometimes
reaches temperate latitudes.

Here the adjective clause which lives in the Arctic regions when it is at home is
complex, for it contains the adverbial clause when it is at home, modifying the
verb lives.

COMPOUND COMPLEX SENTENCES

456. Two or more independent complex clauses may be joined to make a compound
complex sentence.

The brown bear, of which there are several varieties, is common in the temperate
regions of the Eastern Hemisphere; || and || the polar bear sometimes reaches
temperate latitudes when the ice drifts southward.

This is a compound complex sentence, for it consists of two complex clauses joined
by the coördinate conjunction and. Each of these two clauses is independent of the
other, for each might stand by itself as a complex sentence.

The first complex clause contains an adjective clause, of which there are several
varieties, modifying bear; the second contains an adverbial clause, when the ice
drifts southward, modifying reaches.

457. A sentence consisting of two or more independent clauses is also classed as a

compound complex sentence if any one of these is complex.

The brown bear is common in the temperate regions of the Eastern Hemisphere; || and
|| the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes when the ice drifts
southward.

The brown bear, of which there are several varieties, is common in the temperate
regions of the Eastern Hemisphere; || and || the polar bear sometimes reaches
temperate latitudes.

Both of these are compound complex sentences. In one, the first clause is simple (§
451) and the second is complex. In the other, the first clause is complex and the
second is simple.

CHAPTER II

ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES

SIMPLE SENTENCES

458. In analyzing a simple sentence, we first divide it into the complete subject
and the complete predicate. Then we point out the simple subject with its
modifiers, and the simple predicate with its modifiers and complement (if there is
one). If either the subject or the predicate is compound, we mention the simple
subjects or predicates that are joined.

1. The polar bear lives in the Arctic regions.

This is a simple sentence. The complete subject is the polar bear; the complete
predicate is lives in the Arctic regions. The simple subject is the noun bear; the
simple predicate is the verb lives. Bear is modified by the adjectives the and
polar; lives is modified by the adverbial phrase in the Arctic regions. This phrase
consists of the preposition in; its object, the noun regions; and the adjectives
the and Arctic, modifying regions.

2. The polar bear and the walrus live and thrive in the Arctic regions.

The complete subject is the polar bear and the walrus. Two simple subjects (bear
and walrus) are joined by the conjunction and to make a compound subject, and two
simple predicates (live and thrive) are joined by and to make a compound predicate.
Live and thrive are both modified by the adverbial phrase in the Arctic regions.

COMPOUND SENTENCES
459. In analyzing a compound sentence we first divide it into its coördinate
clauses, and then analyze each clause by itself. Thus,—

The polar bear lives in the Arctic regions, but it sometimes reaches temperate
latitudes.

This is a compound sentence consisting of two coördinate clauses joined by the

conjunction but: (1) the polar bear lives in the Arctic regions and (2) it
sometimes reaches temperate latitudes. The complete subject of the first clause is
the polar bear [and so on, as in § 458, above]. The subject of the second clause is
it; the complete predicate is sometimes reaches temperate latitudes. The simple
predicate is reaches, which is modified by the adverb sometimes and is completed by
the direct object latitudes. The complement latitudes is modified by the adjective
temperate.

COMPLEX SENTENCES

460. In analyzing a complex sentence, we first divide it into the main clause and
the subordinate clause.

1. The polar bear, which lives in the Arctic regions, sometimes reaches temperate
latitudes.

This is a complex sentence. The main clause is the polar bear sometimes reaches
temperate latitudes; the subordinate clause is which lives in the Arctic regions.
The complete subject of the sentence is the polar bear, which lives in the Arctic
regions; the complete predicate is sometimes reaches temperate latitudes. The
simple subject is bear, which is modified by the adjectives the and polar and by
the adjective clause which lives in the Arctic regions. The simple predicate is
reaches, which is modified by the adverb sometimes and completed by the direct
object latitudes. This complement, latitudes, is modified by the adjective
temperate. The subordinate clause is introduced by the relative pronoun which.
[Then analyze the subordinate clause.]

2. The polar bear reaches temperate latitudes when the ice drifts southward.

This is a complex sentence. The main clause is the polar bear reaches temperate
latitudes; the subordinate clause is when the ice drifts southward. The complete
subject of the sentence is the polar bear; the complete predicate is reaches
temperate latitudes when the ice drifts southward. The simple subject is bear,
which is modified by the adjectives the and polar. The simple predicate is reaches,
which is modified by the adverbial clause when the ice drifts southward, and
completed by the noun latitudes (the direct object of reaches). The complement
latitudes is modified by the adjective temperate. The subordinate clause is
introduced by the relative adverb when. [Then analyze the subordinate clause.]

3. The polar bear, which lives in the Arctic regions when it is at home, sometimes
reaches temperate latitudes.

This is a complex sentence. The main clause is the polar bear sometimes reaches
temperate latitudes; the subordinate clause is which lives in the Arctic regions
when it is at home, which is complex, since it contains the adverbial clause when
it is at home, modifying the verb lives.

4. He says that the polar bear lives in the Arctic regions.

This is a complex sentence. The main clause is he says; the subordinate clause is
that the polar bear lives in the Arctic regions. The subject of the sentence is he,
the complete predicate is says that the polar bear lives in the Arctic regions. The
simple predicate is says, which is completed by its direct object, the noun clause
that ... regions, introduced by the conjunction that. [Then analyze the subordinate
clause.]

5. That the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes is a familiar fact.

This is a complex sentence. The main clause (is a familiar fact) appears as a
predicate only, since the subordinate clause (that the polar bear sometimes reaches
temperate latitudes) is a noun clause used as the complete subject of the sentence.
The simple predicate is is, which is completed by the predicate nominative fact.
This complement is modified by the adjectives a and familiar. The subordinate
clause, which is used as the complete subject, is introduced by the conjunction
that. [Then analyze this clause.]

COMPOUND COMPLEX SENTENCES

461. In analyzing a compound complex sentence, we first divide it into the

independent clauses (simple or complex) of which it consists, and then analyze each
of these as if it were a sentence by itself.

See the examples in §§ 456, 457.

CHAPTER III

MODIFIERS

462. The various kinds of modifiers and complements have all been studied in
preceding chapters,—each in connection with the construction which it illustrates.
For purposes of analysis, however, it is necessary to consider modifiers as such
and complements as such.

The topics will be taken up in the following order:—(1) modifiers,—of the subject,
of the predicate; (2) complements; (3) modifiers of complements; (4) modifiers of
modifiers.

463. A word or group of words that changes or modifies the meaning of another word
is called a modifier (§ 19).

{Men | Able men | Men of ability} can always find employment.

{Walls | Battlemented walls | Walls with battlements} usually enclosed mediæval

cities.

{Cottages | English cottages | Cottages in England} are often thatched.

The boy listened {eagerly. | with eagerness.}

I coughed {purposely. | on purpose.}

The bullet passed {harmlessly. | without doing harm.}

464. Modifiers may be attached not only to substantives and verbs, but also to
adjectives and adverbs.

All modifiers of substantives are called adjective modifiers; all modifiers of

verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are called adverbial modifiers.

Note. The terms adjective modifier and adjective are not synonymous. All adjectives
are adjective modifiers, but all adjective modifiers are not adjectives. Thus, in
“Henry’s skates are rusty,” the possessive noun Henry’s is an adjective modifier,
since it limits the noun skates as an adjective might do.

465. A group of words used as a modifier may be either a phrase or a clause (§§ 40–
46).

{Able men | Men of ability | Men who have ability} can always find employment.

I spoke {thoughtlessly. | without thinking. | before I thought.}

A phrase or a clause used as an adjective modifier is called an adjective phrase or

clause.

A phrase or a clause used as an adverbial modifier is called an adverbial phrase or

clause.

Adjective and adverbial clauses are always subordinate, because they are used as
parts of speech (§ 46).

MODIFIERS OF THE SUBJECT

466. Any substantive in the sentence may take an adjective modifier, but modifiers
of the subject are particularly important.

The simple subject may be modified by (1) an adjective, an adjective phrase, or an

adjective clause; (2) a participle; (3) an infinitive; (4) a possessive; (5) an
appositive.

I. ADJECTIVES, ADJECTIVE PHRASES, ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

467. The simple subject may be modified by an adjective, an adjective phrase, or an

adjective clause.

{Ivory trinkets | Trinkets of ivory | Trinkets which were carved from ivory} lay
scattered about.

{Treeless spots | Spots without trees | Spots where no trees grew} were plainly
visible.

In each of these groups of sentences, the subject of the first sentence is modified
by an adjective, that of the second by an adjective phrase, that of the third by an
adjective clause.

Most adjective phrases are prepositional (§ 42), as in the examples.

468. An adjective clause may be introduced by a relative pronoun or a relative

adverb. For lists, see § 377.

I. Relative Pronouns

The architect who designed this church was a man of genius.

The painter whom Ruskin oftenest mentions is Turner.

A piece of amber which is rubbed briskly will attract bits of paper.

The day that I dreaded came at last.

The plain through which this river flows is marvelously fertile.

The book from which I got this information is always regarded as authoritative.

A friend in whom one can trust is a treasure beyond price.

The boys with whom he associates do him no good.

II. Relative Adverbs

The spot where the Old Guard made their last stand is marked by a bronze eagle.

The morning when I arrived in Rome is one of my pleasantest memories.

The year after Ashton left home brought fresh disaster.

The land whence Scyld drifted in his magic boat will never be known.

Note. A preposition and a relative pronoun may often replace a relative adverb.
Thus, in the second example, on which might be substituted for when.

II. PARTICIPLES

469. The subject may be modified by a participle (with or without modifier or

complement).

1. Smiling, the child shook his head.

2. My aunt, reassured, took up her book again.

3. The prisoner sank back exhausted.

4. Exasperated beyond endurance, the captain cut the rope.

5. John, obeying a sudden impulse, took to his heels.

6. Having broken one oar, Robert had to scull.

7. The natives, fearing captivity above all things, leaped into the river.

8. Albert left the room, looking rather sullen.

In the fourth example the participle is modified by an adverbial phrase; in the

fifth and sixth, it has an object; in the seventh, it has both an object and a
modifier; in the eighth, it is followed by the predicate adjective sullen. In
analysis, the whole participial phrase (consisting of the participle and
accompanying words) may be treated as an adjective phrase modifying the subject;
but it is simpler to regard the participle as the modifier, and then to enumerate
its modifiers, etc., separately.

Thus, in the seventh example, the simple subject natives is modified by the
participle fearing, which has for a complement captivity (the direct object) and is
modified by the adverbial phrase above all things.

Note. A participle, though a modifier of the subject, has at the same time a
peculiar relation to the predicate, because it may take the place of an adverbial
clause. Thus, in the seventh example, fearing is practically equivalent to the
clause because they feared, which, if substituted for the participle, would of
course modify the predicate verb leaped. This dual office of the participle comes
from its twofold nature as (1) an adjective and (2) a verb. In analyzing, we treat
the participle as an adjective modifier of the noun to which it belongs; but its
function as a substitute for an adverbial clause is an important means of securing
variety in style.

III. INFINITIVES

470. The subject may be modified by an infinitive.

Eagerness to learn was young Lincoln’s strongest passion.

Desire to travel made Taylor restless.

The wish to succeed prompted him to do his best.

Ability to write rapidly is a valuable accomplishment.

Howard’s unwillingness to desert a friend cost him his life.

In the fourth example, the infinitive has an adverbial modifier (rapidly); and in
the fifth, it has a complement, its object (friend). In such instances, two methods
of analysis are allowable, as in the case of participial phrases (§ 469).

IV. POSSESSIVES

471. The subject may be modified by a substantive in the possessive case.

Such a substantive may be called a possessive modifier.

Napoleon’s tomb is in Paris.

A man’s house is his castle.

One’s taste in reading changes as one grows older.

A moment’s thought would have saved me.

The squirrel’s teeth grow rapidly.

The Indians’ camp was near the river.

His name is Alfred.

Your carriage has arrived.

In each of these examples, a substantive in the possessive case modifies the

subject by limiting its meaning precisely as an adjective would do.

Note. An adjective phrase may often be substituted for a possessive. Thus, in the
first example, instead of “Napoleon’s tomb” one may say “the tomb of Napoleon” (§
93).

V. APPOSITIVES

472. The subject may be modified by a substantive in apposition (§ 88, 5).

Meredith the carpenter lives in that house.

Herbert, our captain, has broken his leg.

The idol of the Aztecs, a grotesque image, was thrown down by the Spaniards.

Many books, both pamphlets and bound volumes, littered the table. [Here the subject
(books) is modified by two appositives.]

Appositives often have modifiers of their own.

Thus carpenter is modified by the adjective the, captain by the possessive our,
image by the adjectives a and grotesque.

In analyzing, the whole appositive phrase (consisting of the appositive and

attached words) may be regarded as modifying the subject. It is as well, however,
to treat the appositive as the modifier and then to enumerate the adjectives, etc.,
by which the appositive itself is modified.

473. A noun clause may be used as an appositive, and so may be an adjective

modifier (§ 386).

The question whether Antonio was a citizen was settled in the affirmative. [Here
the italicized clause is used as a noun in apposition with question.]

The statement that water freezes seems absurd to a native of the torrid zone. [The
clause that water freezes is in apposition with statement.]

An adjective in the appositive position is often called an appositive adjective (§

172). “A sword, keen and bright, flashed from the soldier’s scabbard.”

MODIFIERS OF THE PREDICATE

474. The simple predicate, being a verb or verb-phrase, can have only adverbial
modifiers.

The simple predicate may be modified by (1) an adverb, an adverbial phrase, or an

adverbial clause, (2) an infinitive, (3) an adverbial objective, (4) a nominative
absolute, (5) an indirect object, (6) a cognate object.

I. ADVERB, ADVERBIAL PHRASE, ADVERBIAL CLAUSE

475. The simple predicate may be modified by an adverb, an adverbial phrase, or an

adverbial clause.

The landlord collects his rents {monthly. | on the first of every month. | when the
first of the month comes.}

The old schoolhouse stands {there. | at the cross-roads. | where the roads meet.}

We left the hall {early. | before the last speech. | while the last speech was
being delivered.}

In each of these groups, the simple predicate of the first sentence is modified by
an adverb, that of the second by an adverbial phrase, and that of the third by an
adverbial clause.

Most adverbial phrases are prepositional (§ 42).

Adverb Adverbial Phrase

speedily with speed

furiously with fury

lately of late
instantly in an instant

there in that place

rapidly at a rapid rate

skillfully in a skillful manner

with skill

promptly on the instant

to-morrow on the morrow

unwillingly against my will

Peculiar adverbial phrases are:—

to and fro,

now and then,

up and down,

again and again,

first and last,

full speed,

full tilt,

hit or miss,

more or less,

head first,

upside down,

inside out,

sink or swim,

cash down.

476. An adverbial clause that modifies a verb may be introduced by (1) a relative
adverb, or (2) a subordinate conjunction.

I. Relative Adverbs

Our colonel was always found where the fighting was fiercest.
When I give the signal, press the button.

Whenever I call, you refuse to see me.

Miller arrived after the play had begun.

Everybody listened while the vagrant told his story.

My uncle laughed until the tears came.

The prisoner has not been seen since he made his escape.

II. Subordinate Conjunctions

Archer resigned because his health failed.

I will give the address if you will let me choose my subject.

Brandon insisted on walking, although the roads were dangerous.

The child ran with all her might lest she should be too late.

I gave you a front seat in order that you might hear.

The town lies at the base of a lofty cliff so that it is sheltered from the north
wind.

II. INFINITIVE

477. The simple predicate may be modified by an infinitive (§ 323).

He lay down to rest.

I stopped to listen.

The fire continued to burn.

The wind began to subside.

Jack worked hard to fell the tree.

Will did his best to win the prize.

Kate began to weep bitterly.

That draughtsman seems to be remarkably skilful.

The infinitive may have a complement or a modifier, as in the last four examples.

III. ADVERBIAL OBJECTIVE

478. The simple predicate may be modified by an adverbial objective (§ 109).

I have waited ages.

We have walked miles.

Arthur practised weeks.

The addition of modifiers to the adverbial objective makes an adverbial phrase.

Walter ran the entire distance.

He stayed a whole day.

I will forgive you this time.

He came at me full tilt.

The wind blew all night.

Come with me a little way.

In the first sentence, the adverbial phrase the entire distance modifies the verb
ran as an adverb would do. This phrase consists of the noun distance with its
adjective modifiers, the and entire.

IV. NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE

479. The simple predicate may be modified by a nominative absolute (§ 345).

A substantive in the absolute construction makes with its modifiers an adverbial

phrase.

The ship having arrived, we all embarked.

We shall sail on Tuesday, weather permitting.

That done, repair to Pompey’s theatre.

The bridge across the chasm being only a single tree trunk, we hesitated to attempt
the passage.

In the first sentence, the adverbial absolute phrase, the ship having arrived, is
equivalent to the adverbial prepositional phrase, on the arrival of the ship, and
defines the time of the action expressed by the verb embarked.

V. INDIRECT OBJECT

480. The simple predicate may be modified by an indirect object (§ 105).

He gave me a watch. [= He gave a watch to me.]

Tom told me the whole story. [= Tom told the whole story to me.]

In these sentences, the indirect object me, being equivalent to a prepositional

phrase, is an adverbial modifier.

The objective of service (§ 106) is also an adverbial modifier.

VI. COGNATE OBJECT

481. The simple predicate may be modified by a cognate object or by a phrase

containing such an object (§ 108).

The officer looked daggers at me [= looked at me angrily].

The shepherd sang a merry song [= sang merrily].

The skipper laughed a scornful laugh [= laughed scornfully].

In the first sentence, the cognate object (daggers) modifies the predicate verb
(looked) as the adverb angrily would do. It is therefore an adverbial modifier. In
the second and third sentences the modifier of the predicate verb (sang, laughed)
is an adverbial phrase consisting of a cognate object (song, laugh) with its
adjective modifiers (a merry, a scornful).

CHAPTER IV

COMPLEMENTS
482. 1. Some verbs have a meaning that is complete in itself. Such a verb needs
only a subject. When this has been supplied, we have a sentence, for the mere verb,
without any additional word or words, is capable of being a predicate.

Birds fly.

Fishes swim.

The sun shines.

The moon rose.

The man scowled.

The girl laughed.

The owls hooted.

The clock ticked.

Verbs of this kind are sometimes called complete verbs, or verbs of complete
predication.

2. Other verbs are not, by themselves, capable of serving as predicates. Thus,—

The Indians killed ——.

Mr. Harris makes ——.

Tom is ——.

The man seemed ——.

These are not sentences, for the predicate of each is unfinished. The verb requires
the addition of a substantive or an adjective to complete its sense.

The Indians killed deer.

Mr. Harris makes shoes.

Tom is captain.

The man seemed sorry.

Verbs of this kind are often called incomplete verbs, or verbs of incomplete
predication.

Note. The meaning of the verb determines to which of these classes it belongs.
Accordingly, the same verb may belong to the first class in some of its senses and
to the second in others (§§ 212–215).

483. A substantive or adjective added to the predicate verb to complete its meaning
is called a complement.

Complements are of four kinds,—the direct object, the predicate objective, the
predicate nominative, and the predicate adjective.

In the examples in § 482, deer and shoes are direct objects,—the former denoting
the receiver of the action, the latter denoting the product; captain is a predicate
nominative, denoting the same person as the subject Tom (§ 88, 2); sorry is a
predicate adjective describing the subject man.

Complements may, of course, be modified. If they are substantives, they may take
adjective modifiers; if adjectives, they may take adverbial modifiers (§§ 464,
494).

484. For convenience, the definitions of the four kinds of complements are here
repeated, with examples.

1. THE DIRECT OBJECT

485. Some verbs may be followed by a substantive denoting that which receives the
action or is produced by it. These are called transitive verbs. All other verbs are
called intransitive.

A substantive that completes the meaning of a transitive verb is called its direct
object (§ 100).

The direct object is often called the object complement, or merely the object of
the verb.

Alfred has broken his arm.

Morse invented the electric telegraph.

Black foxes command a high price.

You have accomplished a task of great difficulty.

Have you lost the dog which your uncle gave you?

He asked me the news. [Two direct objects (§ 103).]

Most of these objects are modified,—arm by the possessive his; telegraph by the and
electric; price by a and high; task by the adjective phrase of great difficulty;
dog by the and by the adjective clause which your uncle gave you.

486. A noun clause may be used as the direct object of a verb (§ 386).

You promised that my coat should be ready to-day.

The mayor ordered that the street should be closed for three hours.

I begged that my passport might be returned to me.

For further examples, see §§ 407, 432, 439, 441.

2. THE PREDICATE OBJECTIVE

487. Verbs of choosing, calling, naming, making, and thinking may take two objects
referring to the same person or thing.

The first of these is the direct object, and the second, which completes the sense
of the predicate, is called a predicate objective (§ 104).

The predicate objective is often called the complementary object or the objective
attribute.

The people have elected Chamberlain governor.

Peter calls Richard my shadow.

The court has appointed you the child’s guardian.

John thinks himself a hero.

488. An adjective may serve as a predicate objective. Thus,—

I thought your decision hasty.

I call that answer impertinent.

The jury found the prisoner guilty.

Your letter made him joyful.

Care should be taken not to confuse adverbs with adjectives in -ly serving as
predicate objectives.

You called him sickly. [Adjective.]

You called him early. [Adverb.]

After the passive, a predicate objective becomes a predicate nominative (§ 489).

3. THE PREDICATE NOMINATIVE

489. A substantive standing in the predicate, but describing or defining the

subject, agrees with the subject in case and is called a predicate nominative (§
88, 2).

A predicate nominative is often called a subject complement or an attribute.

The predicate nominative is common after is and other copulative verbs, and after
certain transitive verbs in the passive voice.

Chemistry is a useful science.

Boston is the capital of Massachusetts.

Jefferson became President.

This bird is called a flamingo.

Mr. Hale was appointed secretary.

Albert has been chosen captain of the crew.

You are a friend upon whom I can rely.

In most of the examples, the predicate nominative has one or more modifiers. In the
first sentence, science is modified by the two adjectives a and useful; in the
second, capital is modified by the adjective phrase of Massachusetts; in the last,
friend is modified by the adjective clause upon whom I can rely.

For the distinction between the predicate nominative and the direct object, see §
102.

490. A noun clause may be used as a predicate nominative (§ 386).

My plan is that the well should be dug to-morrow.

His intention was that you should remain here.

The result is that he is bankrupt.

Ruth’s fear was that the door might be locked.

491. An infinitive may be used as a predicate nominative.

To hear is to obey.

My hope was to reach the summit before dark.

Their plan was to undermine the tower.

My habit is to rise early.

The infinitive may have a complement or modifiers. In the second and third
examples, it takes an object; in the fourth it is modified by an adverb.

4. THE PREDICATE ADJECTIVE

492. An adjective in the predicate belonging to a noun or pronoun in the subject is

called a predicate adjective.

A predicate adjective completes the meaning of the predicate verb and is therefore
a complement (§ 172, 3.)

Like the predicate nominative, the predicate adjective is common after copulative
verbs and after certain transitive verbs in the passive voice (§§ 172, 3; 252).

John was angry.

My knife is growing dull.

The task seemed very easy.

The report proved false in every particular.

The boat was thought unsafe.

The cover was made perfectly tight.

In some of these examples, the predicate adjective has a modifier. In the third,
easy is modified by the adverb very; in the fourth, false is modified by the
adverbial phrase in every particular; in the last, tight is modified by perfectly.

493. An adjective phrase may be used as a predicate adjective. Thus,—

Richard was out of health. [Compare: Richard was ill.]

Rachel seemed in a passion. [Compare: seemed angry.]

This act is against my interests. [Compare: is harmful to me.]

The adjective phrase may consist of an infinitive with or without the preposition
about (§ 319).

I was about to speak.

This house is to let.

I am to sail to-morrow.
CHAPTER V

MODIFIERS OF COMPLEMENTS AND OF MODIFIERS

COMPLEMENTS MODIFIED

494. Complements, being either substantives or adjectives, may be modified in

various ways, most of which have been noted in Chapter III.

1. A substantive used as a complement may have the same kinds of modifiers that are
used with the subject (§ 466).

2. An adjective complement admits only adverbial modifiers.

495. The following sentences illustrate the modifiers of substantive complements:—

Herbert lost a gold watch. [The direct object (watch) is modified by the adjectives
a and gold.]

The duke built towers of marble. [The direct object (towers) is modified by the
adjective phrase of marble.]

My father built the house in which I was born. [The direct object (house) is
modified by the adjective the and the adjective clause in which I was born.]

I saw a man running across the field. [The direct object (man) is modified by the
adjective a and the participle running.]

You have forfeited your right to vote. [The direct object (right) is modified by
the possessive pronoun your and the infinitive to vote.]

I have seen Henry’s brother. [The direct object (brother) is modified by the
possessive noun Henry’s.]

I must ask my brother, the mayor. [The direct object (brother) is modified by the
possessive pronoun my and the appositive mayor.]

The guild has elected Walter honorary president. [The predicate objective
(president) is modified by the adjective honorary.]

Her husband is an old soldier. [The predicate nominative (soldier) is modified by

the adjectives an and old.]

Her sons are veterans of the Franco-Prussian war. [The predicate nominative
(veterans) is modified by the adjective phrase of the Franco-Prussian war.]

They are rivals in business. [The predicate nominative (rivals) is modified by the
adjective phrase in business.]

The author is Will Jewell, who was formerly editor of “The Pioneer.” [The predicate
nominative (Will Jewell) is modified by the adjective clause who was formerly
editor, etc.]

Baldwin is the man standing under the tree. [The predicate nominative (man) is
modified by the adjective the and the participle standing.]

Your chief fault is your inclination to procrastinate. [The predicate nominative

(inclination) is modified by the possessive pronoun your and the infinitive to
procrastinate.]

This man is Gretchen’s brother. [The predicate nominative (brother) is modified by

the possessive noun Gretchen’s.]

The first to fall was the bugler, John Wilson. [The predicate nominative (bugler)
is modified by the adjective the and the appositive John Wilson.]

496. Adjective clauses are very common as modifiers of substantive complements (cf.
§ 468).

Have you lost the watch that your cousin gave you?

This is the very spot where the temple of Saturn stood.

The general issued an order that all non-combatants should be treated well.

We have abundant proof that during his stay on the Continent, Bacon did not neglect
literary and scientific pursuits.

497. An adjective used as a complement may be modified by an adverb, an adverbial

phrase, or an adverbial clause.

I am very sorry for you. [Sorry is modified by the adverb very and the adverbial
phrase for you.]

Charles seems {rather | very | extremely} angry.

The road is rough {in places. | where they are repairing it.}

The whole tribe appeared eager for war.

He grew envious of his successful rival.

Be zealous in every righteous cause.

The chief’s face looked dark with passion.

He was selfish beyond belief. [The predicate adjective (selfish) is modified by the
adverbial phrase beyond belief.]

Ellen seemed desirous that her friends should admire her.

The secretary appeared unwilling to resign. [See § 321, note.]

MODIFIERS OF OTHER MODIFIERS

498. Modifiers may themselves be modified.

The chief varieties of such modification are illustrated in the following

sentences.

I. Adjectives or adjective phrases may be modified by adverbs or by words or groups

of words used adverbially.

A very old man came to the door.

An exceedingly dangerous curve lay beyond the bridge.

This rather odd proposal interested us.

The quay is miles long. [Adverbial objective (§ 109).]

At least five different amendments have been offered. [Five is modified by the
adverbial phrase at least.]

The general, wholly in the dark as to the enemy’s intentions, ordered an advance.
[The adjective phrase in the dark is modified by wholly.]

Quite at his ease, John began to speak. [At his ease is modified by quite.]

Her smile, pathetic in its weariness, quickly faded. [The adverbial phrase modifies
pathetic]

This sleeve is a good two inches short. [The phrase modifies short.]

II. Possessive nouns may be modified by adjectives or by possessives.

The poor man’s days are numbered.

Honest Tom’s face shone with delight.

The faithful animal’s head drooped.

My uncle’s barn is on fire.

John’s brother’s name is Reginald.

III. Appositives may be modified by adjectives or by groups of words used as

adjectives.

Joe, the old butler, met me at the station.

Sam, the cunning rascal, had stolen the oars.

Her mother, a woman of fashion, sadly neglected her.

The other, the man at the table, laughed rudely.

Ferdinand Oliver, the engineer who had charge of the construction, proved
incompetent.

Two Englishmen, friends whom I visited last summer, are coming to New York in
December.

IV. Adverbs or adverbial phrases may be modified by adverbs or by words or groups

of words used adverbially.

Jane plays very well.

Robert spoke almost hopefully.

She answered quite at random.

I write to him at least once a year.

499. An adjective may be modified by an infinitive (§ 321).

Unable to move, I suffered torments of anxiety.

The sailors, eager to reach the island, plunged into the sea.

Reluctant to act, but unwilling to stand idle, Burwell was in a pitiful state of
indecision.

500. Adjective and adverbial clauses are very common as modifiers of modifiers (cf.
§ 496).

Geronimo, an old chief who bore the scars of many battles, led the attack. [The
adjective clause modifies the appositive chief.]

The servant, angry because he had been rebuked, slammed the door as he went out.

The hunter, confident that the deer had not heard him, took deliberate aim.

The fugitive, in a panic lest he should be overtaken, made frantic efforts to scale
the cliff. [The adverbial clause modifies the adjective phrase in a panic.]

CHAPTER VI

INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS

501. A word or group of words that has no grammatical connection with the sentence
in which it stands is called an independent element.
Independent elements are of four kinds,—interjections, vocatives (or nominatives by
direct address), exclamatory nominatives, and parenthetical expressions.

Ah! why did I undertake this task?

Help arrived, alas! too late.

You are a strange man, Arthur.

Mary, come here!

Poor Charles! I am sorry for him.

Clothes! clothes! you are always wanting clothes.

Lucky she! we are all envious of her prospects.

The first two sentences contain interjections (§ 372); the second two, vocatives
(or nominatives by direct address) (§ 88, 3); the last three, exclamatory
nominatives (§ 88, 4).

When the independent word has a modifier (as in the fifth and seventh examples),
the whole phrase may be treated as an independent element.

502. A word or group of words attached to or inserted in a sentence as a mere

comment, without belonging either to the subject or the predicate, is said to be
parenthetical.

The market, indeed, was already closed.

Peter, to be sure, was not very trustworthy.

The house, at all events, is safe.

The road is, I admit, very hilly.

Luttrell’s method, it must be confessed, was a little disappointing.

Richard was not a bad fellow, after all.

503. In analysis, an independent element is mentioned by itself, and not as a part

of the complete subject or the complete predicate.

CHAPTER VII

COMBINATIONS OF CLAUSES
504. The use of subordinate clauses as complements and modifiers, and as modifiers
of complements and of modifiers, may produce sentences of great length and
complicated structure.

Such sentences, if skilfully composed, are not hard to follow. Their analysis
requires merely the intelligent application of a few simple principles, which have
already been explained and illustrated.

505. These principles may be summed up as follows:—

I. All clauses are either independent or subordinate. A clause is subordinate if it

is used as a part of speech (noun, adjective, or adverb); otherwise, it is
independent (§ 46).

II. Coördinate means “of the same rank” in the sentence (§ 46).

1. Two or more independent clauses in the same sentence are manifestly coördinate.

The fire blazed and the wood crackled. [Two declarative clauses.]

What is your name, and where were you born? [Interrogative clauses.]

Sit down and tell me your story. [Imperative clauses.]

2. Two or more subordinate clauses are coördinate with each other when they are
used together in the same construction,—as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.

Such a group may be regarded as forming one compound subordinate clause.

The truth is, that I have no money and that my friends have forsaken me. [Noun
clauses.]

The Indians, who were armed with long lances, and who showed great skill in using
them, made a furious attack on the cavalry. [Adjective clauses.]

When he had spoken, but before a vote had been taken, a strange tumult was heard in
the outer room. [Adverbial clauses.]

In the first example, we have a compound noun clause; in the second, a compound
adjective clause; in the third, a compound adverbial clause.

3. Coördinate clauses are either joined by coördinate conjunctions (and, or, but,
etc.), or such conjunctions may be supplied without changing the sense (§ 362).

The good-natured old gentleman, who was friendly to both parties, [AND] who did not
lack courage, AND who hated a quarrel, spoke his mind with complete frankness.

III. A subordinate clause may depend on another subordinate clause.

The horse shied when he saw the locomotive. [The subordinate clause depends upon
the independent (main) clause.]
The horse shied when he saw the locomotive, which was puffing violently. [The
second subordinate clause depends upon the first, being an adjective modifier of
locomotive.]

In such cases, the whole group of subordinate clauses may be taken together as
forming one complex subordinate clause.

Thus, in the second example, when he saw the locomotive, which was puffing
violently may be regarded as a complex adverbial clause modifying shied, and
containing an adjective clause (which was puffing violently).

506. From the principles summarized in § 505, it appears that—

Clauses (like sentences) may be simple, compound, or complex.

1. A simple clause contains but one subject and one predicate, either or both of
which may be compound (§ 451).

2. A compound clause consists of two or more coördinate clauses (§ 454).

3. A complex clause consists of at least two clauses, one of which is subordinate

to the other.

507. The unit in all combinations of clauses is clearly the simple sentence, which,
when used as a part of a more complicated sentence, becomes a simple clause.

The processes used in such combinations, as we have seen, are really but two in
number,—coördination and subordination.

Coördination of clauses produces compound sentences or compound clauses;

subordination of one clause to another produces complex sentences or complex
clauses.

508. Every sentence, however long and complicated, belongs (in structure) to one of
the three classes,—simple, compound, and complex.

SIMPLE SENTENCES

509. A simple sentence may have a compound subject or predicate (or both), and may
also include a number of modifiers and complements.

Obviously, then, a simple sentence need not be short. It remains simple in

structure so long as it contains but one simple or compound subject and one simple
or compound predicate. Thus,—

1. You leave Glasgow in a steamboat, go down the Clyde fourteen miles, and then
come to Dumbarton Castle, a huge rock five or six hundred feet high, not connected
with any other high land, and with a fortress at the top.—Webster.
The length of this sentence is due partly to its compound predicate, partly to the
modifier (and modifiers of the modifier) attached to the noun Dumbarton Castle.

2. He was little disposed to exchange his lordly repose for the insecure and
agitated life of a conspirator, to be in the power of accomplices, to live in
constant dread of warrants and king’s messengers, nay, perhaps, to end his days on
a scaffold, or to live on alms in some back street of the Hague.—Macaulay.

This sentence is lengthened by means of a series of infinitives used as adverbial

modifiers of the complement disposed (a participle used as an adjective). Each of
these infinitives takes a complement or a modifier (or both).

3. The arbitrary measures of Charles I, the bold schemes of Strafford, and the
intolerant bigotry of Laud, precipitated a collision between the opposite
principles of government, and divided the whole country into Cavaliers and
Roundheads.—May.

Both the subject and the predicate are compound. Each of the three nouns in the
compound subject has modifiers. The two verbs in the compound predicate have each a
complement, and the second has an adverbial modifier (a phrase).

4. Twenty of the savages now got on board and proceeded to ramble over every part
of the deck and scramble about among the rigging, making themselves much at home
and examining every article with great inquisitiveness.—Poe.

The predicate is compound. The sentence is extended by the use of participles

(making and examining), which modify the simple subject twenty.

5. She was tumbled early, by accident or design, into a spacious closet of good old
English reading, without much selection or prohibition, and browsed at will upon
that fair and wholesome pasturage.—Lamb.

6. The mermaid was still seen to glide along the waters, and mingling her voice
with the sighing breeze, was often heard to sing of subterranean wonders, or to
chant prophecies of future events.—Scott.

7. With early dawn, they were under arms, and, without waiting for the movement of
the Spaniards, poured into the city and attacked them in their own quarters.—
Prescott.

8. Arming a desperate troop of slaves and gladiators, he overpowered the feeble

guard of the domestic tranquillity of Rome, received the homage of the Senate, and,
assuming the title of Augustus, precariously reigned during a tumult of twenty-
eight days.—Gibbon.
Note. A simple sentence with compound predicate often differs very slightly from a
compound sentence. Thus in examples 4–7 the insertion of a single pronoun (they,
she) to serve as a subject for the second verb (proceeded, browsed, etc.) will make
the sentence compound.

COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES

510. Every sentence that is not simple must be either compound or complex.

A sentence is compound if it consists of two or more independent clauses; complex,

if it consists of one independent (main) clause and one or more subordinate
clauses.

511. An ordinary compound sentence consists of two or more coördinate simple

clauses.

Such a sentence may be of great length (as in the last example below), but its
structure is usually transparent.

A cricket chirps on the hearth, | and | we are reminded of Christmas gambols long
ago.—Hazlitt.

The moments were numbered; | the strife was finished; | the vision was closed.—De
Quincey.

The old king had retired to his couch that night in one of the strongest towers of
the Alhambra, | but | his restless anxiety kept him from repose.—Irving.

The clock has just struck two; | the expiring taper rises and sinks in the socket;
| the watchman forgets his hour in slumber; | the laborious and the happy are at
rest; | and | nothing wakes but meditation, guilt, revelry, and despair.—Goldsmith.

The present, indeed, is not a contest for distant or contingent objects; | it is

not a contest for acquisition of territory; | it is not a contest for power and
glory; | as little is it carried on merely for any commercial advantage, or any
particular form of government; | but | it is a contest for the security, the
tranquillity, and the very existence of Great Britain, connected with that of every
established government and every country in Europe.—Pitt.

512. A complex sentence, in its most elementary form, consists of one simple
independent (main) clause and one simple subordinate clause.

The gas exploded when I struck a match.

Though he is idle, he is not lazy.

The carpenter who fell from the roof has recovered from his injuries.

Their eyes were so fatigued with the eternal dazzle and whiteness, that they lay
down on their backs upon deck to relieve their sight on the blue sky.—Keats.
The shouts of thousands, their menacing gestures, the fierce clashing of their
arms, astonished and subdued the courage of Vetranio, who stood, amidst the
defection of his followers, in anxious and silent suspense.—Gibbon.

513. Both compound sentences and complex sentences admit of much variety in
structure, according to the nature and the relations of the clauses that compose
them.

COMPOUND COMPLEX SENTENCES

514. Any or all of the coördinate clauses that make up a compound sentence may be
complex. In that case, the sentence is called a compound complex sentence.

Note. Compound complex sentences form a special class or subdivision under the
general head of compound sentences.49

Old Uncle Venner was just coming out of his door, with a wood-horse and saw on his
shoulder; and, trudging along the street, he scrupled not to keep company with
Phœbe, so far as their paths lay together; nor, in spite of his patched coat and
rusty beaver, and the curious fashion of his tow-cloth trousers, could she find it
in her heart to outwalk him.—Hawthorne.

This sentence consists of three coördinate clauses, each independent of the others.
These are joined by the coördinate conjunctions and, nor. The first and the third
clause are simple, but the second clause is complex. Hence the whole forms one
compound complex sentence.

The complex clause consists of two clauses, the second of which is subordinate to
the first. Taken as a whole, however, this complex clause is manifestly coördinate
with the two simple clauses, since the three form a series joined by coördinate
conjunctions.

515. Further examples of compound complex sentences are:—

1. The people drove out King Athamas, because he had killed his child; and he
roamed about in his misery, till he came to the Oracle in Delphi.—Kingsley.

2. Society is the stage on which manners are shown; novels are their literature.—
Emerson.

3. We keep no bees, but if I lived in a hive I should scarcely have more of their
music.—Cowper.

4. The same river ran on as it had run on before, but the cheerful faces that had
once been reflected in its stream had passed away.—Froude.
5. There are some laws and customs in this empire very peculiar; and if they were
not so directly contrary to those of my own dear country, I should be tempted to
say a little in their justification.—Swift.

6. Here they arrived about noon, and Joseph proposed to Adams that they should rest
awhile in this delightful place.—Fielding.

7. I never saw a busier person than she seemed to be; yet it was difficult to say
what she did.—C. Brontë.

8. Malaga possessed a brave and numerous garrison, and the common people were
active, hardy, and resolute; but the city was rich and commercial, and under the
habitual control of opulent merchants, who dreaded the ruinous consequences of a
siege.—Irving.

9. The Spaniards were not to be taken by surprise; and, before the barbarian horde
had come within their lines, they opened such a deadly fire from their heavy guns,
supported by the musketry and crossbows, that the assailants were compelled to fall
back slowly, but fearfully mangled, to their former position.—Prescott.

10. Her cheeks were as pale as marble, but of a cold, unhealthy, ashen white; and
my heart ached to think that they had been bleached, most probably, by bitter and
continual tears.—Hood.

11. The hawk, having in spiral motion achieved the upper flight, fell like a
thunderbolt on the raven, stunned him with the blow, clutched him in his talons,
folded him in his wings, and, the hawk undermost, they tumbled down like a black
ball, till within a short distance from the earth.—Trelawny.

In this sentence they were is understood after till.

VARIETIES OF THE COMPLEX SENTENCE

516. A complex sentence may be expanded either by compounding the main clause, or
by increasing the number of subordinate clauses. Both methods may be used in the
same sentence.

517. The independent (main) clause of a complex sentence may be compound.

When they saw the ship, they shouted for joy and some of them burst into tears.

As they turned down from the knoll to rejoin their comrades, the sun dipped and
disappeared, and the woods fell instantly into the gravity and grayness of the
early night.—Stevenson.

The eye of the young monarch kindled and his dark cheek flushed with sudden anger,
as he listened to proposals so humiliating.—Prescott.

Sharpe was so hated in Scotland during his life, and his death won him so many
friends, or pitying observers, that it is not easy to write of him without
prejudice or favor.—A. Lang.
As has been the case with many another good fellow of his nation, his life was
tracked and his substance wasted by crowds of hungry beggars and lazy dependents.—
Thackeray.

Note that the subordinate clause depends on the compound main clause, not upon
either of its members.

Thus, in the first example, the subordinate clause (when they saw the ship) depends
upon the compound main clause, they shouted for joy and some of them burst into
tears. It is an adverbial modifier of both shouted and burst.

518. Though a complex sentence can have but one (simple or compound) main clause,
there is, in theory, no limit to the number of subordinate clauses.

519. Subordinate clauses may be attached to the main clause (1) as separate
modifiers or complements; (2) in a coördinate series of clauses, all in the same
construction, and forming one compound clause; (3) in a series of successively
subordinate clauses, forming one complex clause.

520. Two or more subordinate clauses may be attached to the main clause separately,
each as a distinct modifier or complement.

The bridge, which had been weakened by the ice, fell with a crash while the
locomotive was crossing it. [The first subordinate clause is an adjective modifier
of bridge; the second is an adverbial modifier of fell.]

The architect who drew the plans says that the house will cost ten thousand
dollars. [The first subordinate clause is an adjective modifier of architect; the
second is a complement, being the object of says.]

Isabella, whom every incident was sufficient to dismay, hesitated whether she
should proceed.—H. Walpole.

As the boat drew nearer to the city, the coast which the traveller had just left
sank behind him into one long, low, sad-colored line.—Ruskin.

Those dangers which, in the vigor of youth, we had learned to despise, assume new
terrors as we grow old.—Goldsmith.

When Farmer Oak smiled, the corners of his mouth spread till they were within an
unimportant distance of his ears.—Hardy.

As Florian Deleal walked, one hot afternoon, he overtook by the wayside a poor aged
man, and, as he seemed weary with the road, helped him on with the burden which he
carried, a certain distance.—Pater.

While Joe was absent on this errand, the elder Willet and his three companions
continued to smoke with profound gravity and in a deep silence, each having his
eyes fixed on a huge copper boiler that was suspended over the fire.—Dickens.

521. Two or more subordinate clauses in the same construction, forming one compound
clause, may be attached to the main clause as a modifier or complement.

1. The truth was that Leonard had overslept, that he had missed the train, and that
he had failed to keep his appointment.

2. The guide told us that the road was impassable, that the river was in flood, and
that the bridge had been swept away.

3. Ellis, whose pockets were empty and whose courage was at a low ebb, stared
dismally at the passing crowd.

4. Before the battle was over and while the result was still in doubt, the general
ordered a retreat.

5. After we had arrived at the hotel, but before we had engaged our rooms, we
received an invitation to stay at the castle.

6. My first thought was, that all was lost, and that my only chance for executing a
retreat was to sacrifice my baggage.—De Quincey.

7. The author fully convinced his readers that they were a race of cowards and
scoundrels, that nothing could save them, that they were on the point of being
enslaved by their enemies, and that they richly deserved their fate.—Macaulay.

In the first and second examples, three coördinate noun clauses are joined to make
one compound clause, which is used as a complement,—as a predicate nominative in
the first sentence, as the direct object of told in the second.

In the third example, a compound adjective clause modifies Ellis. In the fourth and
fifth, a compound adverbial clause modifies the predicate verb (ordered, received).
In the seventh, four that-clauses unite in one compound clause.

522. Two or more successively subordinate clauses, forming one complex clause, may
be joined to the main clause as a modifier or complement.

In such a series, the first subordinate clause is attached directly to the main
clause, the second is subordinate to the first, the third to the second, and so on
in succession.

In the course of my travels, I met a good-natured old gentleman, (a) who was born
in the village (b) where my parents lived (c) before they came to America.

Here gentleman (a complement in the main clause) is modified by the adjective

clause who was born in the village (a). Village, in clause a, is modified by the
adjective clause where my parents lived (b). Lived, the predicate verb of clause b,
is modified by the adverbial clause before they came to America (c).

Thus it appears that a is subordinate to the main clause, and that b, in turn, is
subordinate to a, and c to b. In other words, the three clauses (a, b, c) are
united to make one complex clause,—who was born in the village where my parents
lived before they came to America. This clause, taken as a whole, serves as an
adjective modifier describing gentleman.

523. Further examples of the successive subordination of one clause to another may
be seen in the following sentences:—
I have passed my latter years in this city, where I am frequently seen in public
places, though there are not above half-a-dozen of my select friends that know me.—
Addison.

In this manner they advanced by moonlight till they came within view of the two
towering rocks that form a kind of portal to the valley, at the extremity of which
rose the vast ruins of Istakar.—Beckford.

The young fellow uttered this with an accent and a look so perfectly in tune to a
feeling heart, that I instantly made a vow I would give him a four-and-twenty sous
piece, when I got to Marseilles.—Sterne. [The conjunction that is omitted before I
would (§ 388).]

Three years had scarcely elapsed before the sons of Constantine seemed impatient to
convince mankind that they were incapable of contenting themselves with the
dominions which they were unqualified to govern.—Gibbon.

Mr. Lewis sent me an account of Dr. Arbuthnot’s illness, which is a very sensible
affliction to me, who, by living so long out of the world, have lost that hardness
of heart contracted by years and general conversation.—Swift.

Note. The method of forming complex clauses by successive subordination, if

overworked, produces long, straggling, shapeless sentences, as in the following
example from Borrow:—“I scouted the idea that Slingsby would have stolen this
blacksmith’s gear; for I had the highest opinion of his honesty, which opinion I
still retain at the present day, which is upwards of twenty years from the time of
which I am speaking, during the whole of which period I have neither seen the poor
fellow nor received any intelligence of him.” A famous instance of the use of this
structure for comic effect is “The House that Jack Built.”

SPECIAL COMPLICATIONS

524. The processes of coördination and subordination (§§ 514–523) may be so

utilized in one and the same sentence as to produce a very complicated structure.

Examples of such sentences are given below, for reference (§§ 525–526). Their
structure, however elaborate, is always either complex or compound complex.

I. IN COMPLEX SENTENCES

525. The following sentences are complex. They contain either compound or complex
clauses, or both.

1. They preferred the silver with which they were familiar, and which they were
constantly passing about from hand to hand, to the gold which they had never before
seen, and with the value of which they were unacquainted.—Macaulay.
The main clause of this complex sentence is they preferred the silver to the gold.
To this are separately attached (§ 520) two adjective clauses, both compound: (1)
with which ... hand, modifying silver; (2) which they had ... unacquainted,
modifying gold.

2. All London crowded to shout and laugh round the gibbet where hung the rotting
remains of a prince who had made England the dread of the world, who had been the
chief founder of her maritime greatness and of her colonial empire, who had
conquered Scotland and Ireland, who had humbled Holland and Spain.—Macaulay.

The sentence is complex. The main clause is all London crowded to shout and laugh
round the gibbet. The rest of the sentence (where ... Spain) forms one long complex
adjective clause, modifying gibbet. In this complex clause, the first clause (where
... prince) has dependent on it a compound adjective clause (modifying prince),
made up of four coördinate clauses, each beginning with who. The subordination of
this compound clause to that which precedes (where ... prince) produces the long
complex subordinate clause where ... Spain.

3. As we cannot at present get Mr. Joseph out of the inn, we shall leave him in it,
and carry our reader on after Parson Adams, who, his mind being perfectly at ease,
fell into a contemplation on a passage in Æschylus, which entertained him for three
miles together, without suffering him once to reflect on his fellow-traveller.—
Fielding.

In this complex sentence, two subordinate clauses are separately attached to the
main clause: (1) the adverbial clause as ... inn; (2) the adjective clause who ...
fellow-traveller. This latter clause is complex, since it contains the adjective
clause which ... fellow-traveller, dependent on who ... Æschylus, and modifying
passage.

4. As I sit by my window this summer afternoon, hawks are circling about my

clearing; the tantivy of wild pigeons, flying by twos and threes athwart my view,
or perching restlessly on the white pine boughs behind my house, gives a voice to
the air; a fishhawk dimples the glassy surface of the pond and brings up a fish; a
mink steals out of the marsh before my door and seizes a frog by the shore; the
sedge is bending under the weight of the reed-birds flitting hither and hither; and
for the last half hour I have heard the rattle of railroad cars, now dying away and
then revving like the beat of a partridge, conveying travellers from Boston to the
country.—Thoreau.

This sentence is complex. Its main clause is compound, consisting of a series of

six coördinate simple clauses. The whole of this long compound main clause is
modified by the adverbial clause with which the sentence begins (as ... afternoon).
5. That they had sprung from obscurity, that they had acquired great wealth, that
they exhibited it insolently, that they spent it extravagantly, that they raised
the price of everything in their neighborhood, from fresh eggs to rotten boroughs;
that their liveries outshone those of dukes, that their coaches were finer than
that of the Lord Mayor, that the examples of their large and ill-governed
households corrupted half the servants in the country; that some of them, with all
their magnificence, could not catch the tone of good society, but in spite of the
stud and the crowd of menials, of the plate and the Dresden china, of the venison
and the Burgundy, were still low men,—these were things which excited, both in the
class from which they had sprung, and in that into which they attempted to force
themselves, that bitter aversion which is the effect of mingled envy and contempt.—
Macaulay.

This complex sentence, though very long, is perfectly easy to follow. It begins
with a long compound noun clause (consisting of nine coördinate that-clauses). This
would be the subject of the main predicate verb were, but for the fact that the
pronoun these is inserted to act as the subject (referring back to the compound
noun clause and summing it up in a single word). To the complement things is
attached the adjective clause which excited ... contempt. This clause is complex,
for it contains three adjective clauses, (1) from which they had sprung (modifying
class), (2) into which ... themselves (modifying that), and (3) which is ...
contempt (modifying aversion). All three are separately attached to the clause on
which they depend, which excited that bitter aversion. Thus all that portion of the
sentence which follows things forms one complex clause, modifying that noun.

6. That I may avoid the imputation of throwing out, even privately, any loose,
random imputations against the public conduct of a gentleman for whom I once
entertained a very warm affection, and whose abilities I regard with the greatest
admiration, I will put down, distinctly and articulately, some of the matters of
objection which I feel to his late doctrines and proceedings, trusting that I shall
be able to demonstrate to the friends whose good opinion I would still cultivate,
that not levity, nor caprice, nor less defensible motives, but that very grave
reasons, influence my judgment.—Burke.

This is a fine example of a long, but well-constructed complex sentence. The main
clause is I will put down, distinctly and articulately, some of the matters of
objection. Upon this simple clause, everything else in the sentence depends in one
way or another.

II. IN COMPOUND COMPLEX SENTENCES

526. Any complex sentence, however elaborate, may be used as one of the coördinate
complex clauses that make up a compound complex sentence.

1. While the king was treated at this rude rate, Cromwell, with his army, was in
Scotland, obstructing the motions that were making in his favor; but on the
approach of the Scots, who were much superior in number, he was forced to retire
towards Dunbar, where his ships and provisions lay.—Burnet.

In this compound complex sentence, both coördinate clauses are complex. In each,
the main clause has two subordinate clauses attached to it separately (§ 520).

2. They had seen me cut the cables, and thought my design was only to let the ships
run adrift, or fall foul on each other; but when they perceived the whole fleet
moving in order, and saw me pulling at the end, they set up such a scream of grief
and despair as it is almost impossible to describe or conceive.—Swift.

In this compound complex sentence, both of the two coördinate clauses are complex.
The first contains the noun clause [that] my design ... each other, used as the
object of thought. The second contains two subordinate clauses, separately attached
to the main clause (they set ... despair). For the infinitive cut, see § 322. The
infinitive to let is used as a predicate nominative (§ 491); it has as its object
the infinitive clause the ships ... each other, containing two infinitives, run and
fall (§ 325).

3. While things went on quietly, while there was no opposition, while everything
was given by the favor of a small ruling junto, Fox had a decided advantage over
Pitt; but when dangerous times came, when Europe was convulsed with war, when
Parliament was broken up into factions, when the public mind was violently excited,
the favorite of the people rose to supreme power.—Macaulay.

This compound complex sentence consists of two complex clauses, joined by the
coördinate conjunction but. In each of these, the subordinate clause is compound (§
521), consisting of several coördinate adverbial clauses introduced by relative
adverbs (while in the first, when in the second).

4. The clear and agreeable language of his despatches had early attracted the
notice of his employers; and before the Peace of Breda he had, at the request of
Arlington, published a pamphlet on the war, of which nothing is now known, except
that it had some vogue at the time, and that Charles, not a contemptible judge,
pronounced it to be very well written.—Macaulay.

In this compound complex sentence, the first coördinate clause is simple, the
second is complex. In the second, the adjective clause of which nothing is known
has dependent on it the group of words except ... well written, consisting of the
preposition except and its object (the compound noun clause, that ... time, and
that ... well written). This group serves as an adjective modifier of the noun
nothing. The whole passage of which ... well written forms a complex adjective
clause, modifying pamphlet. It to be very well written is a complement, being an
infinitive clause used as the object of pronounced (§ 325).

CHAPTER VIII

ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES

527. Good usage does not demand that all sentences shall be absolutely complete. It
often allows (and sometimes requires) the omission of words that, though necessary
to the construction, are so easily supplied by the mind that it would be mere waste
of time to utter them.

528. The omission of a word or words necessary to the grammatical completeness of a

clause or sentence is called ellipsis.

A clause or sentence that shows ellipsis is said to be elliptical.

Ellipsis is a Greek word meaning “omission.”

In the following examples the omitted words are supplied in brackets.

[I] thank you.

[I] pray do not [you] move.

[You] pass me that book.

Her hair is light, her eyes [are] dark blue.

Some of the strangers spoke French, others [spoke] Spanish.

Some of the patriots were armed with old flintlocks, others [were armed] with
swords, still others [were armed] with pitchforks.

When [he was] a youth, he travelled in the East.

Though [he is] timid, he is no coward.

They were amused, though [they were] somewhat vexed.

While [we were] drifting downstream, we grounded on a sand bar.

If [it is] possible, send me word to-night.

You shall have the money this week, if [it is] necessary.

They marched slowly as if [they were] worn out.

Why [are] these tears?

Why [are you] so dejected?

He was ten years of age, his brother [was] eight [years of age].

I have more confidence in James than [I have] in Edmund.

Mary is younger than George [is young].

Tom likes you better than [he likes] me.

You like him better than I do [like him].

I like him better than Charles does [like him].

This racket is not so heavy as that [is heavy].

You are not so old as I [am old].

Peace [be] to his memory!

This is the only pencil [that] I have.

Is that the boy [whom] you hired yesterday?

They say [that] you are going to Europe soon.

529. The examples in § 528 show that most cases of ellipsis fall under two heads:

1. To avoid repetition, words are often omitted in one part of the sentence when
they occur in another part.

2. Pronouns, the conjunction that, and some forms of the verb is, are often omitted
when they are readily supplied.

Under the second head come (1) the ellipsis of the subject (thou or you) in
imperative sentences (§ 268), (2) that of relative pronouns in the objective case
(§ 151), (3) that of is, are, etc. (with the subject pronoun) in subordinate
clauses introduced by when, though, if, and the like (§§ 397, 399, 417).

Note. The so-called “telegraphic style” omits I with any verb or with all verbs. It
should be confined to telegrams, where space is money.

530. Adverbs indicating direction (like forward, back) are often used without a
verb in imperative sentences.

Forward, brave companions!

Down on your knees!

Up, guards, and at them!

Note. In older English, the omission of the verb of motion was common, even in
sentences not imperative, as in the following examples from Julius Cæsar:—“We’ll
along ourselves, and meet them”; “Shall we on, and not depend on you?”

531. The ellipsis of the subordinate conjunction that is very common, especially in
indirect discourse (§§ 388, 433).
I know [that] you are my friend.

Jack said [that] the boat had sunk.

He told me [that] he was sorry.

532. Many constructions, originally elliptical, have become established idioms in

which no ellipsis is felt. In such cases it is usually better to take the sentence
as it stands, and not to supply the omitted words.

Thus, in “He eats as if he were famished” the italicized words are properly treated
as a subordinate clause modifying eats and introduced by the compound conjunction
as if. Yet in strictness this construction is an ellipsis for “He eats as [he would
eat] if he were famished.”

533. Various ellipses are illustrated in the following sentences:—

1. Although in a friendly country, they marched always as if in a land of enemies.

2. The aspect of the country was as wild and dreary as the climate.

3. Do not serious and earnest men discuss Hamlet as they would Cromwell or Lincoln?
—Lowell.

4. Not so with the others.

5. Though rather shy and distrustful of this new acquaintance, Rip complied with
his usual alacrity.

6. Arras was famed for its rich tapestries, Brussels for its carpets, Cambrai for
its fine cambric, Lisle for its thread and the fabrics woven from it.

7. Every day brings its task, which, if neglected, is doubled on the morrow.

8. It is not easy to recover an art when once lost.

9. I wish you would go down with me to Newstead.

10. The men are all soldiers, and war and the chase their sole occupation.

11. While in this state of irresolution, she was startled by a low knock.

12. The house was tall, the skylight small and dirty, the day blind with fog.

13. I little thought you would have deserted me.

14. He is the best Oriental scholar I know.

15. Cromwell was evidently laying, though in an irregular manner, the foundations
of an admirable system.

16. He was a foot taller than I.

17. This concerns you rather than me.

18. My father loved Sir Rowland as his soul.

EXERCISES

EXERCISE 1

(§§ 1–5, pp. 1–3)

1. Tell whether each of the following sentences is declarative, interrogative,

imperative, or exclamatory. If a sentence is both declarative and exclamatory,
mention the fact. Mention the subject and the predicate of each sentence. Note all
instances of the inverted order (§ 5).

1. You need not answer this letter. 2. Many surmises of evil alarm the hearts of
the people.—Longfellow. 3. Here I am again in the land of old Bunyan. 4. Me this
uncharter’d freedom tires.—Wordsworth. 5. Twilight’s soft dews steal o’er the
village green.—Rogers. 6. Were there many robbers in the band? 7. How will
posterity the deed proclaim!—Byron. 8. At dawn the towers of Stirling rang.—Scott.
9. You cannot recall the spoken word.—Emerson. 10. The boughs over my head seemed
shadowy with solemn thoughts as well as with rustling leaves.—Hawthorne. 11. So you
don’t like Raphael! 12. All around lay a frightful wilderness. 13. Why does the sea
moan evermore?—Rossetti. 14. What lonely straggler looks along the wave?—Byron. 15.
Off went his wig! 16. For some minutes he continued to scrutinize the drawing
minutely. 17. Our strength grows out of our weakness.—Emerson. 18. Rudely carved
was the porch. 19. What hopes the prince to gain by Lacy’s death? 20. Trust
thyself.

21. The rest of the men were morose and silent. 22. Here are the ruins of the
emperor’s palace. 23. Now rumbles along the carriage of some magnate of the city.
24. Wild was the life we led. 25. How poor, and dull, and sleepy, and squalid it
seemed! 26. Built are the house and the barn. 27. With what tenderness he sings!
28. Marked ye the younger stranger’s eye? 29. One or two idlers, of forbidding
aspect, hung about in the murky gaslight. 30. Several mountains crowned with snow
shone brilliantly in the distance. 31. Follow me through this passage. 32. Stop me
not at your peril. 33. Carry thou this scroll to the castle.

2. Write ten interrogative sentences concerning each topic. Reply in declarative

sentences.

(1) The American Revolution;

(2) the Pilgrim Fathers;

(3) the history of your own state;

(4) the government of the United States;

(5) hygiene;
(6) the manufactures (or other industries) of your town or city.

3. Write ten imperative sentences, each giving an order concerning—

(1) the playing of a game;

(2) the building or sailing of a boat;

(3) the care of the health;

(4) the manufacture of some article of common use;

(5) the writing of a business letter.

4. Write ten exclamatory sentences. Tell whether each is declarative,

interrogative, or imperative.

EXERCISE 2

(§§ 6–25, pp. 3–11)

1. Tell the parts of speech (including verb-phrases).

1. The rain pattered upon the roof and the sky gloomed through the dusty garret
windows.—Hawthorne. 2. Make yourself necessary to somebody.—Emerson. 3. I have a
regard for every man on board that ship, from the captain down to the crew. 4. “An
artist,” said Michael Angelo, “must have his measuring tools not in the hand, but
in the eye.”—Emerson. 5. Time had wintered o’er his locks. 6. Must we in all things
look for the how, and the why, and the wherefore? 7. Power dwells with
cheerfulness.—Emerson. 8. What hurrahs rang out! 9. He sneaked about with a gallows
air. 10. So! you see things go on as when you were with us.

11. Rigby and his brother hirelings frightened them with hideous fables and ugly
words.—Disraeli. 12. These are prize peaches. 13. Ha ha! how vilely doth this cynic
rhyme! 14. O Antony, beg not your death of us. 45. Wordsworth was praised to me in
Westmoreland because he afforded to his country neighbors an example of a modest
household where comfort and culture were secured without display.

16. Shake hands with this knot of good fellows. 17. He had been deserted by the
Moderates. 18. The moderate Liberals held a meeting very early in the struggle. 19.
After a dreadful night of anxiety, perplexity, and peril, the darkness, which I
thought had lasted an eternity, slowly disappeared.—Trelawny.
2. Use the following words in sentences of your own:—

Sleep (noun, verb);

dry (adjective, verb, noun);

very (adverb, adjective);

express (noun, verb, adjective);

bellow (verb, noun);

American (adjective, noun);

future (adjective, noun);

to-morrow (noun, adverb);

flower (noun, verb);

sovereign (noun, adjective);

summer (noun, verb, adjective);

double (adjective, adverb, verb);

well (adjective, adverb);

fast (adjective, adverb, noun, verb);

content (noun, adjective, verb);

last (adjective, adverb, verb, noun);

down (adverb, preposition);

for (preposition, conjunction);

downright (adjective, adverb);

home (noun, adjective, adverb);

lower (adjective, adverb, verb);

iron (noun, adjective, verb);

off (adverb, preposition, adjective);

up (adverb, preposition);

high (adjective, adverb, noun);

except (verb, preposition);

inside (adjective, adverb, preposition, noun);

past (noun, adjective, preposition);

what (adjective, pronoun, interjection);

round (noun, adjective, verb, preposition, adverb);

sound (noun, verb, adjective, adverb);

black (noun, verb, adjective);

all (noun, adjective, adverb);

open (noun, adjective, verb);

while (noun, verb).

EXERCISE 3

(§§ 26–33, pp. 11–13)

Point out the infinitives and the participles. Tell when they occur in verb-
phrases. Use them in sentences.

1. I did wrong to smile. 2. Luttrell adjured me with mock pathos to spare his
blushes. 3. I begged my friend Sir Roger to go with me into her hovel. 4. I was
wonderfully pleased to see the workings of instinct in a hen followed by a brood of
ducks. 5. A man’s first care should be to avoid the reproaches of his own heart.—
Addison. 6. I was highly entertained to see the gentlemen of the county gathering
about my old friend, and striving who should compliment him most. 7. He was let
loose among the woods as soon as he was able to ride on horseback. 8. Plutarch says
very finely that a man should not allow himself to hate even his enemies. 9. It
gives me a serious concern to see such a spirit of dissension in the country.

10. It was his intention to remain there for two or three days. 11. Every part of
every carriage had been cleaned, every horse had been groomed. 12. Liberated from
the embarrassments of the city, and issuing into the broad uncrowded avenues of the
northern suburbs, we soon begin to enter upon our natural pace of ten miles an
hour. 13. The beggar, rearing himself against the wall, forgets his lameness. 14.
Three miles beyond Barnet, we see approaching another private carriage. 15. We saw
many lights moving about as we drew near.

EXERCISE 4

(§§ 34–39, pp. 13–15)

1. Mention the simple subject and the simple predicate of each sentence in Exercise
1 (p. 227). Tell whether the simple subject is a noun or a pronoun, and whether the
simple predicate is a verb or a verb-phrase.
2. Study in the same way your own sentences in Exercise 1.

3. Divide each sentence into the complete subject and the complete predicate. If
the sentence has a compound subject, mention the substantives that compose it; if
the sentence has a compound predicate, mention the verbs (or verb-phrases).

1. The Queen and Prince Albert came to London from Windsor on Saturday morning. 2.
You and Lockhart must not abandon the good cause. 3. I saw that he was weak, and
took advantage of a pause to remind him not to forget his drive. 4. Two or three of
my English biographies have something of the same historical character. 5. Lord
Grey, Clanricarde, Labouchere, Vernon Smith, and Seymour will fill up the places.
6. Every change of season, every change of weather, indeed, every hour of the day,
produces some change in the magical hues and shapes of these mountains.—Irving. 7.
He looked round, and could see nothing but a crow winging its solitary flight
across the mountain. 8. They suddenly desisted from their play and stared at him.
9. The sea flashes along the pebbly margin of its silver beach, forming a thousand
little bays and inlets, or comes tumbling in among the cliffs of a rock-bound
coast, and beats against its massive barriers with a distant, hollow, continual
roar.—Longfellow.

10. A wide gateway ushered the traveller into the interior of the building, and
conducted him to a low-roofed apartment, paved with round stones. 11. The strange
visitant gruffly saluted me, and, after making several ineffectual efforts to urge
his horse in at the door, dismounted and followed me into the room.—Whittier. 12.
The foolish and the dead alone never change their opinion.—Lowell. 13. They will
slink into their kennels in disgrace, or perchance run wild and strike a league
with the wolf and the fox.—Thoreau. 14. Strong will and keen perception overpower
old manners and create new.—Emerson. 15. Neither Aristotle, nor Leibnitz, nor
Junius, nor Champollion has set down the grammar-rules of this dialect. 16. His
mantle and hood were of the best Flanders cloth, and fell in ample and not
ungraceful folds. 17. A deep fosse or ditch was drawn round the whole building.

EXERCISE 5

(§§ 40–42, p. 16)

1. Point out the noun-phrases, verb-phrases, adjective phrases, and adverbial

phrases. Which of these phrases are prepositional?

1. Sometimes he spent hours together in the great libraries of Paris. 2. He assumed

the garb of a common sailor, and in this disguise reached the Dutch coast in
safety. 3. Some of the frigate’s men were still endeavoring to escape. 4. Was
Milton rich or at his ease when he composed “Paradise Lost”? 5. It was a cold-
blooded exhibition of marksmanship. 6. He then continued on to the place of
rendezvous at Speedwell’s Iron Works on Troublesome Creek.—Irving. 7. The gates of
Amsterdam had been barred against him. 8. They heard his confession with suspicion
and disdain. 9. The stagecoach always drew up before the door of the cottage. 10.
The wind moaned through the silent streets. 11. The clouds are scudding across the
moon. 12. Steele had known Addison from childhood. 13. A broad ray of light fell
into the garret.—Dickens. 14. The fate of his insulted and broken-hearted brother
still rankled in his mind. 15. All day with fruitless strife they toiled.—Scott.
2. Fill each blank with a single word. Substitute for the word a phrase with the
same meaning. Mention in each instance (1) the part of speech, (2) the kind of
phrase.

1. He spoke to me ——.

2. The grounds were shut in by a high —— wall.

3. The fire engine —— past.

4. The three girls were laughing ——.

5. The poor child looked —— at the toys.

6. Harold —— the bunch of grapes.

7. The proprietor is a —— man.

8. The archbishop placed upon the king’s head a —— crown.

9. The book which I hold in my hand is ——.

10. The —— ordered the Conqueror to open fire.

11. The enemy retreated ——.

12. The rain —— heavily all day.

13. The rain came down —— all day.

14. The —— is in his office.

15. A —— boy came to the door.

16. My brother is president of ——.

EXERCISE 6

(§§ 43–51, pp. 16–21)

1. Tell whether each sentence is simple, compound, or complex. If the sentence is

compound, divide it into its independent clauses, and mention the simple subject
(noun or pronoun) and the simple predicate (verb or verb-phrase) of each clause.

If the sentence is complex, divide it into the main (independent) and the
subordinate clause, and tell whether the latter is used as an adjective or as an
adverb.
1. The great gate slowly opened, and a steward and several serving-men appeared. 2.
The victors set fire to the wigwams and the fort; the whole was soon in a blaze;
many of the old men, the women, and the children perished in the flames. 3. Night
closed in, but still no guest arrived. 4. The black waves rolled by them, and the
light at the horizon began to fade, and the stars were coming out one by one.—
William Black. 5. Mr. Nickleby closed an account book which lay on his desk. 6. By
ceaseless action all that is subsists.—Cowper. 7. When the morning broke, the
Moorish army had vanished. 8. At midnight, when the town was hushed in sleep, they
all went quietly on board. 9. Fortune had cast him into a cavern, and he was
groping darkly round. 10. I paced the deserted chambers where he had composed his
poem. 11. I strove to speak; my voice utterly failed me. 12. The only avenue by
which the town could be easily approached, was protected by a stone wall more than
twenty feet high and of great thickness.

13. The night fell tempestuous and wild, and no vestige of the hapless sloop was
ever after seen. 14. The simple majesty of this anecdote can gain nothing from any
comment which we might make on it. 15. Raleigh speaks the language of the heart of
his country when he urges the English statesmen to colonize Guiana.—Froude. 16.
Men, in their youth, go to push their fortune in the colony; they succeed; they
acquire property there; they return to their native land; they continue to draw the
income from their colonial estates.—Brougham. 17. The moonlight glistened upon
traces of the gilding which had once covered both rider and steed. 18. While this
brief conversation passed, Donatello had once or twice glanced aside with a
watchful air. 19. Pray for us, Hilda; we need it.

2. Divide the compound complex sentences into their coördinate clauses. Tell
whether each of these clauses, when standing alone, is a simple or a complex
sentence.

1. It would be dark before he could reach the village, and he heaved a heavy sigh
when he thought of encountering the terrors of Dame Van Winkle. 2. Language
gradually varies, and with it fade away the writings of authors who have lived
their allotted time. 3. The tallest and handsomest men whom England could produce
guarded the passage from the palace gate to the river-side, and all seemed in
readiness for the queen’s coming forth, although the hour was yet so early. 4.
Edward the Confessor died on the fifth of January, 1066, and on the following day
an assembly of the thanes and prelates present in London, and of the citizens of
the metropolis, declared that Harold should be their king.

EXERCISE 7

(§§ 54–64, pp. 27–30)

1. Point out all the common nouns and all the proper nouns. Mention all the
examples of personification.

1. There Guilt his anxious revel kept.—Scott. 2. The first vessel we fell in with
was a schooner, which, after a long chase, we made out to be an American. 3. You
will be sauntering in St. Peter’s perhaps, or standing on the Capitol while the sun
sets. 4. I am very deep in my Aristophanes. 5. I saw a most lovely Sir Joshua at
Christie’s a week ago.—Fitz Gerald. 6. I hear there is scarce a village in England
that has not a Moll White in it.—Addison. 7. Such a spirit is Liberty. At times she
takes the form of a hateful reptile. She grovels, she hisses, she stings. But woe
to those who in disgust shall venture to crush her!—Macaulay. 8. Rough Wulfstane
trimmed his shafts and bow.—Scott. 9. To-day we have been a delightful drive
through Ettrick Forest, and to the ruins of Newark—the hall of Newark, where the
ladies bent their necks of snow to hear “The Lay of the Last Minstrel.”—Maria
Edgeworth.

10. The same waves wash the moles of the new-built Californian towns, and lave the
faded but still gorgeous skirts of Asiatic lands, older than Abraham; while all
between float milky-ways of coral isles, and low-lying, endless, unknown
Archipelagoes and impenetrable Japans.—Melville. 11. The duchess said haughtily
that she had done her best for the Esmonds. 12. To see with one’s own eyes men and
countries is better than reading all the books of travel in the world.—Thackeray.
13. Defeat and mortification had only hardened the king’s heart. 14. Earth, Ocean,
Air, beloved brotherhood!—Shelley. 15. The iron tongue of St. Paul’s has told
twelve. 16. The Indians, brandishing their weapons, answered only with gestures of
angry defiance.

2. Point out all the abstract, all the collective, and all the compound nouns.

1. The poet binds together by passion and knowledge the vast empire of human
society.—Wordsworth. 2. The country is now showing symptoms of greenness and
warmth. 3. When the public are gone, we at once put up the great iron shutters. 4.
Washington returned to headquarters at Newbury. 5. The Bruce’s band moves swiftly
on.—Scott. 6. He shall with speed to England.—Shakspere. 7. Soon were dismissed the
courtly throng.—Scott. 8. Sickness, desertion, and the loss sustained at Guilford
Courthouse had reduced his little army. 9. A detachment was sent against them. 10.
Never before this summer have the kingbirds, handsomest of flycatchers, built in my
orchard. 11. The young suddenly disperse on your approach, as if a whirlwind had
swept them away.—Thoreau. 12. This lighthouse, known to our mariners as Cape Cod or
Highland Light, is one of our “primary seacoast lights.” 13. We have some salt of
our youth in us.—Shakspere. 14. Thou hast nor youth nor age.—Shakspere.

15. The passion for hunting had revived with Washington on returning to his old
hunting grounds. 16. A circle there of merry listeners stand.—Byron. 17. The act of
the Congress of Vienna remains the eternal monument of their diplomatic knowledge
and political sagacity.—Disraeli. 18. Lee undertook the task with alacrity. 19. A
row of surfboats and canoes lay along the beach. 20. The situation he had held as
aide-de-camp to the commander-in-chief had given him an opportunity of observing
the course of affairs. 21. The ground was frozen to a great depth. 22. He was aware
of his unpopularity. 23. The stern old war-gods shook their heads.—Emerson.

24. Freckled nest eggs thou shalt see

Hatching in the hawthorn tree.—Keats.

25. Fair morn ascends, and sunny June has shed

Ambrosial odors o’er the garden-bed,

And wild bees seek the cherry’s sweet perfume

Or cluster round the full-blown apple-bloom.—Campbell.

26. For in their looks divine

The image of their glorious Maker shone,

Truth, wisdom, sanctitude severe and pure.—Milton.

27. Steer, helmsman, till you steer our way

By stars beyond the line.—Campbell.

28. Say I sent thee thither:

I, that have neither pity, love, nor fear.—Shakspere.

EXERCISE 8

(§§ 66–84, pp. 31–39)

1. Make a list containing thirty nouns, ten in each of the three genders. Use each
of these nouns in a sentence.

2. Write ten sentences, each containing a noun of common gender.

3. Write sentences containing the masculine forms corresponding to the feminine

forms in this list, and the feminine forms corresponding to the masculine:—

earl,

abbess,

schoolmaster,

porter,

hind,

mare,

ram,

sire,

witch,

sultan,

czar,
widow,

marquis,

executor,

salesman,

tailor,

hero,

bride,

songster,

great-uncle,

nephew,

buck,

horseman,

bachelor,

belle.

4. Mention the gender and the number of each noun. Tell whether the gender is shown
by the form, by the meaning, or by both. Whenever it is possible, give the plural
of each noun that is singular, and the singular of each noun that is plural.

1. Oft Music changed, but never ceased her tone.—Byron. 2. Grace Crawley was at
this time living with the two Miss Prettymans.—Trollope. 3. The Catos and the
Scipios of the village had gathered in front of the hotel. 4. This gunner was an
excellent mathematician, a good scholar, and a complete sailor.—Defoe. 5. I was, in
fact, in the chapel of the Knights Templars.—Irving. 6. The luckless culprit was
brought in, forlorn and chapfallen, in the custody of gamekeepers, huntsmen, and
whippers-in, and followed by a rabble rout of country clowns.—Irving. 7. The hare
now came still nearer to the place where she was at first started.—Budgell. 8. The
Fairfaxes were no longer at hand.—Irving. 9. All the peers and peeresses put on
their coronets. 10. Time is no longer slow; his sickle mows quickly in this age.—
Disraeli. 11. Under the humblest roof, the commonest person in plain clothes sits
there massive, cheerful, yet formidable, like the Egyptian colossi.—Emerson.

12. Within forty-eight hours, hundreds of horse and foot came by various roads to
the city. 13. The hart and hind wandered in a wilderness abounding in ferny coverts
and green and stately trees.—Disraeli. 14. The ship had received a great deal of
damage, and it required some time to repair her.—Defoe. 15. When Mary, the nurse,
returns with the little Miss Smiths from Master Brown’s birthday party, she is
narrowly questioned as to their behavior. 16. Of all our fleet, consisting of a
hundred and fifty sail, scarce twelve appeared.—Smollett. 17. Hindoos, Russians,
Chinese, Spaniards, Portuguese, Englishmen, Frenchmen, Genoese, Neapolitans,
Venetians, Greeks, Turks, descendants from all the builders of Babel, come to trade
at Marseilles, sought the shade alike.—Dickens. 18. There lies the port; the vessel
puffs her sail.—Tennyson. 19. I had desire to see the old family seat of the Lucys.
—Irving.
20. The Miss Lambs were the belles of little Britain.—Irving. 21. Lord Culloden at
length appeared with his daughters, Ladies Flora and Grizell.—Disraeli. 22. Still
his honied wealth Hymettus yields.—Byron. 23. Josephine has been made executrix of
her father’s estate. 24. Georgette crouched by the fire, reading a wonderful tale
of kings, princesses, enchanted castles, knights and ladies, monks and nuns,
wizards and witches. 25. She was a vixen when she went to school.—Shakspere. 26.
Keep a gamester from the dice and a good student from his book.—Shakspere. 27. They
are sheep and calves which seek out assurance in that.—Shakspere. 28. A score of
good ewes may be worth ten pounds.—Shakspere. 29. Let ay’s seem no’s and no’s seem
ay’s.—Gay.

30. She clasps a bright child on her upgathered knee;

It laughs at the lightning, it mocks the mixed thunder

Of the air and the sea.—Shelley.

EXERCISE 9

(§§ 71–84, pp. 34–39)

1. Write sentences in which the following words, letters, or figures are used in
the plural number:—

German,

radius,

lens,

moose,

wharf,

index,

piano,

thesis,

4,

500,

p,

q,

and,

syllabus,
staff,

die,

s,

t,

seraph,

hero,

stimulus,

crisis,

elf,

heathen,

brother-in-law,

July,

March,

spoonful,

memorandum,

Miss Allen,

Master

Allen,

Mr. Hayes,

General Raymond,

Knight Templar,

head (of cattle),

animalcule,

potato,

valley,

formula,

penny,

curriculum,

dwarf,
man-child.

2. Write sentences in which the following nouns are used in the singular number:—

strata,

phenomena,

alumnæ,

alumni,

candelabra,

species,

cherubim,

errata,

bacteria,

Japanese,

beaux,

vertebræ,

Messrs.,

theses,

oases.

EXERCISE 10

(§ 88, pp. 41–42)

Mention all the nouns that are in the nominative case, and give the construction
(or syntax) of each,—as subject, predicate nominative, vocative (or nominative of
direct address), exclamatory nominative, or nominative in apposition.50

1. A weary lot is thine, fair maid.—Scott. 2. At last, our small acquaintance, Ned
Higgins, trudged up the street, on his way to school.—Hawthorne. 3. The soil is in
general a moist and retentive clay. 4. Rumors alone were their guides through a
wild and desolate country.—Longfellow. 5. Young man, have you challenged Charles
the wrestler?—Shakspere. 6. Ralph was an Eton boy, and hence, being robust and
shrewd, a swimmer and a cricketer. 7. Here Harold was received a welcome guest.—
Scott. 8. The tall Highlander remained obdurate. 9. The beams and rafters, roughly
hewn and with strips of bark still on them, and the rude masonry of the chimneys,
made the garret look wild and uncivilized. 10. Deathlike the silence seemed. 11.
Sorrow and silence are strong, and patient endurance is godlike.—Longfellow. 12.
Fly, fly, detested thoughts, forever from my view!—Beattie. 13. Time must not be
counted by calendars, but by sensation, by thought.—Disraeli.

14. This is the history of Charlotte Corday. 15. The nabobs soon became a most
unpopular class of men. 16. Before him stretched the long, laborious road, dry,
empty, and white.—Hardy. 17. With the great mass of mankind, the test of integrity
in a public man is consistency.—Macaulay. 18. These are trifles, Mr. Premium. 19.
My thanks are due to you for your trouble and care. 20. Here’s my great uncle, Sir
Richard Ravelin. 21. Rowley, my old friend, I am sure you congratulate me. 22.
David, you are a coward! 23. Here come other Pyncheons, the whole tribe, in their
half-a-dozen generations. 24. Uncle Venner, trundling a wheelbarrow, was the
earliest person stirring in the neighborhood. 25. Up the chimney roared the fire,
and brightened the room with its broad blaze. 26. Liberty! freedom! tyranny is
dead!—Shakspere. 27. The hostess’s daughter, a plump Flanders lass, with long gold
pendants in her ears, was at a side window.—Irving.

28. Horses! can these be horses that bound off with the action and gesture of
leopards?—De Quincey. 29. Peace! silence! Brutus speaks. 30. The rains, frosts, and
tempests splinter the chalk above and the waves gnaw it away below.—Geikie.

EXERCISE 11

(§§ 89–96, pp. 43–47)

1. Point out all the nouns in the possessive case, and parse them according to the
model in § 112.

1. James’s parliament contained a most unusual proportion of new ministers. 2. I

live in general quietly at my brother-in-law’s in Norfolk (see § 96). 3. There is a
small cottage of my father’s close to the lawn gates. 4. We had found, in that
day’s heap of earth, about fifty pounds’ weight of gold dust.—Defoe. 5. Much the
most striking incident in Burns’s life is his journey to Edinburgh. 6. As to freaks
like this of Miss Brooke’s, Mrs. Cadwallader had no patience with them.—George
Eliot. 7. Homeward they bore him through the dark woods’ gloom.—Morris. 8. The eye
travels down to Oxford’s towers.—Arnold. 9. I obeyed all my brother’s military
commands with the utmost docility. 10. Tellson’s wanted not elbowroom, Tellson’s
wanted no light, Tellson’s wanted no embellishment. Noakes & Co.’s might, or Snooks
Brothers’ might; but Tellson’s—thank heaven!—Dickens.

2. Examine the nouns in the possessive case in 1 (above), and tell which of the
possessives might be replaced by an of-phrase. Mention particularly those passages
in which the possessive would not be used in modern prose.

3. Write sentences containing the possessive singular of—

Henry,
James,

Thomas,

Mr. Fox,

child,

Charles Price,

Mrs. Gibbs,

Edward,

General Edwards,

horse,

Hortense,

Miss Bellows,

father-in-law,

Major Ellis,

commander-in-chief,

Thompson and Howard (a firm),

Eustis and Morris (a firm),

Messrs. Cartwright and Robbins,

Apollo,

Brutus,

Ulysses.

4. Write sentences containing the possessive plural of—

Englishman,

fireman,

washerwoman,

fox,

sheep,

horse,

ox,
child,

emperor,

empress,

robin,

Norman,

German,

hawk,

Knight Templar,

lady,

sailor,

heir,

heiress,

teacher,

whale,

walrus,

critic,

poet,

vireo.

5. In which of the sentences that you have written (under 3 and 4) would it be
possible to substitute an of-phrase for the possessive? In which of them (if any)
would this phrase be preferable? Why?

EXERCISE 12

(§§ 97–110, pp. 47–53)

Parse the nouns in the objective case, according to the model in § 112. Tell the
particular construction in each instance,—direct object, predicate objective,
indirect object, etc.

1. Such was the narrative of Jack Grant, the mate. 2. Rippling waters made a
pleasant moan.—Byron. 3. Swiftly they hurried away to the forge of Basil the
blacksmith.—Longfellow. 4. A pale fog hung over London. 5. So like a shattered
column lay the king.—Tennyson. 6. Then sing, ye birds, sing, sing a joyous song.—
Wordsworth. 7. A blighted spring makes a barren year.—Johnson. 8. Dark and
neglected locks overshadowed his brow. 9. Imagine the wind howling, the sea
roaring, the rain beating. 10. Lay these vain regrets aside. 11. Birds of passage
sailed through the leaden air. 12. Authority forgets a dying king.—Tennyson. 13.
Three years she grew in sun and shower.—Wordsworth. 14. The sound of horns came
floating from the valley, prolonged by the mountain echoes. 15. Hours had passed
away like minutes. 16. Your mistrust cannot make me a traitor.—Shakspere.

17. She halted a moment before speaking. 18. The room opened on a terrace adorned
with statues and orange trees. 19. The sun is coming down to earth, and the fields
and the waters shout to him golden shouts.—Meredith. 20. England is unrivalled for
two things—sports and politics.—Disraeli. 21. Thus we lived several years in a
state of much happiness. 22. The old gentleman’s whole countenance beamed with a
serene look of indwelling delight. 23. I am reading Selwyn’s “Correspondence,” a
remarkable book. 24. I have lived my life.—Tennyson. 25. My heart is like a singing
bird.—Christina Rossetti. 26. How like a winter hath my absence been.—Shakspere.
27. Three weeks we westward bore.—Longfellow. 28. It rains pitchforks.—Fitz Gerald.
29. The sublimer and more passionate poets I still read, by snatches and
occasionally.—De Quincey. 30. Coningsby slept the deep sleep of youth and health.—
Disraeli.

31. Thou mightst call him a goodly person. 32. My father named me Autolycus. 33. A
country fellow brought him a huge fish. 34. I’ll make you the queen of Naples. 35.
You call honorable boldness impudent sauciness.—Shakspere. 36. Sir Roger generally
goes two or three miles from his house before he beats about in search of a hare or
partridge. 37. This misconception caused Washington some embarrassment. 38. I now
thank you for Beattie, the most agreeable and amiable writer I ever met with.—
Cowper.

EXERCISE 13

(§§ 97–110, pp. 47–53)

1. Write fifteen sentences, each containing a transitive verb and its direct object
(§§ 99–100).

2. Substitute a pronoun for each noun in the objective case.

3. Write ten sentences containing both a direct object and a predicate objective (§
104).

4. Use in sentences fifteen of the verbs in the list in § 105, each with both a
direct and an indirect object.

5. For each indirect object, substitute to with an object. Change the order, if
necessary.

6. Write ten sentences, each containing a cognate object (§ 108).

7. Write ten sentences, each containing an adverbial objective (§ 109).

8. Write ten sentences, each containing a noun in apposition with a noun in the
objective case (§ 110).

EXERCISE 14

(§§ 54–112, pp. 27–54)

Parse every noun, according to the models in § 112.

1. Pennon and banner wave no more. 2. They soon gained the utmost verge of the
forest, and entered the country inhabited by men without vice.—Goldsmith. 3. Our
avenue is strewn with the whole crop of autumn’s withered leaves.—Hawthorne. 4. He
is the rich man who can avail himself of all men’s faculties.—Emerson. 5. Like an
awakened conscience, the sea was moaning and tossing.—Longfellow. 6. He again
called and whistled after his dog. 7. She wrote and addressed a hurried note. 8.
The light and warmth of that long-vanished day live with me still. 9. Violet and
primrose girls, and organ boys with military monkeys, and systematic bands very
determined in tone if not in tune, filled the atmosphere.—Meredith. 10. The blood
left Wilfrid’s ashen cheek. 11. Give us manners, virtue, freedom, power!—
Wordsworth. 12. A great deal of shrubbery clusters along the base of the stone
wall, and takes away the hardness of its outline.

13. I travelled the whole four hundred miles between this and Madras on men’s
shoulders. 14. Here we set up twelve little huts like soldiers’ tents. 15. Swiftly
they glided away, like the shade of a cloud on the prairie. 16. Athens, even long
after the decline of the Roman empire, still continued the seat of learning,
politeness, and wisdom.—Goldsmith. 17. Four times the sun had risen and set. 18.
Speak! speak! thou fearful guest! 19. The oak rose before me like a pillar of
darkness. 20. Another long blast filled the old courts of the castle with its
echoes, and was answered by the warder from the walls. 21. Sound, sound the
clarion, fill the fife!—Scott. 22. Now, Falstaff, where have you been all this
while? 23. Sounds of a horn they heard, and the distant lowing of cattle. 24. Homer
was always his companion now. 25. Forgive me these injurious suspicions. 26. O,
pride! pride! it deceives me with the subtlety of a serpent. 27. I made Mr.
Wright’s gardener a present of fifty sorts of plant seeds. 28. Your mother and I
last week made a trip to Gayhurst, the seat of Mr. Wright, about four miles off.
29. Beneath the shelter of one hut, in the bright blaze of the same fire, sat this
varied group of adventurers. 30. The cares of to-day are seldom the cares of to-
morrow.—Cowper.

EXERCISE 15

(§§ 115–129, pp. 55–62)

1. Parse the personal pronouns, using the models in § 168.

1. She peeped from the window into the garden. 2. The little marquis immediately
threw himself into the attitude of a man about to tell a long story. 3. It pours
and it thunders, it lightens amain.—Scott. 4. Master, master, look about you! 5.
Leontine, with his own and his wife’s fortune, bought a farm of three hundred a
year.—Addison. 6. The Tories carry it among the new members six to one.—Swift. 7. I
wrote to him, but could tell him nothing. 8. On the next morning after breakfast
the major went out for a walk by himself. 9. Their hearts quaked within them, at
the idea of taking one step farther. 10. Mrs. Forrester’s surprise was equal to
ours. 11. It’s twenty years since he went away from home. 12. I seated myself in a
recess of a large bow window. 13. At the last moment his heart failed him, and he
looked round him for some mode of escape. 14. A friend of mine has been spending
some time at Sir Walter Scott’s.

15. Send me a letter directed to me at Mr. Watcham’s. 16. I have lately received
from my bookseller a copy of my subscribers’ names. 17. We came in our first
morning’s march to very good springs of fresh water. 18. We are both of us inclined
to be a little too positive. 19. Heyne’s best teacher was himself.—Carlyle.

20. Aspasia, you have lived but few years in the world, and with only one
philosopher—yourself. 21. I got to the side in time to see a huge liner’s dim shape
slide by like a street at night; she would have been invisible but for her row of
lights. 22. The cataracts blow their trumpets from the steep.—Wordsworth. 23. I am
he they call Old Care.—Peacock. 24. The sharp and peevish tinkle of the shop-bell
made itself audible. 25. The heroes themselves say, as often as not, that fame is
their object. 26. He seems to himself to touch things with muffled hands. 27. She
took counsel with herself what must be done. 28. The head of the Pyncheons found
himself involved in serious financial difficulties. 29. Ha! here is Hepzibah
herself!

2. Write sentences in which the personal pronoun of the first person is used as
direct object, as indirect object, as predicate nominative; in the possessive
singular with a noun; in the possessive singular without a noun.

3. Fill the blanks with personal pronouns of the first or the third person.

1. He thought the burglars were ——.

2. He mistook the burglars for ——.

3. William is better at his lessons than ——.

4. It is ——.

5. These are ——.

6. Nobody volunteered except Edward and ——.

7. —— boys have formed a debating club.

8. Mr. Jones is going to give —— boys a baseball field.

9. Who is there? ——.

10. Between you and ——, I am not sorry that he has resigned.

11. If I were —— I would study art.

12. Arthur likes you better than ——.

13. Behind Ruth and —— came the guest of honor.

14. Automobiles are not for such as ——.

15. It was —— that Joseph meant.

16. —— two are always together.

17. Richard dislikes everybody, —— most of all.

4. Write sentences in which myself, yourself, ourselves, himself, herself,

themselves are used (1) intensively, (2) reflexively as direct object, (3)
reflexively as indirect object.

EXERCISE 16

(§§ 131–142, pp. 62–65)

1. Parse the demonstratives and the indefinites. In parsing the word, tell whether
it is used as a pronoun or as an adjective. If it is used as a pronoun, tell the
number and the case and give the reason for the case. If it is used as an
adjective, mention the substantive which it modifies.

1. What is the meaning of all this? 2. On either side extended a ruinous wooden
fence. 3. You have seen that picture, then! 4. This very Judge Pyncheon was the
original of the miniature. 5. Twenty years ago this man was equally capable of
crime or heroism; now he is fit for neither.—Stevenson. 6. None are all evil. 7.
Solitude has many a dreary hour. 8. Every science has its hitherto undiscovered
mysteries.—Goldsmith. 9. The same day we visited the shores of the isle in the
ship’s boats. 10. None but picked recruits were enlisted. 11. A longing for the
brightness and silence of fallen snow seizes him at such times. 12. Such were
Addison’s talents for conversation. 13. Nicholas Vedder! why, he is dead and gone
these eighteen years! 14. What a lamentable situation was that of the poor baron!
15. Several houses were pillaged and destroyed.

16. Each warrior was a chosen man. 17. See how yond justice rails upon yond simple
thief!—Shakspere. 18. Our naval annals owe some of their interest to the fantastic
and beautiful appearance of old warships.—Stevenson. 19. Some are too indolent to
read anything till its reputation is established.—Johnson. 20. In both sexes,
occasionally, this lifelong croak, accompanying each word of joy or sorrow, is one
of the symptoms of settled melancholy.—Hawthorne. 21. Such voices have put on
mourning for dead hopes. 22. Another phenomenon was a package of lucifer matches.
23. How few appear in those streets which but some few hours ago were crowded! 24.
This was a very different camp from that of the night before.
25. Alternations of wild hope and cold despair succeeded each other. 26. The poor
know best how to console each other’s sorrows. 27. Everybody has his own
interpretation for that picture. 28. I strove with none, for none was worth my
strife.—Landor. 29. Scarcely any of the items in the above-drawn parallel occurred
to Phœbe. 30. He went about moping. None spake to him. No one would play with him.—
Lamb. 31. Ah, that good Kent! He said it would be thus. 32. How easy is the
explanation to those who know! 33. There has been a quarrel between him and
Hepzibah this many a day.

2. Fill each blank with a personal pronoun (§ 141).

1. Each of us should do —— best.

2. Everybody thinks —— own way is wise.

3. If anybody has a better plan, now is the time for —— to speak.

4. It was an old-fashioned picnic, every person furnishing —— share of the

provisions.

5. When anybody is talking, it is bad manners to interrupt ——.

EXERCISE 17

(§§ 143–156, pp. 66–71)

1. Parse the relative pronouns, using the models in § 168.

1. The lights in the shops could hardly struggle through the heavy mist, which
thickened every moment. 2. I shall not budge from the position that I have taken
up. 3. The land of literature is a fairy land to those who view it at a distance.—
Irving. 4. I hate people who meet Time half-way.—Lamb. 5. The weather, which had
been stormy and unsettled, moderated toward the evening. 6. He that once indulges
idle fears will never be at rest.—Johnson. 7. The only ford by which the travellers
could cross was guarded by a party of militia. 8. One dark unruly night she issued
secretly out of a small postern gate of the castle, which the enemy had neglected
to guard. 9. I paused to contemplate a tomb on which lay the effigy of a knight in
complete armor. 10. He who loves the sea loves also the ship’s routine.—Conrad. 11.
There were two or three indefatigable men among them, by whose courage and industry
all the rest were upheld.—Defoe.

12. Thou hadst a voice whose sound was like the sea.—Wordsworth. 13. They slander
thee sorely who say thy vows are frail.—Moore. 14. The first great poet whose works
have come down to us, sang of war long before war became a science or a trade.—-
Macaulay. 15. The gusts that drove against the high house seemed ready to tear it
from its foothold of rock. 16. At its western side is a deep ravine or valley,
through which a small stream rushes. 17. A weak mother, who perpetually threatens
and never performs, is laying up miseries both for herself and for her children.—
Spencer. 18. As they approached, a raven, who sat upon the topmost stone, black
against the bright blue sky, flapped lazily away.—Kingsley. 19. To such of her
neighbors as needed other attention, she would give her time, her assistance, her
skill. 20. It was such a battle-axe as Rustum may have wielded in fight upon the
banks of Oxus. 21. I may neither choose whom I would, nor refuse whom I dislike.

2. Point out the descriptive and the restrictive relatives in 1 (above).

3. Write ten sentences, each containing a descriptive relative; ten sentences, each
containing a restrictive relative.

4. Fill the blanks with relatives. In the first eight sentences, at least, use who
or whom.

1. This is the boy —— I recommended.

2. The boy —— I recommended is a Swede.

3. The boy —— brought the letter is not the one —— I recommended.

4. I told Anna, —— I knew would keep my secret.

5. I told Anna, —— I knew I could trust.

6. I told Anna, —— I knew to be trustworthy.

7. I told Anna, —— I knew intimately.

8. No one —— you know lives in this street.

9. All —— I can say is, I am sorry.

10. Give me the same horse —— I had yesterday.

11. A dog, —— showed his teeth and growled, blocked the way.

12. Choose the partner —— you like best.

13. The policeman was leading a little child —— had lost its mother.

14. Take such measures —— you deem necessary.

15. Take —— measures seem necessary.

16. Take the measures —— seem to you necessary.

17. My hat is of the same size —— yours.

18. This is the picture —— I am so proud of.

19. This is the picture of —— I am so proud.

20. The man —— is talking to Henry is the one —— owns this house.
5. Supply the relatives that are “understood” (§ 151).

1. It was a bold step she had taken.

2. I am not altogether unqualified for the business I have in hand.

3. His taste of books is a little too just for the age he lives in.

4. Censure is the tax a man pays to the public for being eminent.

5. Who is the wittiest man you know?

6. Morton was the only friend I had.

7. That sonata was the first piece I learned.

8. Ten dollars is the price he asks.

9. Are you the man I bought the coat of?

10. This is the book we are reading evenings.

11. Take any seat you like.

12. “Faust” is the only opera I care for.

13. I have done all I can.

EXERCISE 18

(§§ 157–162, pp. 71–73)

Parse the relatives.

1. Whatever wisdom and energy could do William did. 2. Whatever is done skilfully
appears to be done with ease. 3. We must suspect what we see, distrust what we
hear, and doubt even what we feel!—Miss Burney. 4. Whoever has been in a state of
nervous agitation, must know that the longer it continues the more uncontrollable
it grows.—Irving. 5. Time hath reft whate’er my soul enjoyed.—Byron. 6. The gallant
major showed no hesitation whatever. 7. Whoever has made a voyage up the Hudson
must remember the Kaatskill Mountains. 8. A recollection of what I had seen and
felt the preceding night still haunted my mind. 9. Hard work was what he needed
now. 10. Whatever regrets Mrs. Thorverton might indulge in secret, she had had the
strength of mind to hide them. 11. Like all weak men, they had recourse to what
they called strong measures. 12. We see in him a freer, purer development of
whatever is noblest in ourselves. 13. Sir Roger was what you call a fine gentleman.
14. Sweet princes, what I did, I did in honor.—Shakspere. 15. He was really
interested in what Coningsby had seen and what he had felt. 16. What was to be seen
at Naples, Addison saw.
EXERCISE 19

(§§ 163–168, pp. 73–74)

Parse the interrogative pronouns, mentioning gender, number, person, and case. If
the interrogative word is an adjective, tell what noun it limits.

1. Who would not sing for Lycidas? 2. What that sigh meant I cannot say. 3.
Columns, arches, pyramids, what are they but heaps of sand? 4. Which of the two was
daughter to the duke? 5. Whom next shall we summon from the dusty dead?—Lamb. 6.
Why! Peggy, what have you brought us? 7. What’s fame? A fancied life in others’
breath.—Pope. 8. To what shall I compare it? 9. And what art thou, O melancholy
voice?—Shelley. 10. Proud sufferer, who art thou? 11. What were Swigby’s former
pursuits I can’t tell. What need we care? Hadn’t he five hundred a year? Ay, that
he had.—Thackeray. 12. What does it matter? 13. Which way have you looked for
Master Caius? 14. What business had they in Prussia?

EXERCISE 20

(§§ 163–168, pp. 73–74)

Fill each blank with who or whom, as the construction may require.

1. He asked me —— was elected.

2. From —— did she hear this news?

3. To —— did you apply for assistance?

4. —— do you regard as the better scholar of the two?

5. —— shall I ask for the key?

6. —— did you see when you called?

7. —— do you think is the best physician in town?

8. —— can I trust in such an emergency?

9. With —— have you discussed this affair?

10. —— do you suppose this letter is from?

11. —— do you suppose I am?

12. —— do you suppose I saw?

13. —— do you think will help us?

EXERCISE 21

(§§ 113–168, pp. 55–74)

Point out each pronoun; tell to what class it belongs, and give its construction.

1. His mind now misgave him. 2. Under the dark and haunted garret were attic
chambers which themselves had histories. 3. Passion itself is very figurative, and
often bursts out into metaphors.—Goldsmith. 4. He had a wiry, well-trained, elastic
figure, a stiff military throw-back of his head, and a springing step, which made
him appear much younger than he was. 5. It was the owl that shrieked. 6. Slowly,
slowly, slowly the days succeeded each other. 7. Say nothing to the men, but have
all your wits about you. 8. He saw that it would be dark long before he could reach
the village. 9. I must do myself the justice to open the work with my own history.
10. Economy in our affairs has the same effect upon our fortunes which good
breeding has upon our conversations.—Steele. 11. It was a cloudy night, with
frequent showers of rain. 12. “Fair sirs,” said Arthur, “wherefore sit ye here?”
13. Who would be free, themselves must strike the blow.—Byron. 14. This is my son,
mine own Telemachus.—Tennyson.

15. Richard bade them adieu. 16. Ye men of Kent, ’tis victory or death!—Wordsworth.
17. We dined yesterday with your friend and mine, the most companionable and
domestic Mr. C. 18. Great is the power of the man who has nothing to lose.—Doyle.
19. Each hamlet started at the sound. 20. Look on me with thine own calm look. 21.
Mr. Rigby was not a man who ever confessed himself at fault. 22. They were
conversing with much earnestness among themselves. 23. He heard the deep behind
him, and a cry before. 24. When Deerslayer reached the fire, he found himself
surrounded by no less than eight grim savages. 25. Mine hostess, indeed, gave me a
long history how the goblet had been handed down from generation to generation. 26.
The uncle and nephew looked at each other for some seconds without speaking. 27. We
had yet seen no wild beasts, or, at least, none that came very near us.—Defoe. 28.
We envy you your sea-breezes. 29. Which is he that killed the deer? 30. There was
the choice, and it was still open to him to take which side he pleased. 31. There
is always something to worry you. It comes as regularly as sunrise.

EXERCISE 22

(§§ 169–188, pp. 75–82)

1. Point out every adjective. Tell whether it is descriptive or definitive (§§ 169–
171), and mention the substantive to which it belongs. If the adjective can be
compared, give its three degrees of comparison.51

1. The old, unpainted shingles of the house were black with moisture. 2. “My very
dog,” sighed poor Rip, “has forgotten me!” 3. Loud was the lightsome tumult on the
shore.—Byron. 4. Sweet are the shy recesses of the woodland. 5. Rows of pewter and
earthen dishes glittered along the dresser. 6. The major spoke in a matter-of-fact
way. 7. The sheep and the cow have no cutting teeth, but only a hard pad in the
upper jaw.—Huxley. 8. The faint, foggy daylight glimmered dimly on the bare floor
and stairs. 9. He wiped his serious, perplexed face on a red bandanna handkerchief,
a shade lighter than his complexion. 10. The yellow moonlight sleeps on all the
hills.—Beattie. 11. The young hostess seemed to perform her office with a certain
degree of desperate determination. 12. This warning is meant in a friendly spirit.

13. The house remained untenanted for three years. 14. Numberless torrents, with
ceaseless sound, descend to the ocean. 15. The contest between the two branches of
the legislature lasted some days longer.

2. Write five sentences containing descriptive adjectives; five containing

definitive adjectives.

3. Write sentences containing demonstrative, indefinite, relative, and

interrogative adjectives.

4. Write sentences in which the indefinite article is directly followed by—

honorable,

youthful,

yew,

ewe,

euphonious,

historical,

history,

hymn,

humble,

hilarious,

university,

express,

horticultural,

oratorio,

automatic,
heritage,

harmonious.

EXERCISE 23

(§§ 181–187, pp. 79–82)

Point out the comparatives and the superlatives. Mention any superlatives used for
emphasis (§ 200).

1. The Governor-General is the frankest and best-natured of men. 2. The company

grew merrier and louder as their jokes grew duller. 3. A knock alarmed the outer
gate. 4. At once there came the politest and friendliest reply. 5. Many a poet has
been poorer than Burns, but no one was ever prouder.—Carlyle. 6. The last tyrant
ever proves the worst.—Pope. 7. The profoundest secrecy was observed in the whole
transaction. 8. Earth has not anything to show more fair. 9. The natural principle
of war is to do the most harm to our enemy with the least harm to ourselves.—
Irving. 10. During the rest of the journey, Rose was in the strangest state of
mind. 11. There’s not a nobler man in Rome than Antony. 12. Little he ate, and less
he spake. 13. Our journey hither was through the most beautiful part of the finest
country in the world. 14. Meanwhile the throng without was constantly becoming more
numerous and more savage. 15. Vain are his weapons, vainer is his force. 16. She
might have been more lenient.

17. You’ll have to be more practical. 18. How does a love of gain transform the
gravest of mankind into the most contemptible and ridiculous!—Goldsmith. 19. Most
authors speak of their fame as if it were quite a priceless matter.

20. Loveliest and best! thou little know’st

The rank, the honor, thou hast lost!—Scott.

21. Of two such lessons, why forget

The nobler and the manlier one?—Byron.

EXERCISE 24

(§§ 189–198, pp. 83–87)

1. Parse each adverb by telling whether it is an adverb of manner, time, place, or

degree, and by mentioning the verb, adjective, or adverb which it modifies. Compare
the adverbs which are capable of comparison.
1. A great part of the island is rather level. 2. They had worked very hard and
very cheerfully. 3. When spake I such a word? 4. We can ill spare the commanding
social benefits of cities.—Emerson. 5. She looked up and met his eyes, and
thereupon both became very grave. 6. The silence of the prairie at night was well-
nigh terrible. 7. Far in the West there lies a desert land. 8. The whistling
ploughman stalks afield. 9. Swiftly they glided along. 10. He has only just arrived
in England. 11. Fast the white rocks faded from his view. 12. Whole ranks instantly
laid down their pikes and muskets. 13. Thick clouds of dust afar appeared. 14.
Bitter sobs came thick and fast. 15. How long are you going to be in Paris? 16. To-
morrow I intend to hunt again. 17. Answer made King Arthur, breathing hard. 18.
Some of us laughed heartily. 19. They had spoken simply and openly about that from
the very start.

2. Form an adverb of manner from each of the following adjectives. Use each adverb
in a sentence. Tell what it modifies.

Proud,

careless,

vehement,

tender,

vigorous,

dainty,

brave,

formal,

courteous,

blunt,

sharp,

keen,

weary,

heavy,

true,

skilful,

legible.

3. Fill each blank with an adverb of degree modifying the adjective or the adverb.

1. Ogilvie was —— lucky that day.

2. They were thought to be —— fashionable people.

3. She made her objections —— delicately as she could.

4. July has been —— hot.

5. Carlyle was —— dainty about his food.

6. Jack did not come early —— to find a seat.

7. The tide runs —— fast round this point.

8. The balloon soared —— high that it disappeared.

9. The fugitive reached the pier —— late to take the steamer.

10. The bear growled —— savagely that the dogs were frightened.

11. You write —— more legibly than I.

EXERCISE 25

(§§ 194–196, p. 86)

1. Point out the relative adverbs, and mention the subordinate clause introduced by
each. Tell whether each adverb expresses time, place, or manner.

1. Just as the sun went down, they heard a murmur of voices. 2. On waking, he found
himself on the green knoll whence he had first seen the old man of the glen. 3.
There is no place of general resort wherein I do not often make my appearance. 4.
Wherever he determines to sleep, there he prepares himself a sort of nest. 5. I
hastened to the spot whence I had come. 6. Where rolled the ocean, thereon was his
home.—Byron. 7. Where shineth thy spirit, there liberty shineth too!—Moore. 8. He
will look on the world, wheresoever he can catch a glimpse of it, with eager
curiosity. 9. Until Lady Glenmore came to call next day, we heard of nothing
unusual. 10. When she and Miss Pole left us, we endeavored to subside into
calmness. 11. Small service is true service while it lasts. 12. Long before we saw
the sea, its spray was on our lips. 13. As they ascended, Rip every now and then
heard long rolling peals, like distant thunder. 14. The village clock struck five
as Mr. Millbank and his guests entered the gardens of the mansion. 15. When only a
small space was left between the armies, the Highlanders suddenly drew their
broadswords and rushed forward with a fearful yell.—Macaulay. 16. When he rejoined
his companions, he said something to them in Welsh.

2. Point out the interrogative adverbs, and tell what each modifies.

1. Why look’st thou so? 2. Whence came ye, jolly satyrs? whence came ye?—Keats. 3.
Where now shall I go, poor, forsaken, and blind?—Campbell. 4. Why weep ye by the
tide?—Scott. 5. See how the world its veterans rewards!—Pope. 6. How wildly will
ambition steer!—Dryden. 7. Where have you been these twenty long years? 8. Here was
a Cæsar! When comes such another?—Shakspere. 9. When shall we three meet again? 10.
History is clarified experience, and yet how little do men profit by it! Nay, how
should we expect it of those who so seldom are taught anything by their own?—
Lowell. 11. Why did you not bring what I asked for?

3. Write ten sentences containing relative adverbs; ten containing interrogative

adverbs.

EXERCISE 26

(§§ 197–203, pp. 87–89)

1. Point out the comparatives and superlatives. Tell whether each is an adjective
or an adverb.

1. I thought it the most prudent method to lie still. 2. When the people observed I
was quiet, they discharged no more arrows. 3. You know your own feelings best. 4.
He was taller than any of the other three who attended him. 5. The song and the
laugh grew less and less frequent. 6. The harder I try to forget it, the more it
comes into my mind. 7. The night grew darker and darker; the stars seemed to sink
deeper in the sky. 8. I answered in a few words, but in a most submissive manner.
9. Their sight is much more acute than ours. 10. The natives came by degrees to be
less apprehensive of any danger from me. 11. Whoever performs his part with the
most agility, and holds out longest in leaping, is rewarded with the blue-colored
silk. 12. It received less damage than I expected. 13. Long live the most puissant
king of Lilliput! 14. Fast are the flying moments, faster are the hoofs of our
horses. 15. Nigh come the strangers and more nigh.—Scott.

2. Write sentences containing either the comparative or the superlative of the

following words:—

merry,

uncomfortable,

ill,

joyfully,

northern,
old (both forms),

far,

in,

out,

early,

little (adjective),

little (adverb),

badly,

often,

worthy,

wonderful,

accurate,

far,

nigh,

top,

much,

severe.

3. Write six sentences containing adverbs which are incapable of comparison; six
containing adjectives which are incapable of comparison.

EXERCISE 27

(§§ 204–208, pp. 89–90)

1. Write five sentences in which cardinal numerals are adjectives, five in which
they are nouns. Use the same numerals in the ordinal form as adjectives, as nouns.

2. Write five sentences, each containing a numeral adverb; five containing an

adverbial phrase that includes a numeral.
EXERCISE 28

(§§ 209–215, pp. 91–93)

1. Point out all the verbs and verb-phrases. Tell whether each is transitive or
intransitive. Tell which are copulative; which are auxiliary. Mention any examples
of the copula.

1. Little tasks make large return. 2. We must now return to the fortress of
Tillietudlem and its inhabitants. 3. Though I look old, yet I am strong and lusty.
4. The sunshine might now be seen stealing down the front of the opposite house. 5.
He sat apart from them all, and looked at them with a melancholy, haughty
countenance; while the rest hallooed and sang and laughed, and the room rang. 6.
You cannot relieve me, but you may add to the torments I suffer. 7. One gains
nothing by attempting to shut out the sprites of the weather. They come in at the
keyhole; they peer through the dripping panes; they insinuate themselves through
the crevices of the casement, or plump themselves down chimney astride of the
raindrops.—Whittier. 8. A large lamp threw a strong mass of light upon the group.
9. The baron pardoned the young couple on the spot. 10. Every now and then he would
turn his head slowly round.

11. The river sleeps along its course and dreams of the sky and of the clustering
foliage. 12. A severe gale compelled him to seek shelter. 13. Miss Betsy Barker
dried her eyes and thanked the Captain heartily. 14. Pray you, look not sad. 15. I
am! yet what I am who cares, or knows?—Clare. 16. After all, it is a glorious
pastime to find oneself in a real gale of wind, in a big ship, with not a rock to
run against within a thousand miles.—Kingsley. 17. We will talk over all this
another time. 18. What is progress? Movement. But what if it be movement in the
wrong direction?—Disraeli. 19. They say you are a melancholy fellow. 20. The
valiant Clifford is no more. 21. The wreck had evidently drifted about for many
months; clusters of shellfish had fastened about it, and long seaweed flaunted at
its sides.—Irving. 22. Times grew worse and worse with Rip Van Winkle as years of
matrimony rolled on.

2. Frame twenty sentences, each containing a verb-phrase. Use the auxiliaries

mentioned in § 210. Let some of the sentences be interrogative.

3. Make a list of twenty verbs that are transitive in one sense, intransitive in
another (§ 212). Use these verbs in sentences.

4. Illustrate the absolute use of transitive verbs by framing ten sentences (§

213).

5. Make a list of six copulative verbs (§ 214). Use them in sentences. Frame
sentences in which the same verbs are not copulative (§ 215).

6. Use the copula (§ 214) in twenty sentences, several of which shall illustrate
its use in verb-phrases.
EXERCISE 29

(§§ 217–225, pp. 94–99)

1. Write ten sentences in each of which a weak (or regular) verb is used in the
past tense; ten, in each of which a strong (or irregular) verb is used in the past
tense.

2. Construct sentences in which the past tense of each of the following verbs is
used: drink, lie, sow, get, wake, dwell, sing, pay, bid, light, bereave, build,
ride, hang, swim, lay, split, shrink, slay, wring, weave, thrive, spin, tread,
shake, burst, slink, dive, flee, fly, swing, wet, fling, kneel, let, chide.

3. Point out all the verbs (except the copula and auxiliaries) in Exercise 28, 1,
and conjugate them in the present and the past tense. Tell which are weak (regular)
and which are strong (irregular). Account for the person and number.

EXERCISE 30

(§§ 226–232, pp. 100–102)

1. Fill each blank with am, is, or are.

1. England and the United States —— at peace.

2. Neither Arthur nor John —— right.

3. Either a saw or an axe —— necessary.

4. Either you or Dorothy —— going.

5. You and I —— going.

6. You and he —— going.

7. Is it Mr. Allen or is it his children who —— going?

8. Either he —— going or you ——.

9. Either you —— going or I ——.

10. The sum and substance of the article —— this.

11. Half the sheep —— missing.

12. A number of Italians —— present.

13. The number of Italians in this town —— small.

14. Mathematics —— my most difficult study.

15. The number of applicants —— not sufficient

16. A number of reasons —— alleged.

17. The jury —— in agreement.

18. The jury —— being charged by the judge.

19. The committee —— composed of five members.

20. The committee —— always wrangling with one another.

21. I, who —— only a beginner, cannot compete with Richards, who —— an expert.

22. He is one of those men who —— always out of work.

23. I am not a man who —— easily frightened.

24. Walter is one of the best fellows there —— in this town.

25. Is it the king and queen who —— coming?

26. Is it the king or the queen who —— coming?

27. They made me, who —— the shyest of mortals, respond to a toast.

28. A gift of four hundred books, eighteen maps, and ten plaster casts —— to be
made to our school.

29. Vocal and instrumental music —— taught here.

30. Neither vocal nor instrumental music —— taught here.

31. Neither elementary nor advanced physics —— taught here.

32. Neither organic nor inorganic chemists —— trained here.

33. One or two pages —— missing.

34. Physics, together with algebra and Latin, —— taught the first year.

35. Stevenson’s “Memories and Portraits” —— lying on the table.

36. The insurgent general with ten of his followers —— said to have surrendered.

37. James, as well as his sisters, —— coming.

38. Six months —— a long time to wait.

39. A series of lectures —— given here every winter.

2. Make a list of ten collective nouns. Use them in sentences (1) with a singular
verb, (2) with a plural verb. Explain the difference in meaning.
3. Use the relative who in ten sentences in which the antecedent is in the first or
the second person.

EXERCISE 31

(§§ 233–241, pp. 102–105)

1. Explain the use of will and shall in the following sentences.

1. We shall never forget what you have done for us. 2. “You ought to know my
military secretary,” said the general, as Lothair entered, “and therefore I will
introduce you.” 3. I am very patient; I will wait. 4. If I do return, I will vote
against them. But I will not return. I have made up my mind to that. 5. I will send
you Jennings’s poem, if you like. 6. You will of course make a drawing and an
estimate, and send them to me (§ 240). 7. Do congratulate her for me, will you? 8.
Another Athens shall arise.—Shelley. 9. “I won’t allow it!” cried Lady Niton, “he
sha’n’t go!” 10. Shall I find you at home if I call some day soon, between five and
six o’clock? 11. You must be convinced, and on reflection you will be convinced.
12. Before my journey to Rochdale, you shall have due notice where to address me.
13. I consider myself a first-rate shot, and you shall practise with me. 14. Shall
I ever forget that party? 15. Shall you hunt to-morrow, Mr. Deronda? 16. When shall
you be at Cambridge?

17. Lady St. Jerome is a little indisposed—a cold caught at one of her bazaars. She
will hold them, and they say that no one ever sells so much.—Disraeli. 18. Will you
be good enough to keep an account of all the manuscripts you receive, for fear of
omission? 19. O rest ye, brother mariners, we will not wander more.—Tennyson. 20.
Will you forward the inclosed immediately to Corbet, whose address I do not exactly
remember? 21. Byron was no common man: yet if we examine his poetry with this view,
we shall find it far enough from faultless.—Carlyle. 22. I shall be in town by
Sunday next, and will call and have some conversation on the subject of Westall’s
proposed design. 23. Will you go down, dear? I will follow you in a moment. 24.
Will not your trip to Bath afford you an opportunity to take a peep at Weston? 25.
Never, as long as I live, will I speak to you again, nor shall Harry, whom you have
humiliated!

26. Yet he for whom I grieve shall never know it. 27. Shall you let him go to
Italy? 28. Prone to the dust Oppression shall be hurled.—Campbell. 29. You sha’n’t
go on with this affair, I tell you, Harry. 30. I shall probably return this
evening, but I will see you before I go.—Trollope. 31. In the interim I shall leave
town; on Sunday I shall set out for Herefordshire, from whence, when wanted, I will
return. 32. If my father does not return with me in the spring, it shall not be for
want of urging on my part.—Cooper.

2. Fill each blank with will or shall.

1. I —— be glad to see you.

2. We —— be obliged to go home early.

3. I —— help you whenever you wish.

4. I promise that he —— not trouble you again.

5. You —— be kind enough to take your seat.

6. We —— miss our train, I fear.

7. I must hurry or I —— be late.

8. Robert —— have as much as is good for him.

9. Arthur —— disobey me in spite of all I can do.

10. Arthur —— obey you, I am sure.

11. Arthur —— obey me, or I —— punish him.

12. If we reject these offers, we —— regret it.

13. I —— no longer endure his insolence.

14. —— they return in season for dinner?

15. I —— have to excuse you this time, I suppose.

16. I —— gladly see you at any time.

17. You —— not leave this room until you have confessed.

18. He —— give you the money, I feel confident.

19. He —— give you the money, or I —— have no more to do with him.

20. —— we allow them to do as they please?

3. Write declarative sentences, using will or shall in the first person (singular
or plural) to express a threat, a promise, resolution, consent, desire,
determination, simple futurity.

4. Fill the blanks in the following questions with will or shall. Write sentences
(using will or shall) in answer.

1. —— you promise to do better?

2. —— you make any promises if he insists?

3. —— we miss our train?

4. —— we go? Just ask us!

5. —— I go now? I fear I am wearying you.

6. —— I tell you what I really think?

7. —— you call a cab for me, if you please?

8. —— you be glad to see him?

9. —— you see me if I call at one o’clock?

10. —— we see you this evening?

11. —— you be kind enough to open that door, or —— I?

12. —— you miss your brother?

13. —— we wait here, or —— you relent and let us go with you?

14. —— we allow this evil to continue?

15. —— you forgive me?

EXERCISE 32

(§§ 242–245, pp. 106–107)

1. Name all the complete (or compound) tenses and explain their formation.

1. Four long years in the times of the war had he languished a captive.—Longfellow.
2. The adventurer has subsequently returned to his native country. 3. Spiders had
built their webs in the angles of the walls and ceilings. 4. Whole fleets had been
cast away. Large mansions had been blown down. 5. I am just returned from staying
three days at a delightful inn by the river Ouse, where we always go to fish (§
242, 1, note).—Fitz Gerald. 6. In the evening we reached a village where I had
determined to pass the night. 7. I have sent by the Gisbornes a copy of the “Elegy
on Keats.” 8. I have really done my best. 9. Our visits to the islands have been
more like dreams than realities. 10. We are here arrived at the crisis of Burns’s
life. 11. The chills of a long winter had suddenly given way; the north wind had
spent its last gasp; and a mild air came stealing from the west. 12. The officer at
last turned away, having satisfied himself that the room was empty. 13. Carson will
have reached shelter long before this.

2. Construct ten sentences in which the verbs in Exercise 29, 2 are used in the
perfect tense.

3. Turn the verbs in these sentences into the pluperfect tense; into the future
perfect tense. Write sentences in which the same verbs are used as perfect
participles; as perfect infinitives.
EXERCISE 33

(§§ 246–254, pp. 107–112)

1. Tell whether each verb is in the active or the passive voice.

2. If the verb is active, change it to the passive, and make such other changes as
may be necessary. If the verb is passive, change it to the active.

3. Conjugate each verb in the tense in which it occurs.

1. The customs of mankind are influenced in many ways by climate. 2. The door,
which was slightly ajar, was suddenly pushed open. 3. The landlord handed the
stranger the newspaper. 4. After a short pause, my host resumed his narration. 5.
During the greater part of that night my slumbers were disturbed by strange dreams.
6. Not a word was spoken, not a sound was made. 7. The great willow tree had caught
and retained among its leaves a whole cataract of water. 8. Early in the morning I
was awakened by the voices of Peter and his wife. 9. He that is loudly praised will
be clamorously censured.—Johnson. 10. Out of this story he formed a tragedy. 11.
The assailants were repulsed in their first attack, and several of their bravest
officers were shot down in the act of storming the fortress sword in hand. 12. This
fatal question has disturbed the quiet of many other minds. 13. No genius was ever
blasted by the breath of critics.—Johnson. 14. The jury then heard the opinion of
the judge.

15. What cruel maxims are we taught by a knowledge of the world!—Miss Burney. 16.
Their departure made another material change at Mansfield. 17. The appearance of a
housemaid prevented any further conversation. 18. Each word of this leave-taking
was overheard by Kezia. 19. Before nine o’clock next morning the two canoes were
installed on a light country cart. 20. An old harper was summoned from the
servants’ hall. 21. He had been wounded at Waterloo. 22. This advice struck the
disputants dumb. 23. Through the night were heard the mysterious sounds of the
desert. 24. A violent storm of rain obliged them to take shelter in an inn. 25. Far
was heard the fox’s yell.—Scott. 26. Adams highly commended the doctor’s opinion.

4. Rewrite the following sentences, changing the form of the verbs from active to
passive, or from passive to active. Notice the effect upon subjects and objects.

1. I was brought up by my uncle. 2. I have found them. 3. We were delayed by the

storm. 4. They were warned by the pilot. 5. She saw us. 6. That winter will never
be forgotten by any of us. 7. You surprise me. 8. Will you meet me? 9. Was he
struck by a bullet? 10. Have you forgotten me? 11. How the crowd cheered him! 12.
Tom, the blacksmith, makes horseshoes. 13. The schooner was run down by the
steamship. 14. The old man has opened a little shop. 15. Mary has invited Ellen.
16. Mary might have invited Ellen. 17. Mary will invite Ellen. 18. The storm has
made great havoc along the coast. 19. The children have been called home by their
nurse. 20. He vexes me. 21. The tower was struck by lightning yesterday. 22. A
policeman helped her over the crossing. 23. I was amused by your letter.
5. Use each of the following verbs in both the active and the passive of the past,
the future, and the perfect (or present perfect):—send, bring, teach, drink, get,
set, lay, leave, find, forget.

6. Use each of the verbs in § 105 in the active voice of the past tense with both a
direct and an indirect object. Change to the passive.

EXERCISE 34

(§§ 255–261, pp. 113–114)

1. Point out all the progressive and all the emphatic verb-phrases. Mention the
tense and voice of each. Note any instances where do and did are not emphatic.

1. Thus did the long sad years glide on. 2. Now pray do settle in England. 3.
Meanwhile, I go about in my little ship, where I do think I have two honest fellows
to deal with. 4. I remember. I do indeed remember—too well! 5. Not until it was
broad daylight did I quit the haunted house. 6. Do but look on her eyes. 7. Roland
reached the boat just as the gang plank was being hauled in. 8. We are being
entertained by the Archers. 9. The man at our wheel was spinning his spokes
desperately to avoid banging into vessels we could not see, but whose bells were
ringing everywhere about us. 10. Wild weeds are gathering on the wall. 11. I did
actually pick up a French crown piece, worth about a dollar and six cents, near
high-water mark. 12. I was loitering about the old gray cloisters of Westminster
Abbey. 13. The friends of Coningsby were now hourly arriving. 14. My eyes have been
leaving me in the lurch again.

15. They had been for some time passing through narrow gorges of the mountains,
along the edges of a tumbling stream. 16. We are just sitting down to dinner with a
pleasant party. 17. The large Newfoundland house-dog was standing by the door. 18.
“Do thou,” said Bertram, “lead the way.”—Scott. 19. Music in his ears his beating
heart did make. 20. Over the hillsides the wild knell is tolling.—Holmes.

2. Write sentences in which the verb teach is used in the present progressive, past
progressive, future progressive, perfect progressive, pluperfect progressive, and
future perfect progressive tenses of the active voice.

3. Write ten questions containing some form of do (or did).

EXERCISE 35
(§§ 262–286, pp. 115–123)

Point out all the verbs in the imperative or the subjunctive mood. Tell the
subjects of the imperatives and explain the forms and uses of the subjunctives.

1. And now dispatch we toward the court, my lords.—Shakspere. 2. I think you had
better speak to Lady Corisande yourself (§ 285). 3. My dear boy, God bless thee a
thousand times over! 4. O that the desert were my dwelling place! 5. “Rest we
here,” Matilda said.—Scott. 6. Go where thy destiny calls thee. 7. Now Hesper guide
my feet.—Akenside. 8. O that such hills upheld a freeborn race!—Byron. 9. Perish
those riches which are acquired at the expense of my honor or my humanity!—
Goldsmith. 10. Would all were well! but that will never be.—Shakspere. 11. The
distaff were more fitting for you. 12. Robert hesitated, as if he were inclined to
refuse. 13. Do what they might, the hook was in their gills.—George Meredith. 14.
Fare you well, fair gentlemen.—Shakspere. 15. Suffice it to say, the robbers were
defeated. 16. Disclose thy treachery, or die! 17. Let us not be influenced by any
angry feelings. 18. Be that as it may, Kidd never returned to recover his wealth.

19. I would to God my heart were flint, like Edward’s.—Shakspere. 20. Move we on.—
Scott. 21. Mark that the signal-gun be duly fired.—Byron. 22. The hull drives on,
though mast and sail be torn. 23. I am glad that you liked my song, and, if I liked
the others myself so well as that I sent you, I would transcribe them for you also.
—Cowper. 24. I beseech you, punish me not with your hard thoughts.—Shakspere. 25.
If there be change, no change I see.—Landor. 26. Be it as thou wilt. 27. Weep you
no more, sad fountains. 28. If thou leave thy father, he will die.—Wordsworth. 29.
Come thou no more for ransom, gentle herald.—Shakspere. 30. Learn thou his purpose.
31. Come, go we in procession to the village.—Shakspere. 32. The destruction of
property which took place within a few weeks would be incredible, if it were not
attested by witnesses unconnected with each other and attached to very different
interests.

33. I wish I were as I have been,

Hunting the hart in forest green.—Scott.

34. Come what come may,

Time and the hour runs through the roughest day.—Shakspere.

35. Buried be all that has been done,

Or say that naught is done amiss.—Crabbe.

EXERCISE 36

(§§ 272–286, pp. 118–123)

Fill each blank with a verb in the appropriate form.

1. O that he —— here!

2. Would that I —— there!

3. If he —— a little older, I should take him into partnership.

4. —— you asked me to go, I should have refused.

5. —— you to ask me, I should refuse.

6. If you —— there, I should have seen you.

7. I am glad I saw the play, even if I —— a little disappointed.

8. I should have been glad to see the play, even if I —— a little disappointed.

9. I should be glad to see the play, even if I —— a little disappointed.

10. I shall be glad to see the play, even if I —— a little disappointed.

11. Though he —— to increase my salary, I should not remain in his employ. [Use the
copula.]

12. Unless he —— to increase my salary, I should not remain in his employ. [Use the
copula.]

13. When Tom saw you, you looked as if you —— angry. [Use the copula.]

14. When Tom sees you, I suppose you will look as if you —— angry.

15. I must remind him to post this letter, lest he —— it.

EXERCISE 37

(§§ 287–295, pp. 124–127)

Explain the meaning of each potential verb-phrase, and parse the phrase. In parsing
such a phrase, describe it merely as a potential verb-phrase and tell the tense,
voice, person, and number, without assigning it to any mood.

1. Enough! You may depart. 2. Men should travel. 3. What must be shall be. That’s a
certain text.—Shakspere. 4. At times, with a strong effort, he would glance at the
open door which still seemed to repel his eyes. 5. Nothing can bring you peace but
yourself.—Emerson. 6. It was sometimes sad enough to watch him as he sat alone. He
would have a book near him, and for a while would keep it in his hands.—Trollope.
7. O, my friend! may I believe you? May I speak to you? 8. Presently he faced
Adrian, crying, “And I might have stopped it!” 9. Nothing is impossible to the man
who can will.—Emerson. 10. A scholar may be a well-bred man, or he may not.—
Emerson. 11. “I trust we’re at liberty to enter,” said the elder lady with
urbanity. “We were told that we might come at any time.” 12. I sent for you that I
might have your counsel and assistance. 13. I could no longer doubt the doom
prepared for me.
14. I am as well as I can expect to be under the excitement which I suffer. 15. I
can become a party to no such absurd proceeding. 16. I could scarcely refrain from
tears. 17. Come! we must go back. 18. We must be strangers to each other in future.
19. As my horse must now have eaten his provender, I must needs thank you for your
good cheer, and pray you to show me this man’s residence, that I may have the means
of proceeding on my journey.

EXERCISE 38

(§§ 289–291, pp. 125–126)

1. Fill each blank with can or may.

1. —— I borrow your pen?

2. Yes, you ——.

3. No, you —— not.

4. I —— swim across this river some day, for I know well enough that I ——.

5. I shall ask my father if I —— swim across this river. I know well enough that I
——.

6. My father is confident that I —— swim across the river safely.

7. My father says that I —— swim across the river if I will wait until he —— go
with me.

8. —— I trouble you to give me that tennis racket?

9. It —— be that you will regret this.

10. It —— not be that you will regret this.

11. —— you take a vacation this year, or is permission still refused?

12. Why not ask if you —— take a vacation?

13. You —— take your vacation after I have taken mine.

14. The weather man says we —— hope for sunshine to-morrow.

15. He —— be thankful that he escaped so easily.

16. When you are twenty-one, you —— have your own way.

2. Write sentences asking permission in the first, second, and third persons. Write
sentences (1) granting these requests; (2) refusing them.
EXERCISE 39

(§§ 297–308, pp. 127–132)

1. Justify the use of the auxiliary (should or would). In some of the sentences,
should might be substituted for would. Which are they?

1. If I were you, I would not dwell too much on this fancy of yours. 2. I have
neither servants nor clothes, and, if it had not been for these good people, I
should not have had food. 3. I should delight in having her for a sister-in-law. 4.
I should hardly wish to go out before Friday. 5. I shouldn’t wonder if this made
him set his teeth. 6. Well, that’s over! and I’m sure neither Oliver nor I would go
through it again for a million of money. 7. If I were you, I would turn it over in
my mind. 8. I should be afraid to express myself in this manner, if the matter were
not clear and indisputable.—Burke. 9. I should like to remain where I am for
another week or ten days. 10. Would you do me the favor to look at a few specimens
of my portrait-painting?—Dickens. 11. “Would you come?” she said, with a serious,
searching glance, and in a kind of coaxing manner.—“I should be an intruder, my
dear lady,” said Theodore, declining the suggestion.—Disraeli.

12. I should not like to be out of my seat were the House in session.—W. J. Locke.
13. If I were you I would not tempt Fate by remaining here a day longer.—W. E.
Norris. 14. Candidates would rather, I suppose, climb in at a window than be
absolutely excluded.—Cowper. 15. Impey would not hear of mercy or delay. 16. I
should not be surprised if he were here immediately. 17. There’s a plantation of
sugar-canes at the foot of that rock: should you like to look?—George Eliot.

2. Explain the use of the auxiliary (shall, should, or will, would) in each
subordinate clause.

1. With this purpose in view, he sent a skilful architect to build him such a
palace as should be fit for a man of his vast wealth to live in. 2. Their majesties
commanded me to submit to whatever Bobadilla should order in their name. 3. Should
you find yourself able to push on to Braemar, your visit will be most welcome. 4.
It’s a simple affair enough, if you’ll just leave it as it stands. 5. Fearing to
awaken Joseph a second time, lest he should again hazard all by his
thoughtlessness, he crept softly out of the wigwam. 6. I watched the grapes from
day to day till they should have secreted sugar enough from the sunbeams. 7. If an
old prophecy should come to pass, we may see a man, some time or other, with
exactly such a face as that. 8. He kept his heart continually open, and thus was
sure to catch the blessing from on high, when it should come.—Hawthorne. 9. This
law provided that the presidency of Bengal should exercise a control over the other
possessions of the Company. 10. It is time that we should proceed.

11. It is necessary that he should have some work to do. 12. I shall be thankful if
you will condescend to enlighten my ignorance. 13. It was natural that the leading
authors should affect a style of levity and derision.—Jeffrey. 14. I will take care
that you shall not be troubled by him again. 15. That the Duke of Wellington should
cordially approve is singular enough. 16. “Boys,” interrupted Wilder, “it is now
proper that you should know something of my future movements.”—Cooper. 17. We all
stood ready to succor them if there should be occasion.—Defoe. 18. You are so well
qualified for the task yourself that it is impossible you should need any
assistance; at least, it is hardly possible that I should afford you any.—Cowper.
19. The brave sufferer refused to purchase liberty, though liberty to him would
have been life, by recognizing the authority which had confined him. 20. I meant
that he should walk off, but he did not choose to understand me. 21. When time
shall serve, you shall have the fruit of my labors.—Cowper.

22. I shall be so glad if you will tell me what to read.—George Eliot. 23. I
protest against such a combat, until the king of England shall have repaid the
fifty thousand bezants.—Scott. 24. Unless something should go wrong, I flatter
myself that the performance will elicit your generous approbation. 25. A seat in
the cabinet was offered to him, on condition that he would give efficient support
to the ministry in Parliament. 26. The proposition which he made was, that Fox
should be Secretary of State.

27. That night he put forth a proclamation, directing that the posts should be
stopped, and that no person should, at his peril, venture to harbor the accused
members.—Macaulay. 28. Hyde interfered, and proposed that the question should be
divided. 29. I am sorry that you should be bothered in this way. 30. I am sorry
that Murray should groan on my account.—Byron. 31. There are old brass andirons,
waiting until time shall revenge them on their paltry substitutes. 32. Should he be
acquitted, that, I imagine, should end the matter. 33. A rumor was circulated that
some new pageant was about to be exhibited, which should put a fitting close to the
splendid festivities. 34. If this new purpose of conquest shall be abandoned,
Richard may yet become King of Jerusalem by compact.—Scott. 35. Saladin desires no
converts save those whom the holy prophet shall dispose to submit themselves to his
law. 36. Pride now came to Montezuma’s aid, and, since he must go, he preferred
that it should appear to be with his own free will. 37. God forbid that I should
regret those gifts!

EXERCISE 40

(§§ 309–323, pp. 132–137)

1. Point out each infinitive and explain its construction as noun, as complementary
infinitive, as infinitive of purpose, as modifier of a noun or an adjective, or as
part of a verb-phrase (with an auxiliary).

2. Point out any modifiers or objects of infinitives.

1. To advance toward London would have been madness. 2. To trace the exact boundary
between rightful and wrongful resistance is impossible.—Macaulay. 3. I was too
young to keep any journal of this voyage. 4. The baron hastened to receive his
future son-in-law. 5. It was her habit to go over to the deanery (§ 318). 6. He
could not consent to turn his back upon a party of helpless travellers. 7. The
fixed purpose of these men was to break the foreign yoke. 8. Here rise no cliffs
the vale to shade. 9. They saw the gleaming river seaward flow (§ 322). 10. She
perceived one of the eyes of the portrait move. 11. His first scheme was to seize
Bristol. 12. The first business of the Commons was to elect a Speaker. 13. The old
man frequently stretched his eyes ahead to gaze over the tract that he had yet to
traverse. 14. When other things sank brooding to sleep, the heath appeared slowly
to awake and listen.—Hardy. 15. All were anxious to hear the story of the
mysterious picture. 16. I see the lights of the village gleam through the rain and
the mist. 17. Then the bishop rose from his chair to speak.

18. To dismiss him from his high post was to emancipate him from all restraint. 19.
This is not a time to hesitate. 20. Burghers hastened to man the wall. 21. I felt
Leslie’s hand tremble on my arm. 22. He heard a mighty bowstring twang.—Morris. 23.
Mr. Ralph Nickleby sat in his private office one morning, ready dressed to walk
abroad. 24. I put down the letters, and began to muse over their contents. 25.
Waves of clear sea are, indeed, lovely to watch. 26. Halifax had now nothing to
give. 27. The neighborhood seemed to breathe a tranquil prosperity. 28. It is
always perilous to adopt expediency as a guide. 29. Soldiers were drawn up to keep
the passage clear.

3. Write sentences containing an infinitive used as subject, as predicate

nominative, as appositive, as the object of a preposition, as an adjective; a
complementary infinitive; an infinitive of purpose; an infinitive used with shall,
with will, with must.

4. Note any modifiers or objects that you have used with the infinitives.

EXERCISE 41

(§§ 324–328, pp. 137–139)

1. Point out each infinitive clause. Mention the verb of which it is the object.
Find the subject of each infinitive. When it is possible, substitute a that-clause
for the infinitive clause.

1. It might seem irreverent to make the gray cathedral and the tall time-worn
palaces echo back the exuberant vociferation of the market. 2. We have made you
wait. 3. We then went to Pembroke College, and waited on his old friend Dr. Adams,
the master of it, whom I found to be a most polite, pleasing, communicative man.—
Boswell. 4. The doctor expects Captain Starbuck to recover. 5. For a good sailor to
foul the first buoy was ludicrous enough. 6. Will you ask Annie to feed the parrot?
7. I believe it to be a speaking likeness. 8. I suppose them to be utterly ignorant
of their own condition.

9. Hepzibah bade her young guest sit down. 10. Calamity and peril often force men
to combine. 11. He knew himself to be a liar whom nobody trusted. 12. I must not
ask the reader to suppose that he was cheerful. 13. I felt this melancholy to be
infectious. 14. No one on seeing Mr. Crawley took him to be a happy man, or a weak
man, or an ignorant man, or a wise man.—Trollope. 15. Humanity impelled him to
rescue the poor wretch.
2. Write sentences containing infinitive clauses used after verbs of wishing,
commanding, believing, declaring, perceiving.

3. Fill each blank with a personal pronoun.

1. He believes the author to be ——. [First person.]

2. He believes that the author is ——. [First person.]

3. I knew the thief to be ——. [Third person.]

4. I thought that the thief was ——. [Third person.]

5. We thought the strangers to be ——. [Third person.]

6. We thought that the strangers were ——. [Third person.]

4. Fill each blank with who or whom.

1. The man —— I believe to be responsible for this accident is the engineer.

2. I believe that the man —— is responsible for this accident is the engineer.

3. My knock was answered by a lad —— I believed to be a lodger.

4. You are not the person —— I believed you to be.

EXERCISE 42

(§§ 329–343, pp. 140–143)

1. Point out all the participles, present and past, and tell what substantive each
modifies. Mention such as are used as pure adjectives. Mention any modifiers or
objects of participles.

1. The ship is anchored safe and sound, its voyage closed and done.—Whitman. 2.
Even the tight windows and the heavy silken curtains drawn close could not shut out
the sound of the driving sleet. 3. Godolphin was not a reading man. 4. Mr. Sikes,
dragging Oliver after him, elbowed his way through the thickest of the crowd. 5.
Betrayed, deserted, disorganized, unprovided with resources, begirt with enemies,
the noble city was still no easy conquest. 6. Thus regretted and cautioned on all
hands, Mordaunt took leave of the hospitable household. 7. Far away, an angry white
stain undulating on the surface of steely-gray waters, shot with gleams of green,
diminished swiftly, without a hiss, like a patch of pure snow melting in the sun.—
Conrad. 8. I set her on my pacing steed.—Keats.
9. But the poor traveller paused here barely for a minute, and then went on,
stumbling through the mud, striking his ill-covered feet against the rough stones
in the dark, sweating in his weakness, almost tottering at times, and calculating
whether his remaining strength would serve to carry him home.—Trollope. 10. His
teeth are set, his hand is clenched. 11. Passing through the ravine, they came to a
hollow, like a small amphitheatre. 12. He found the house gone to decay—the roof
fallen in, the windows shattered, and the doors off the hinges. 13. And now, sir,
when you next go to the British Museum, look for a poet named Vaughan. 14. A heavy
sea struck us on our starboard quarter, almost throwing us on our beam-ends. 15. He
stood chuckling and rubbing his hands, and scarcely hearing a word the parson said.
16. The light struggles dimly through windows darkened by dust. 17. We sailed
merrily forward for several days, meeting with nothing to interrupt us.

2. Write sentences containing the past participles of six weak verbs; of six strong
verbs.

3. Write sentences containing a participle used as a pure adjective; a participle

used as a predicate adjective; a participle modified adverbially; a participle
taking an object.

4. Write ten sentences each containing a perfect participle. Substitute for each a
clause introduced by when.

EXERCISE 43

(§§ 344–346, p. 144)

Explain all examples of the nominative absolute. Substitute a modifying clause in

each sentence.

1. A carriage, drawn by half a dozen horses, came driving at a furious rate, the
postilions smacking their whips like mad. 2. As far as the eye could reach, the sea
in every direction was of a deep blue color, the waves running high and fresh, and
sparkling in the light. 3. For some years past there had been a difficulty about
the rent, things not having gone at the Dragon of Wantly as smoothly as they had
used to go. 4. He began to talk rapidly, all diffidence subdued. 5. Noon coming,
and the Doctor not returning, Mr. Lorry advised with Lucie. 6. The second mate
falling ill during the passage, I was promoted to officer of the watch. 7. The dog
now roused himself and sat on his haunches, his ears moving quickly backward and
forward. 8. This done, Mazeppa spread his cloak. 9. She was seated alone, her arms
on the table, her head bent down. 10. There being some time upon his hands, he left
his luggage at the cloak-room, and went on foot along Bedford Street to the church.

EXERCISE 44
(§§ 347–353, pp. 145–147)

1. Point out the present participles, and also the verbal nouns in -ing
(participial nouns). Show the difference. Mention any modifiers or complements used
with either.

1. The consternation was extreme. Some were for closing the gates and resisting;
some for submitting; some for temporizing. 2. A troop of strange children ran at
his heels, hooting after him, and pointing at his gray head. 3. The wicket opened
on a stone staircase leading upward. 4. Watching and toil were to me pleasure, for
my body was strong, and my spirits winged. 5. The lingerings of decent pride were
visible in her appearance. 6. His deep bass voice had a quavering in it, his eyes
looked dim, and the lines on his face were deep. 7. There were several French
privateers hovering on the coast. 8. He does not like talking of these matters to
strangers. 9. Miss Matty cared much more for the circumstance of her being a very
good card-player. 10. His discourse was broken off by his man’s telling him he had
called a coach. 11. Swallows and martens skimmed twittering about the eaves. 12. I
have loved, lived with, and left the sea without ever seeing a ship’s tall fabric
of sticks, cobwebs, and gossamer go by the board.—Conrad.

13. The sexton was a meek, acquiescing little man, of a bowing, lowly habit; yet he
had a pleasant twinkling in his eye. 14. The rain always made a point of setting in
just as he had some outdoor work to do. 15. I have been employed this morning in
composing a Latin motto for the king’s clock. 16. Two more of the boats were lost
by being stove and swamped alongside. 17. I heard the ripple washing in the reeds.
18. After wandering through two or three streets, I found my way to Shakspere’s
birthplace. 19. Rip’s heart died away at hearing of these sad changes in his home
and friends. 20. The fish did not bite freely, and we frequently changed our
fishing ground without bettering our luck. 21. Lady Niton sat blinking and
speechless. 22. I cannot help hearing things, and reading things, and observing
things, and they fill me with disquietude. 23. Here was circumstance after
circumstance goading me onward. 24. I sat staring at a book of my own making. 25.
That thought actually drove out of my head the more pressing danger.

2. Write sentences in which (1) a verbal noun and (2) a present participle are
formed from—

run,

hunt,

leap,

swim,

strike,

find,

speak,
sing,

shout,

play,

skate,

blow,

spend,

listen,

eat,

move,

translate,

recite,

murmur,

whisper,

read,

talk,

complain,

paint,

build,

give,

breathe,

teach,

flow,

shine.

3. Whenever it is possible, substitute either a noun or an infinitive for each

verbal noun in your sentences.

4. Select three of these verbal nouns, and write other sentences in which each is
used (1) as a subject, (2) with a direct and an indirect object, (3) with an
adjective modifier, (4) with an adverbial modifier.
EXERCISE 45

(§§ 354–371, pp. 148–154)

1. Point out and parse the prepositions and conjunctions.

In parsing a preposition, tell (1) the object, and (2) the word to which the
preposition shows the relation of the object.

In parsing a conjunction, indicate the words or groups of words which it connects,

tell whether it is coördinate or subordinate, and mention its correlative (§ 369)
if it has one.

1. Neither witch nor warlock crossed Mordaunt’s path. 2. But I will be bolder, and
do not doubt to make it good, though a paradox, that one great reason why prose is
not to be used in serious plays, is, because it is too near the nature of converse.
—Dryden. 3. All down that immense vista of gloomy arches there was one blaze of
scarlet and gold. 4. No doubt, something of Shakspere’s punning must be attributed
to his age, in which direct and formal combats of wit were a favorite pastime of
the courtly and accomplished.—Coleridge. 5. Bodily labor is of two kinds: either
that which a man submits to for his livelihood, or that which he undergoes for his
pleasure.—Addison. 6. Early upon the morrow the march was resumed. 7. The camp was
broken up, and the troops were sent to quarters in different parts of the country.
8. My attention was called off for a moment by the cries of birds and the bleatings
of sheep. 9. This is well to be weighed, that boldness is ever blind, for it seeth
not dangers and inconveniences.—Bacon. 10. At a little distance from Sir Roger’s
house, among the ruins of an old abbey, there is a long walk of aged elms. 11. Then
I sent you the Greek instead of the Persian whom you asked for?—Fitz Gerald. 12.
Rowland’s allowance at college was barely sufficient to maintain him decently, and,
his degree nevertheless achieved, he was taken into his father’s counting-house to
do small drudgery on a proportionate stipend.

13. Though this lady never expressed an idea, Richard was not mistaken in her
cleverness. 14. If I am tired, your letter will refresh me. 15. The young ladies
however, and Mr. Pecksniff likewise, remained in the very best of spirits in spite
of these severe trials, though with something of a mysterious understanding among
themselves. 16. He went along almost gaily, nor felt the fatigue of the road.

2. Write sentences in which, the following words are used as indicated:—

for (preposition,

conjunction),

then (conjunction,

adverb),

notwithstanding

(preposition,
conjunction),

since (preposition,

adverb,

relative adverb),

until (preposition,

relative adverb),

as (conjunction,

relative pronoun,

relative adverb),

that (conjunction,

relative pronoun,

demonstrative adjective,

demonstrative pronoun),

but (preposition,

conjunction).

3. Construct sentences containing either and or, neither and nor, whether and or,
not only and but also, both and and, though, if, because.

4. Construct six sentences containing coördinate conjunctions; six containing

subordinate conjunctions; six containing relative adverbs.

EXERCISE 46

(§§ 372–375, pp. 155–156)

Point out all interjections, all other parts of speech used here in exclamation,
and all exclamatory phrases.

1. Ring the alarum-bell! Murder and treason!—Shakspere. 2. Kipling is by far the

most promising young man who has appeared since—ahem—I appeared.—Stevenson. 3. O,
to be in England! 4. “Courage!” he said, and pointed toward the land.—Tennyson. 5.
Ah! my lord Arthur, whither shall I go? 6. Alas for my credulous fancy! 7. Tut,
man! we must take things as they come. 8. O day, the last of all my bliss on earth!
—Marlowe. 9. Adieu, fair Cadiz! yea, a long adieu!—Byron. 10. Peace, sister, peace!
11. Fie, fie, my brother! 12. How now, Thersites? what, lost in the labyrinth of
thy fury? 13. Farewell for the present, my dear sir. 14. O Jupiter! how weary are
my spirits!—Shakspere. 15. Guilty, my lord, guilty! I confess, I confess! 16.
Hence, you long-legg’d spinners, hence! 17. O monstrous! O strange! we are haunted!
18. Faith, he is gone unto the taming school. 19. But, soft! whom have we here?

20. A Tory! a Tory! a spy! a refugee! hustle him! away with him! 21. What! this
gentleman will outtalk us all. 22. Up, up, Glentarkin! rouse thee, ho!—Scott. 23.
And now good-bye, my dear fellow. 24. Ahem! you remember, friend? Grand triumphs
those, eh?

EXERCISE 47

(§§ 376–392, pp. 157–162)

1. Construct ten sentences in which the simple subject (noun or pronoun) is

modified by an adjective clause; ten in which the simple predicate is modified by
an adverbial clause.

2. Tell the construction (as subject, predicate nominative, object, etc.) of each
noun clause in § 392. Mention the simple subject and predicate of each clause.

EXERCISE 48

(§§ 395–402, pp. 163–165)

1. Tell whether each of the subordinate clauses expresses place, time, cause, or
concession. Is the clause adjective or adverbial? What introduces it? What does it
modify?

1. Though often misled by prejudice and passion, he was emphatically an honest man.
2. When a prisoner first leaves his cell, he cannot bear the light of day. 3. As I
walked through the wilderness of this world, I lighted on a certain place where was
a den.—Bunyan. 4. He postponed his final decision till after the Parliament should
have reassembled. 5. They gave a dismal croak or two, and hopped aside into the
darkest corner, since it was not yet their hour to flap duskily abroad. 6. Calmly
and sadly she waited, until the procession approached her. 7. Half the task was not
done when the sun went down. 8. However I might be disposed to trust his probity, I
dare not trust his prejudices. 9. After a little more conversation we strolled to
the stable, where my horse was standing. 10. As we approached the house, we heard
the sound of music, and now and then a burst of laughter. 11. His face was not
cruel, though it was desperate.

12. We again set out for the hut, at which we deposited our golden burdens. 13. It
will be midnight before we arrive at our inn. 14. Though I was not particularly
well supplied with money, I had enough for the expenses of my journey. 15. The day,
though it began brightly, had long been overcast. 16. As there were no men in the
company, the girls danced with each other. 17. Although without fear, I did not
neglect to use all proper precautions. 18. When I return, I shall find things
settled. 19. Clifford, as the company partook of their little banquet, grew to be
the gayest of them all. 20. The mill where Will lived with his adopted parents
stood in a falling valley between pinewoods and great mountains. 21. As Ichabod
approached this fearful tree, he began to whistle. 22. Infected be the air whereon
they ride!—Shakspere. 23. So they were forced to go, because he was stronger than
they.

24. Since you will not help me, I must trust to myself. 25. When they beheld his
face, they recognized Basil the blacksmith. 26. This is the third day since we came
to Rome. 27. Amsterdam was the place where the leading Scotch and English
assembled. 28. These considerations might well have made William uneasy, even if
all the military means of the United Provinces had been at his absolute disposal.
29. Although the breeze had now utterly ceased, we had made a great deal of way
during the night.

2. Illustrate clauses of place, time, cause, and concession, by constructing twenty

sentences, five for each.

3. Tell whether the clauses are adjective or adverbial. What does each modify?

4. See if you can replace your clauses of time by participles or adverbial phrases.

EXERCISE 49

(§§ 403–410, pp. 166–167)

1. Point out the clauses of purpose and those of result.

1. The weather was so bad I could not embark that night. 2. She opened the casement
that the cool air might blow upon her throbbing temples. 3. So intent were the
servants upon their sports, that we had to ring repeatedly before we could make
ourselves heard. 4. The consequence was that, according to the rules of the House,
the amendment was lost. 5. Therefore I am going this way, as I told you, that I may
be rid of my burden. 6. Tess’s friends lived so far off that none could
conveniently have been present at the ceremony. 7. Sometimes I was afraid lest I
should be charged with ingratitude. 8. There is such an echo among the old ruins
and vaults that, if you stamp but a little louder than ordinary, you hear the sound
repeated.—Addison. 9. They durst not speak without premeditation, lest they should
be convicted of discontent or sorrow. 10. My purpose was, to admit no testimony of
living authors, that I might not be misled by partiality, and that none of my
contemporaries might have reason to complain.—Johnson. 11. It is King Richard’s
pleasure that you die undegraded.
2. Write five sentences containing each a clause of purpose; of result; an
infinitive clause expressing purpose.

3. Write ten sentences in which the infinitive (without a subject) expresses

purpose.

4. Review Exercise 40.

EXERCISE 50

(§§ 411–427, pp. 167–172)

1. Tell whether the conditional clauses in the following sentences are non-
committal or contrary to fact, and whether they represent present, past, or future
condition.

1. Should Hayley be with you, tell him I have given my friend Mr. Rose an
introductory letter to him. 2. If the judgment against him was illegal, it ought to
have been reversed. If it was legal, there was no ground for remitting any part of
it. 3. If I ever saw horror in the human face, it was there. 4. His affliction
would have been insupportable, had not he been comforted by the daily visits and
conversations of his friend. 5. We perish if they hear a shot.—Scott. 6. Can
Freedom breathe if Ignorance reign?—Holmes. 7. If power be in the hands of men, it
will sometimes be abused. 8. If hopes were dupes, fears may be liars.—Clough. 9. If
you write to Moore, will you tell him that I shall answer his letter the moment I
can muster time and spirits? 10. If you have any good news to tell, it will not be
unwelcome; if any bad, you need not be afraid. 11. I feel quite as much bored with
this foolery as it deserves, and more than I should be, if I had not a headache.
12. Will you let me offer you this little book? If I had anything better, it should
be yours.

13. I shall hope, if we can agree as to dates, to come to you sometime in May. 14.
If I could only get to work, we could live here with comfort. 15. If he had been
left to himself, he would have whistled life away in perfect contentment. 16. If
this frolic should lay me up with a fit of rheumatism, I shall have a blessed time
with Dame Van Winkle. 17. I know that two and two make four, and should be glad to
prove it, if I could,—though, I must say, if by any sort of process I could convert
two and two into five, it would give me much greater pleasure.—Byron. 18. I would
not say this if I could help it. 19. If you are disposed to write—write; and if
not, I shall forgive your silence, and you will not quarrel with mine. 20. Had not
exercise been absolutely necessary for our well-being, nature would not have made
the body so proper for it.—Addison. 21. Nothing will ever be attempted, if all
possible objections must first be overcome.—Johnson. 22. If fashion gives the word,
every distinction of beauty, complexion, or stature ceases.—Goldsmith.

2. Write twenty sentences, each containing a conditional clause. Tell whether each
condition refers to present, past, or future time. Which of them are contrary to
fact?

EXERCISE 51

(§§ 428–429, p. 173)

1. Point out the clauses of comparison and explain such forms of verbs or pronouns
as may require comment.

1. Dull as a flower without the sun, he sat down upon a stone. 2. He sighed as if
he would break his heart. 3. The modern steamship advances upon a still and
overshadowed sea with a pulsating tremor of her frame, an occasional clang in her
depths, as if she had an iron heart in her iron body.—Conrad. 4. It would have been
as difficult, however, to follow up the stream of Donatello’s ancestry to its dim
source, as travellers have found it to reach the mysterious fountains of the Nile.
5. I will become as liberal as you. 6. The triumph was as destructive to the
victorious as to the vanquished. 7. The public conduct of Milton must be approved
or condemned, according as the resistance of the people to Charles the First shall
appear to be justifiable or criminal. 8. There was no one in all Clavering who read
so many novels as Madame Fribsby. 9. No kind of power is more formidable than the
power of making men ridiculous.—Macaulay.

10. The leader of the orchestra was sawing away at his violin as savagely as if he
were calling on his company to rush up and seize a battery of guns.—Black. 11. He
shouts as if he were trying his voice against a northwest gale of wind. 12. The
playground seemed smaller than when I used to sport about it. 13. The blood in me
ran cold, and I drew in my breath as if I had been struck. 14. There are few things
more formidable than the unwonted anger of a good-natured man.—Miller. 15. Nor was
Lochiel less distinguished by intellectual than by bodily vigor. 16. He showed less
wisdom than virtue. 17. He was as courageous an animal as ever scoured the woods.
18. As fierce a beak and talon as ever struck—as strong a wing as ever beat,
belonged to Swift.—Thackeray.

19. Homer’s description of war had as much truth as poetry requires.—Macaulay. 20.
Of all the objects I have ever seen, there is none which affects my imagination so
much as the sea.—Addison. 21. “Somebody must go,” murmured Mrs. Heathcliff, more
kindly than I expected. 22. We do not so often disappoint others as ourselves.—
Johnson. 23. The battle raged as fiercely on the lake as on the land. 24. The young
man looked down on me from the corner of his eyes, for all the world as if there
were some mortal feud unavenged between us.—E. Brontë.

2. Write ten sentences containing as if with a subjunctive.

3. Insert personal pronouns of the first or third person.

1. You are much stronger than ——.

2. Your anger hurts yourself more than it hurts ——.

3. You are not so studious as ——.

4. He was quite as much to blame as ——.

5. I blame myself rather than ——.

6. You should rather blame yourself than ——.

7. How much older are you than ——?

8. Is Jack more ambitious than ——?

9. Do you wish to please yourself more than ——?

10. Your conduct was less censurable than ——.

EXERCISE 52

(§§ 430–436, pp. 173–176)

1. Change the direct statements to indirect discourse, prefixing He said. Thus,—

Supper was announced shortly after my arrival.

He said that supper was announced shortly after his arrival.

Be careful to make the proper changes in person and tense.

1. Supper was announced shortly after my arrival. 2. Misery loves company. 3. Iron
floats in mercury. 4. The grime and sordidness of the House of the Seven Gables
seem to have vanished. 5. Nothing is to be seen. 6. Straws show which way the wind
blows. 7. I remained undecided whether or not to follow my servant. 8. Rest of mind
and body seems to have reëstablished my health. 9. The fortifications consist of a
simple wall overgrown with grass and weeds. 10. Fire is a good servant but a bad
master. 11. Not a cheer was heard; not a member ventured to second the motion. 12.
The most rigid discipline is maintained. 13. Without our consent, such an
expedition cannot legally be undertaken. 14. The newspapers will happily save me
the trouble of relating minute particulars.

15. The ringing of bells is at an end; the rumbling of the carriages has ceased;
the pattering of feet is heard no more. 16. My mind has been much disturbed, and
too agitated for conversation. 17. While all this is taking place within the
Towers, vast bodies of people are assembling without. 18. The spelling and
handwriting are those of a man imperfectly educated. 19. I have an unconquerable
repugnance to return to my chamber. 20. I like to see a man know his own mind.
2. Change into a direct statement each clause that is in the indirect discourse.
Mention the construction of the clause (as subject, object, etc.).

1. The booming of a gun told them that the last yacht had rounded the lightship. 2.
All of a sudden she thought she heard something move behind her. 3. Though they
spoke French fluently, I perceived that it was not their native language. 4. I soon
found that, in making the acquaintance of the young man, I had indeed made a
valuable acquisition. 5. I thanked him, but said that Dr. Johnson had come with me
from London, and I must return to the inn and drink tea with him; that my name was
Boswell, and I had travelled with him in the Hebrides. 6. I discovered that he was
wonderfully fond of interfering with other people’s business. 7. I had heard that
he had been unhappy, that he had roamed about, a fevered, distempered man, taking
pleasure in nothing. 8. I had observed that the old woman for some time past had
shown much less anxiety about the book. 9. I learned that times had gone hard with
her. 10. I perceived that the objects which had excited my curiosity were not
trees, but immense upright stones.

11. That no man can legally promise what he cannot legally perform is a self-
evident proposition.—Mackintosh. 12. That there are some duties superior to others
will be denied by no one. 13. It can hardly be doubted that the highest obligation
of a citizen is that of contributing to preserve the community. 14. Reports had
been brought back that six Christians were lingering in captivity in the interior
of the country. 15. If it be true that, by giving our confidence by halves, we can
scarcely hope to make a friend, it is equally true that, by withdrawing it when
given, we shall make an enemy.—Prescott. 16. He concluded with the assurance that
the whole fleet would sail on the following day. 17. Pen protested that he had not
changed in the least.

3. Write five sentences in which indirect discourse is expressed by an infinitive

clause (§ 435).

EXERCISE 53

(§ 436, p. 176)

1. Change each of the sentences quoted at the end of § 436 into one of the other
two passive constructions described in that section.

2. Write ten sentences in each of which a clause in the indirect discourse is the
subject of a passive verb.

EXERCISE 54
(§§ 438–439, pp. 177–178)

1. Explain the use of shall, should, will, or would in each instance. Change the
indirect discourse to the direct.

1. I believe I should like to live in a small house just outside a pleasant English
town all the days of my life.—Fitz Gerald. 2. The sultan said he would oblige us
with donkeys or anything else if we would only give him a few more pretty cloths.—
Speke. 3. I think that I should like it to be always summer. 4. He often told his
friends afterwards, that unless he had found out this piece of exercise, he verily
believed he should have lost his senses.—Addison. 5. Do you remember once saying to
me that you hoped you should never leave Brentham? 6. I knew that he would not have
accepted office in 1841–1842 if he could have avoided it. 7. Promise you will give
him this little book of drawings. 8. I have often thought that there has rarely
passed a life of which a judicious and faithful narrative would not be useful.—
Johnson. 9. She said, very quietly, that she wished to speak to him after
breakfast, and that he would find her in her sitting room. 10. Lady Annabel had
promised the children that they should some day ride together to Marringhurst.

11. One of them told us that he would make us a canoe. 12. Promise, Marion—pray
promise you will not even mention my name to him when you write next. 13. He felt
that no argument of his would be of any use. 14. I know very well that I shall sign
my own death warrant on the day when I retire from business. 15. She knew very well
now that Grandcourt would not go without her; but if he must tyrannize over her, he
should not do it precisely in the way he would choose. She would oblige him to stay
in the hotel. 16. They were afraid that they should not long be able to put him off
with promises. 17. Bungay replied that he should be happy to have dealings with Mr.
Pendennis.

2. Fill the blanks with the proper auxiliary (shall or should, or will or would).

1. Your father said that he —— be glad to see me.

2. I told him that I —— be obliged to dismiss him.

3. I wrote that we —— gladly accept his invitation.

4. My friends believed that I —— not be willing to go.

5. Robert thinks that he —— have to work evenings.

6. Robert says that I —— have to work evenings.

7. They say that Robert —— work evenings, although he ought not.

8. I promised that Robert —— not work evenings.

9. I told Mary that I was sure she —— succeed.

10. Mary said she had no doubt that I —— succeed.

11. Mary will say that she has no doubt I —— succeed.

12. I repeat that I have no doubt you —— succeed.

13. He declared that you —— go, even against your will.

14. The report is that we —— dissolve partnership.

3. Change the indirect statements in the sentences which you have just made to
direct statements.

EXERCISE 55

(§§ 440–445, pp. 179–181)

1. Some, but not all, of the following sentences contain indirect questions. Point
out these questions and tell what introduces them (interrogative pronoun,
interrogative adverb, subordinate conjunction). Mention the construction of each
interrogative clause (as subject, object, etc.).

2. Turn each indirect question into a direct question.

3. Point out such relative clauses as you find in the sentences. Are they adjective
or adverbial modifiers?

1. Warrington did not know what his comrade’s means were. 2. He could scarcely tell
whether she was imbued with sunshine, or whether it was a glow of happiness that
shone out of her. 3. I started the question whether duelling was consistent with
moral duty.—Boswell. 4. The pilgrims then began to inquire if there was no other
way to the gate. 5. He knew not what to make of the letter. 6. I hardly heard what
he said. 7. Every one knows practically what are the constituents of health or of
virtue.—Newman. 8. Think calmly over what I have written. 9. Then she asked him
whence he was and whither he was going; and he told her. 10. What to expect, he
knew not. 11. Theseus wondered what this immense giant could be. 12. Hack says it
was Mrs. Bungay who caused all the mischief. 13. The question was how best to
extricate the army from its perilous position. 14. Addison was a delightful
companion when he was at his ease. 15. I doubt whether the wisest of us know what
our own motives are.

16. I puzzled my head for some time to find out which of the two cases was the more
applicable. 17. I returned to the studies which I had neglected. 18. I cannot tell
how I dared to say what I did. 19. How long he slept he could not say. 20. Fanny,
in dismay at such an unprecedented question, did not know which way to look, or how
to be prepared for an answer.—Miss Austen. 21. What my course of life will be when
I return to England is very doubtful. 22. I cannot tell you how vaingloriously I
walked the streets. 23. Then I told what a tall, upright, graceful person their
great-grandmother Field once was. 24. When the bean-vines began to flower on the
poles, there was one particular variety which bore a vivid scarlet blossom. 25. I
know not which way I must look. 26. Why she submitted, Mrs. Turpin could not have
told you. 27. I began to become conscious what a strange den that sanctum was. 28.
How Ferguson escaped, was, and still is, a mystery. 29. How far he felt the force
of this obligation will appear in the sequel.

4. Write sentences containing indirect questions introduced by who, which, what,

when, how, why, whether, if.

5. Fill the blanks with who or whom. Tell, in each sentence, whether who or whom is
an interrogative or a relative pronoun.

1. I know —— it was that broke the window.

2. I know —— it was that you saw.

3. I know —— you saw.

4. I know the person —— you saw.

5. I asked if the man —— we saw was Douglas.

6. I asked if the boy —— broke the window was Archer.

7. I know —— it was you overheard.

8. Tell me —— it is that I resemble.

9. Tell me —— I resemble.

10. Tell me —— you think I resemble.

11. Tell me if I resemble anybody —— you know.

6. Turn all the indirect questions which you have just written into direct
questions.

7. Construct sentences in which each of the verbs (or verb-phrases) is followed by

an indirect question:—

asked,

tell,

inquire,

is learning,

see,

might discover,

had heard,

have
found,

doubt,

have perceived,

is thinking,

wonders,

knew,

was told,

understands,

to comprehend,

is,

could ascertain,

has reported,

will announce.

EXERCISE 56

(§ 447, p. 182)

1. Turn each indirect question into the direct form. Explain the use of shall,
should, will, would.

1. “I doubt,” said Donatello, “whether they will remember my voice now.” 2. I did
not know whether to resent his language or pursue my explanations. 3. I clambered
to its apex, and then felt much at a loss as to what should be next done. 4. How we
shall live I cannot imagine. 5. When I shall get to town I cannot divine, but it
will be between this and Christmas. 6. I scarcely know which of us three would be
the sorriest. 7. I can feel for you, because I know what I should feel in the same
situation. 8. Let us see if she will know you. 9. I wonder how you will answer me a
year hence. 10. I asked if Georgiana would accompany her. 11. You must see the
carriage, Jane, and tell me if you don’t think it will suit Mrs. Rochester exactly,
and whether she won’t look like Queen Boadicea, leaning back against those purple
cushions.—C. Brontë. 12. Catherine had no idea why her father should be crosser or
less patient in his ailing condition than he was in his prime. 13. Mr. Hindley will
have to proceed to extremities,—see if he won’t!

2. Fill the blanks with the proper auxiliary (shall, should, will, would). Then
change each indirect question to the direct form.

1. Tom asked me if I —— like to go with him.

2. They inquired whether I —— prefer to go or to stay.

3. She asked me if I —— help her.

4. Tell me whether he —— consent or not.

5. He wishes to know if you —— recommend him.

6. I was in doubt whether I —— succeed or fail.

7. I do not know whether you —— find her at home or at her uncle’s.

8. He is in doubt whether or not he —— get the appointment.

9. We think we —— like to sail on the twentieth.

10. He thinks he —— like to be a farmer.

EXERCISE 57

(§§ 448–453, pp. 183–186)

1. Mention the substantives that make up the compound subjects and the verbs that
make up the compound predicates in § 450; in Exercise 4.

2. See if you can make any of the sentences compound by inserting personal pronouns
as subjects.

3. Divide each compound sentence in § 452 and in Exercise 6 into the independent
coördinate clauses that compose it.

4. Make each sentence in § 450 complex by inserting or adding a subordinate clause.

Is your clause adjective or adverbial? What does it modify?

5. Divide each complex sentence in Exercises 17, 25, 39 (2), 48–51, into the
independent (main) clause and the subordinate clause.

EXERCISE 58

(§§ 458–461, pp. 188–190)

1. Analyze (according to the directions in §§ 458–461) the simple sentences in
Exercise 1. In analyzing, describe each sentence as declarative, interrogative,
etc. If the sentence is imperative, supply the subject.

2. Analyze the compound and the complex sentences in Exercises 6, 17, 25, 39 (2),
48–51.

3. Analyze the compound complex sentences in §§ 456–457, 515.

EXERCISE 59

(§§ 462–473, pp. 191–196)

1. Point out the adjectives used as modifiers of the subject. Substitute for each
an adjective phrase; an adjective clause (§§ 467–468).

1. Standing in the door was a tearful child. 2. A tall Scot shut off my view. 3. An
iron mask concealed the prisoner’s face. 4. Honorable men pay their debts. 5. A
tumble-down shed stood in the hollow. 6. A three-cornered hat was cocked over one
of his ears. 7. The American Indians are becoming extinct. 8. An experienced
stenographer should spell correctly. 9. A deep fosse or ditch was drawn round the
whole building. 10. The royal army was assembled at Salisbury. 11. The mid-day meal
was excellent. 12. The morning mist lies heavy upon yonder chain of islands.

2. Construct sentences, using the following adjective phrases as modifiers of the

subject:—

of great height;

in a red hat;

with black hair;

from Cairo;

to Indianapolis;

from India;

with high gables;

of brilliant plumage;

on the rear platform;

in a state of intense agitation;

between the two ships;

over the mountain;

on the summit of the tower.

3. Substitute (if possible) an adjective clause for each adjective phrase in the
sentences you have just written.

4. Point out all participles used as modifiers of the simple subject in Exercise
42. Write ten sentences containing such modifiers (§ 469).

5. Construct ten sentences similar to those in § 470 (with infinitives modifying

the simple subject).

6. Write ten sentences containing nouns or pronouns in the possessive case used as
modifiers of the subject (§ 471).

7. Write ten sentences containing nouns in apposition with the subject (§§ 88, 5;
472); five in which a noun clause is thus used (§§ 386, 473).

EXERCISE 60

(§§ 474–481, pp. 196–199)

1. Point out all the adverbs used to modify the simple predicate. Substitute for
each an adverbial phrase or clause.

1. The witness chose his words deliberately. 2. The old man moved slowly down the
street. 3. I carefully avoided making that promise. 4. Do not speak so loud. 5. I
am eagerly looking forward to your visit. 6. That golf ball must have hit him hard.
7. Allan has played in public twice. 8. I shall call you early. 9. We often see
your eccentric friend. 10. The priest shook his head doubtfully. 11. Your father
barely escaped drowning. 12. The next morning Chester awoke late. 13. The accident
happened here. 14. The captain had gone below. 15. Marion refuses to go by coach
unless she can sit outside. 16. Frank left home three years ago, and has not been
heard from since. 17. Look yonder and tell us where the path lies.

18. We were then presented to Governor Gore. 19. I have not been there since April.
20. Bruce was afterward ashamed of his discouragement. 21. The sun will soon set.
22. You are expected to arrive in good season hereafter. 23. Alice cannot spell
correctly. 24. The Indian suddenly disappeared. 25. The girl laughed carelessly.
26. The moose fell heavily to the earth. 27. He passionately longs to see Italy.
28. All foreigners seem to speak rapidly. 29. Edith listened attentively.

2. Write ten sentences in which the simple predicate is modified by an infinitive

(§§ 323, 477); by an adverbial objective or by a phrase containing one (§§ 109,
478); by a nominative absolute (§§ 345, 479); by an indirect object (§§ 105, 480);
by a cognate object (§§ 108, 481).

3. Point out the complementary infinitives and the infinitives of purpose in

Exercise 40, and tell what verb each modifies.

EXERCISE 61

(§§ 482–493, pp. 200–204)

1. Point out the complements and describe each (as direct object, predicate
nominative, etc.). Analyze the sentences.

1. The most amazing wonder of the deep is its unfathomable cruelty.—Conrad. 2.

Music is Love in search of a word.—Lanier. 3. The destination of the fleet was
still a matter of conjecture. 4. The reports from the front made Washington
anxious. 5. Plato says that the punishment which the wise suffer who refuse to take
part in the government, is, to live under the government of worse men.—Emerson. 6.
I thought your book an imposture; I think it an imposture still.—Johnson. 7. Moses
chose able men out of all Israel and made them heads over the people. 8. The old
gray porter raised his torch. 9. This you will call impudence. 10. Firm and
irrevocable is my doom. 11. In return for mere board and lodging, Topham became Mr.
Starkey’s assistant. 12. It was they who attacked us.

13. Serene will be our days and bright. 14. Warwick thought the situation awkward,
but he held his peace. 15. If there were not too great a risk of the dispersion of
their fleet, I should think their putting to sea a mere manœuver to deceive.—
Irving. 16. I thought “Aladdin” capital fun.—Stevenson. 17. The faces of the father
and mother had a sober gladness; the children laughed; the eldest daughter was the
image of Happiness at seventeen; and the aged grandmother, who sat knitting in the
warmest place, was the image of Happiness grown old. 18. His stories were what
frightened people worst of all. 19. The old man was nervous, fidgety, and very
pale. 20. I am growing old, the grey hairs thicken upon me, my joints are less
supple, and, in mind as well as body, I am less enterprising than in former years.—
Southey. 21. I was uneasy about my letter. 22. Confidence is almost everything in
war. 23. He thinks me a troublesome fellow.

24. At the end of this strange season, Burns gloomily sums up his gains and losses.
25. Little fire grows great with little wind.—Shakspere. 26. As he rose to walk, he
found himself stiff in the joints. 27. Noise had been my native element. 28. I
caught tantalizing glimpses of green fields, shut from me by dull lines of high-
spiked palings. 29. One house in a back street was bright with the cheerful glare
of lights.

2. Write ten simple sentences, each containing the direct object of a verb; a
predicate objective; a predicate nominative; a predicate adjective. Analyze your
sentences.
EXERCISE 62

(§§ 494–497, pp. 205–206)

1. Point out any modifiers of complements in the sentences called for in Exercise
61, 2. Introduce other modifiers of complements if you can without injuring the
sentences.

2. Write sentences similar to those in § 492, taking care to include in each a

complement modified.

3. Write ten sentences, each containing a substantive complement modified by an

adjective clause (§ 496); an adjective complement modified by an adverbial clause
(§ 497). Analyze your sentences.

4. Point out all modifiers of complements in Exercises 12 and 22.

5. Analyze the sentences in § 495.

EXERCISE 63

(§§ 498–500, pp. 207–208)

1. Write ten sentences illustrating adjectives (or adjective phrases) modified

either by adverbs or by groups of words used adverbially.

2. Write ten sentences, each containing a possessive noun modified; an appositive

modified; an adverbial phrase modified.

3. Write ten sentences illustrating the use of adjective or adverbial clauses as

modifiers of modifiers.

4. Analyze the sentences in § 498.

EXERCISE 64

(§§ 501–503, p. 209)

Point out the independent elements. Tell whether each is an interjection, a
vocative (nominative by direct address), an exclamatory nominative, or a
parenthetical expression. Analyze the sentences.

1. The king, Melfort said, was determined to be severe. 2. O Mary, go and call the
cattle home. 3. Pardon me, my dear fellow. 4. Between ourselves, I shall not be
sorry to have a quiet evening. 5. Knowledge, indeed, and science express purely
intellectual ideas.—Newman. 6. Oh! oh! pictures don’t pay. 7. To make a long story
short, the company broke up. 8. True, our friend is already in his teens. 9. To use
a ready-made similitude, we might liken universal history to a magic web.—Carlyle.
10. Poor fellows! they only did as they were ordered, I suppose. 11. The world, as
we said, has been unjust to him. 12. Therefore, good Brutus, be prepared to hear.

13. Peace! count the clock. 14. Excuse, no doubt, is in readiness for such
omission. 15. The lord—for so I understood he was—looked at me with an air of
surprise. 16. Lo, Cæsar is afraid. 17. Delay not, Cæsar; read it instantly. 18. My
counsel, I need not say, made full use of this hint. 19. My small services, you
remember, were of no use. 20. I knew—one knows everything in dreams—that they had
been slain. 21. I knew it, I say, to be a fallacy. 22. Liberty! freedom! tyranny is
dead! 23. Stay, ho! and let us hear Mark Antony.

EXERCISE 65

(§§ 504–523, pp. 210–219)

1. Analyze the simple sentences in § 509; the compound sentences in § 511; the
complex sentences in § 512; the compound complex sentences in §§ 514–515.

2. Study the examples in §§ 517–523, and explain their structure orally. Tell
whether the various subordinate clauses are simple, compound, or complex, and why.
Give the construction of each. Analyze the sentences.

3. Construct five complex sentences on the principle of § 517; of § 520; of § 521;

of § 522.

EXERCISE 66

(§§ 524–526, pp. 220–223)

1. Study the sentences in §§ 525–526 until you can explain their structure.

2. Find, in some good English or American author, ten sentences of considerable

length and explain their structure.
EXERCISE 67

(§§ 527–533, pp. 224–226)

1. Analyze the sentences in § 528. Explain the ellipsis in each sentence.

2. Supply the word or words omitted in each of the elliptical sentences in § 533
(p. 226). Explain the ellipsis in each sentence.

3. Analyze the sentences in § 533.

4. Write five sentences illustrating each of the following kinds of ellipsis:—(1)

the subject of an imperative; (2) a relative pronoun; (3) the conjunction that; (4)
the copula and its subject with while, when, though, if; (5) ellipsis in a clause
with as or than.

EXERCISE 68

(§§ 448–526, pp. 183–223)

The following compound, complex, and compound complex sentences will give further
practice in analysis and in study of the relations of clauses.

1. Deerslayer hesitated a single instant ere he plunged into the bushes. 2. The
mind of man is like a clock that is always running down and requires to be as
constantly wound up.—Hazlitt. 3. He became sensible that his life was still in
imminent peril. 4. A young author is apt to run into a confusion of mixed
metaphors, which leave the sense disjointed, and distract the imagination.—
Goldsmith. 5. Everybody kept his head as best he might and scrambled for whatever
he could get. 6. The dialogue had been held in so very low a whisper that not a
word of it had reached the young lady’s ears. 7. The captain screwed his lips up,
and drummed on the table, but he did not speak. 8. Poor Andrew Fern had heard that
his townsman’s sloop had been captured by a privateer. 9. Through the grounds we
went, and very pretty I thought them. 10. He sometimes made doleful complaint that
there were no stagecoaches, nowadays.

11. Lights gleamed in the distance, and people were already astir. 12. That few men
celebrated for theoretic wisdom live with conformity to their precepts, must be
readily confessed.—Johnson. 13. Down went Pew with a cry that rang high into the
night. 14. Pluck the dog off, lest he throttle him. 15. I knew that the worst of
men have their good points. 16. A rumor spread that the enemy was approaching in
great force. 17. Mr. Henry went and walked at the low end of the hall without
reply; for he had an excellent gift of silence. 18. It is a bright brisk morning,
and the loaded wagons are rolling cheerfully past my window. 19. The musician was
an old gray-headed negro, who had been the itinerant orchestra of the neighborhood
for more than half a century. 20. After he had waited three hours, the general’s
patience was exhausted, and, as he learned that the Mexicans were busy in
preparations for defence, he made immediate dispositions for the assault.—Prescott.

21. As I rode along near the coast, I kept a very sharp lookout in the lanes and
woods. 22. Every man desires to live long, but no man would be old.—Swift. 23. If
my face had been pale the moment before, it now glowed almost to burning. 24. The
sentinels who paced the ramparts announced that the vanguard of the hostile army
was in sight. 25. Her heart was happy and her courage rose. 26. There is a report
that Clifford is to be secretary. 27. The season of winter, when, from the
shortness of the daylight, labor becomes impossible, is in Zetland the time of
revel, feasting, and merriment. 28. Every log which is carried past us by the
current has come from an undiscovered country. 29. The fair heavens shone over the
windy blue seas, and the green island of Ulva lay basking in the sunlight. 30. The
greatest event was, that the Miss Jenkynses had purchased a new carpet for the
drawing room. 31. My grandfather made a bow to the motley assemblage as he entered.
32. Talk to a man about himself, and he is generally captivated.

33. Pen was as elated as if somebody had left him a fortune. 34. When the morning
dawned, the king gazed with admiration at the city, which he hoped soon to add to
his dominions.—Irving. 35. No one doubts that the sloth and the ant-eater, the
kangaroo and the opossum, the tiger and the badger, the tapir and the rhinoceros,
are respectively members of the same orders.—Huxley. 36. The traveller, a man of
middle age, wrapped in a gray frieze cloak, quickened his pace when he had reached
the outskirts of the town, for a gloomy extent of nearly four miles lay between him
and his home. 37. It was a scene on which I had often looked down, but where I had
never before beheld a human figure. 38. He found that he had undertaken a task
which was beyond his power. 39. In the Dutch garden is a fine bronze bust of
Napoleon, which Lord Holland put up in 1817, while Napoleon was a prisoner at Saint
Helena.

40. The girl’s was not one of those natures which are most attracted by what is
strange and exceptional in human character. 41. Mrs. Pendennis was sure that he
would lead her dear boy into mischief, if Pen went to the same college with him.
42. I had been some time at sea before I became aware of the fact that hearing
plays a perceptible part in gauging the force of the wind. 43. The Macedonian
conqueror, when he was once invited to hear a man that sang like a nightingale,
replied with contempt, that he had heard the nightingale herself; and the same
treatment must every man expect, whose praise is that he imitates another.—Johnson.
44. Tie a couple of strings across a board and set it in your window, and you have
an instrument which no artist’s harp can rival.—Emerson. 45. I was on the point of
asking what part of the country he had chosen for his retreat. 46. That no man can
lawfully promise what he cannot lawfully do is a self-evident proposition.—
Mackintosh.

47. How far the governor contributed towards the expenses of the outfit is not very
clear. 48. The next epoch in the history of Russia was that of Peter the Great,
whose genius overcame the obstacles consequent on the remoteness of its situation,
and opened to its people the career of European industry, arts, and arms.—Alison.
49. As the chase lengthens, the sportsmen drop off, till at last the foremost
huntsman is left alone, and his horse, overcome with fatigue, stumbles and dies in
a rocky valley.—Jeffrey. 50. The Lowland knight, though startled, repeats his
defiance; and Sir Roderick, respecting his valor, by a signal dismisses his men to
their concealment, and assures him anew of his safety. 51. I stood awe-struck—I
cannot tell how long—watching how the live flame-snakes crept and hissed, and leapt
and roared, and rushed in long horizontal jets from stack to stack before the
howling wind, and fastened their fiery talons on the barn-eaves, and swept over the
peaked roofs, and hurled themselves in fiery flakes into the yard beyond.—Kingsley.
52. When I was at Grand Cairo, I picked up several Oriental manuscripts, which I
have still by me.—Addison. 53. Often have I wondered at the temerity of my father,
who, in spite of an habitual general respect which we all in common manifested
towards him, would venture now and then to stand up against him in some argument
touching their youthful days.—Lamb. 54. By all means begin your folio; even if the
doctor does not give you a year, even if he hesitates about a month, make one brave
push and see what can be accomplished in a week.—Stevenson.

APPENDIX

LISTS OF VERBS

In the first list, only such verb forms are given as are indisputably correct in
accordance with the best prose usage of the present day. The pupil may feel
perfectly safe, therefore, in using the forms registered in this list.52

A few verbs (marked *) which are seldom or never used in ordinary language are
included in this list. These have various irregularities. A few verbs are partly
strong and partly weak.

Weak verbs are printed in italics.

For the modal auxiliaries, see page 299.

Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle

abide abode abode

am (subjunc., be) was been

arise arose arisen

awake awoke, awaked awaked

bear bore borne, born53

beat beat beaten

beget begot begotten

begin began begun

behold beheld beheld

bend bent bent

bereave bereft, bereaved bereft, bereaved54

beseech besought besought

bet bet bet

bid (command) bade bidden

bid (money) bid bid

bind bound bound

bite bit bitten

bleed bled bled

bless (see p. 298)

blow blew blown

break broke broken

breed bred bred

bring brought brought

build built built

burn (see p. 298)

burst burst burst

buy bought bought

cast cast cast

catch caught caught

chide chid chidden

choose chose chosen

*cleave (split)55 cleft, clove cleft, cleaved (cloven, adj.)

cling clung clung

come came come

cost cost cost

creep crept crept

crow (see p. 299)

curse (see p. 298)

cut cut cut

dare (see p. 299)

deal dealt dealt

dig dug dug

do did done

draw drew drawn

dream (see p. 298)

dress (see p. 298)

drink drank drunk (drunken, adj.)

drive drove driven

dwell dwelt dwelt

eat ate eaten

engrave (see p. 299)

fall fell fallen

feed fed fed

feel felt felt

fight fought fought

find found found

flee fled fled

fling flung flung

fly flew flown

forbear forbore forborne

forget forgot forgotten

forsake forsook forsaken

freeze froze frozen

freight (see p. 299)

get got got56

gird (see p. 298)

give gave given

go went gone

grave (see p. 299)

grind ground ground

grow grew grown

hang hung, hanged57 hung, hanged57

have had had

hear heard heard

heave hove, heaved58 hove, heaved58

hew hewed hewn

hide hid hidden

hit hit hit

hold held held

hurt hurt hurt

keep kept kept

kneel (see p. 298)

knit (see p. 298)

know knew known

lade59 laded laded, laden

lay laid laid

lead led led

learn (see p. 298)

leave left left

lend lent lent

let let let

lie (recline)60 lay lain

light lighted or lit61 lighted or lit61

lose lost lost

make made made

mean meant meant

meet met met

mow (see p. 299)

pay paid paid

pen(shut up) (see p. 298)

put put put

quit (see p. 298)

read rĕad rĕad

*reave reft, reaved reft, reaved

reeve rove rove

rend rent rent

rid rid rid

ride rode ridden

ring rang rung

rise rose risen

*rive rived riven, rived

run ran run

say said said

see saw seen

seek sought sought

*seethe (transitive)62 sod, seethed seethed (sodden, adj.)

sell sold sold

send sent sent

set set set

sew (see p. 299)

shake shook shaken

shape (see p. 299)

shave shaved shaved (shaven, adj.)

shear (see p. 299)

shed shed shed

shine shone shone

shoe shod shod

shoot shot shot

show showed shown

shred (see p. 298)

shrink shrank shrunk (shrunken, adj.)

*shrive shrove, shrived shriven, shrived

shut shut shut

sing sang sung

sink sank sunk

sit sat sat

slay slew slain

sleep slept slept

slide slid slid, slidden

sling slung slung

slink slunk slunk

slit slit slit

smell (see p. 298)

smite smote smitten

sow sowed sowed, sown

speak spoke spoken

speed (see p. 298)

spell (see p. 299)

spend spent spent

spill (see p. 299)

spin spun spun

spit spit spit

split split split

spoil (see p. 299)

spread spread spread

spring sprang sprung

stand stood stood

stave stove, staved stove, staved

stay (see p. 299)

steal stole stolen

stick stuck stuck

sting stung stung

stink stunk stunk

strew strewed strewn

stride strode stridden

strike struck struck (stricken, adj.)63

string strung strung

strive strove striven

swear swore sworn

sweat (see p. 299)

sweep swept swept

swell swelled swelled, swollen

swim swam swum

swing swung swung

take took taken

teach taught taught

tear tore torn

tell told told

think thought thought

thrive throve, thrived thriven, thrived

throw threw thrown

thrust thrust thrust

tread trod trodden

wake woke, waked woke, waked

wax (grow) (see p. 299)

wear wore worn

weave wove woven

wed (see p. 299)

weep wept wept

wet wet wet

win won won

wind wound wound

wring wrung wrung

write wrote written

Bear, break, drive, get (beget, forget), speak, spin, stink, swear, tear, have an
archaic past tense in a: bare, brake, drave, gat, spake, etc.

Beat, beget (forget), bite, break, forsake, hide, ride, shake, speak, weave, write,
and some other verbs have archaic forms of the past participle like those of the
past tense. The participles in en, however, are now the accepted forms. Chid and
trod are common participial forms.

Begin, drink, ring, shrink, sing, sink, spring, swim, often have in poetry a u-form
(begun, sung, etc.) in the past tense as well as in the past participle. This form
(though good old English)64 should be avoided in modern speech.

Bend, beseech, bet, build, burst, catch, dwell, rend, split, wet, have archaic or
less usual forms in ed: bended, beseeched, betted, etc. Builded is common in the
proverbial “He builded better than he knew.” Bursted is common as an adjective: “a
bursted bubble.”

Bid, “to command,” has sometimes bid in both the past tense and the past
participle; bid, “to offer money,” has these forms regularly.

Blend, leap, lean, have usually blended, leaped, leaned; but blent, leapt, leant
are not uncommon.

Clothe has commonly clothed; but clad is common in literary use, and is regular in
the adjectives well-clad, ill-clad (for which ordinary speech has substituted well-
dressed, badly or poorly dressed).

Dive has dived; but dove (an old form) is common in America.

Plead has past tense and past participle pleaded. Plead (pronounced plĕd) is
avoided by careful writers and speakers.

Prove has past tense and past participle proved. The past participle proven should
be avoided.

Work has past tense and past participle worked. Wrought in the past tense and the
past participle is archaic, but is also modern as an adjective (as in wrought
iron).

Some verbs have rare or archaic weak forms alongside of the strong forms; thus
digged, shined, past tense and past participle of dig, shine; showed, past
participle of show.

Ate and eaten are preferred to eat (pronounced ĕt).

Quoth, “said,” is an old strong past tense. The compound bequeath has bequeathed
only.

Miscellaneous archaisms are the past tenses sate for sat, trode for trod, spat for
spit; also writ for wrote and written, rid for rode and ridden, strewed and strown
for strewn.

II

The following verbs vary between ed and t (d) in the past tense and the past
participle. In some of them, this variation is a mere difference of spelling. In
writing, the ed forms are preferred in most cases; in speaking, the t forms are
very common.

bless blessed, blest65

burn burned, burnt66

curse cursed, curst65

dare dared (less commonly, durst)

dream dreamed, dreamt

dress dressed, drest

gird girded, girt66

kneel kneeled, knelt66

knit knit, knitted66

learn learned, learnt67

pen (shut up) penned, pent66

quit quitted, quit66

shred shredded, shred66

smell smelled, smelt66

speed sped, speeded66

spell spelled, spelt

spill spilled, spilt66

spoil spoiled, spoilt66

stay stayed, staid

sweat sweated, sweat66

wed wedded (p.p. also wed)66

III

The following verbs have regular ed forms in modern prose, but in poetry and the
high style sometimes show archaic forms.

Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle

crow crowed, crew crowed, crown

freight freighted freighted, fraught (figurative)

grave graved graved, graven

engrave engraved engraved, engraven

mow mowed mowed, mown

sew sewed sewed, sewn

shape shaped shaped, shapen

shear sheared, shore sheared, shorn

wax (grow) waxed waxed, waxen

IV

The present tense of may, can, shall, is an old strong past. Hence the first and
third persons singular are alike:—I may, he may. The actual past tenses of these
verbs are weak forms:—might, could, should. Must is the weak past tense of an
obsolete mōt, and is almost always used as a present tense (§ 292).

Dare and owe originally belonged to this class. Owe has become a regular weak verb,
except for the peculiar past tense ought, which is used in a present sense (see §
293); dare has in the third person dare or dares, and in the past dared, more
rarely durst. The archaic wot “know,” past wist, also belongs to this class. Will
is inflected like shall, having will in the first and third singular, wilt in the
second singular, and would in the past.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO BE

INDICATIVE MOOD

Present Tense

SINGULAR PLURAL

1. I am. We are.

2. Thou art. You are.

3. He is. They are.

Past Tense

1. I was. We were.

2. Thou wast (wert). You were.

3. He was. They were.

Future Tense

1. I shall be. We shall be.

2. Thou wilt be. You will be.

3. He will be. They will be.

Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense

1. I have been. We have been.

2. Thou hast been. You have been.

3. He has been. They have been.

Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense

1. I had been. We had been.

2. Thou hadst been. You had been.

3. He had been. They had been.

Future Perfect Tense

1. I shall have been. We shall have been.

2. Thou wilt have been. You will have been.

3. He will have been. They will have been.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

Present Tense

1. If I be. If we be.
2. If thou be. If you be.

3. If he be. If they be.

Past Tense

1. If I were. If we were.

2. If thou wert. If you were.

3. If he were. If they were.

Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense

1. If I have been. If we have been.

2. If thou have been. If you have been.

3. If he have been. If they have been.

Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense

1. If I had been. If we had been.

2. If thou hadst been. If you had been.

3. If he had been. If they had been.

Imperative Mood. Present. Sing. and Pl. Be [thou or you].

Infinitive. Present, to be; Perfect, to have been.

Participles. Present, being; Past, been; Perfect, having been.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO STRIKE

ACTIVE VOICE INDICATIVE MOOD

Present Tense

1. I strike. We strike.

2. Thou strikest. You strike.

3. He strikes. They strike.

Past Tense

1. I struck. We struck.

2. Thou struckest. You struck.

3. He struck. They struck.

Future Tense

1. I shall strike. We shall strike.

2. Thou wilt strike. You will strike.

3. He will strike. They will strike.

Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense

1. I have struck. We have struck.

2. Thou hast struck. You have struck.

3. He has struck. They have struck.

Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense

1. I had struck. We had struck.

2. Thou hadst struck. You had struck.

3. He had struck. They had struck.

Future Perfect Tense

1. I shall have struck. We shall have struck.

2. Thou wilt have struck. You will have struck.

3. He will have struck. They will have struck.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

Present Tense

1. If I strike. If we strike.

2. If thou strike. If you strike.

3. If he strike. If they strike.

Past Tense

1. If I struck. If we struck.

2. If thou struck. If you struck.

3. If he struck. If they struck.

Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense

1. If I have struck. If we have struck.

2. If thou have struck. If you have struck.

3. If he have struck. If they have struck.

Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense

1. If I had struck. If we had struck.

2. If thou hadst struck. If you had struck.

3. If he had struck. If they had struck.

Imperative Mood. Present. Sing. and Pl. Strike [thou or you].

Infinitive. Present, to strike; Perfect, to have struck.

Participle. Present, striking; Past, struck; Perfect, having struck.

PASSIVE VOICE INDICATIVE MOOD

Present Tense

1. I am struck. We are struck.

2. Thou art struck. You are struck.

3. He is struck. They are struck.

Past Tense

1. I was struck. We were struck.

2. Thou wast (or wert) struck. You were struck.

3. He was struck. They were struck.

Future Tense

1. I shall be struck. We shall be struck.

2. Thou wilt be struck. You will be struck.

3. He will be struck. They will be struck.

Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense

1. I have been struck. We have been struck.

2. Thou hast been struck. You have been struck.

3. He has been struck. They have been struck.

Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense

1. I had been struck. We had been struck.

2. Thou hadst been struck. You had been struck.

3. He had been struck. They had been struck.

Future Perfect Tense

1. I shall have been struck. We shall have been struck.

2. Thou wilt have been struck. You will have been struck.

3. He will have been struck. They will have been struck.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

Present Tense

1. If I be struck. If we be struck.

2. If thou be struck. If you be struck.

3. If he be struck. If they be struck.

Past Tense

1. If I were struck. If we were struck.

2. If thou wert struck. If you were struck.

3. If he were struck. If they were struck.

Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense

1. If I have been struck. If we have been struck.

2. If thou have been struck. If you have been struck.

3. If he have been struck. If they have been struck.

Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense

1. If I had been struck. If we had been struck.

2. If thou hadst been struck. If you had been struck.

3. If he had been struck. If they had been struck.

Imperative Mood. Present. Sing. and Pl. Be [thou or you] struck.

Infinitive. Present, to be struck; Perfect, to have been struck.

Participles. Present, being struck; Past, struck; Perfect, having been struck.

USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS

1. Every sentence begins with a capital letter.

2. Every line of poetry begins with a capital letter.

3. The first word of every direct quotation begins with a capital letter.
Note. This rule does not apply to quoted fragments of sentences.

4. Every proper noun or abbreviation of a proper noun begins with a capital letter.

5. Most adjectives derived from proper nouns begin with capital letters; as,—
American, Indian, Swedish, Spenserian.

Note. Some adjectives derived from proper nouns have ceased to be closely
associated in thought with the nouns from which they come, and therefore begin with
small letters. Thus,—voltaic, galvanic, mesmeric, maudlin, stentorian.

6. Every title attached to the name of a person begins with a capital letter.

Mr. Thomas Smith

John Wilson, Esq.

Miss Allerton

Dr. F. E. Wilson

C. J. Adams, M.D.

President Grant

Professor Whitney

Sir Walter Raleigh

7. In titles of books, etc., the first word, as well as every important word that
follows, begins with a capital letter.

8. The interjection O and the pronoun I are always written in capital letters.

9. Personal pronouns referring to the Deity are often capitalized.

Note. Usage varies: the personal pronouns are commonly capitalized when they refer
to the Deity, the relatives less frequently. The rule is often disregarded
altogether when its observance would result in a multitude of capitals, as in the
Bible and in many hymn books and works of theology.

10. Common nouns and adjectives often begin with capital letters when they
designate the topics or main points of definitions or similar statements. Such
capitals are called emphatic (or topical) capitals.

Note. Emphatic (or topical) capitals are analogous to capitals in the titles of
books (see Rule 7), but their use is not obligatory. They are especially common in
text-books and other elementary manuals.

RULES OF PUNCTUATION68

The common marks of punctuation are the period, the interrogation point, the
exclamation point, the comma, the semicolon, the colon, the dash, marks of
parenthesis, and quotation marks. The hyphen and the apostrophe may be conveniently
treated along with marks of punctuation.

1. The period, the interrogation point, and the exclamation point are used at the
end of sentences. Every complete sentence must be followed by one of these three
marks.

The end of a declarative or an imperative sentence is marked by a period. But a

declarative or an imperative sentence that is likewise exclamatory may be followed
by an exclamation point instead of a period.

The end of a direct question is marked by an interrogation point.

An exclamatory sentence in the form of an indirect question is followed by an

exclamation point; as,—“How absolute the knave is!”

2. A period is used after an abbreviation.

3. An exclamation point is used after an exclamatory word or phrase.

Note. This rule is not absolute. Most interjections take the exclamation point.
With other words and with phrases, usage differs; if strong feeling is expressed,
the exclamation point is commonly used, but too many such marks deface the page.

II

The comma is used—

1. After a noun (or a phrase) of direct address (a vocative nominative). Thus,—

John, tell me the truth.

Little boy, what is your name?

Note. If the noun is exclamatory, an exclamation point may be used instead of a

comma.

2. Before a direct quotation in a sentence. Thus,—

The cry ran through the ranks, “Are we never to move forward?”
Note. When the quotation is long or formal, a colon, or a colon and a dash, may be
used instead of a comma, especially with the words as follows.

3. After a direct quotation when this is the subject or the object of a following
verb. Thus,—

“They are coming; the attack will be made on the center,” said Lord Fitzroy
Somerset.

“I see it,” was the cool reply of the duke.

Note. If the quotation ends with an interrogation point or an exclamation point, no

comma is used.

4. To separate words, or groups of words, arranged in a coördinate series, when

these are not connected by and, or, or nor.

If the conjunction is used to connect the last two members of the series but
omitted with the others, the comma may be used before the conjunction.

I found two saws, an axe, and a hammer.

They were so shy, so subtle, and so swift of foot, that it was difficult to come at
them.

It would make the reader pity me to tell what odd, misshapen, ugly things I made.

They groaned, they stirred, they all uprose.

Note 1. Commas may be used even when conjunctions are expressed, if the members of
the series consist of several words, or if the writer wishes to emphasize their
distinctness.

Note 2. Clauses in a series are commonly separated by semicolons unless they are
short and simple (see pp. 309–310).

5. To set off words and phrases out of their regular order. Thus,—

Seated on her accustomed chair, with her usual air of apathy and want of interest
in what surrounded her, she seemed now and then mechanically to resume the motion
of twirling her spindle.—Scott.

6. To separate a long subject from the verb of the predicate. Thus,—

To have passed them over in an historical sketch of my literary life and opinions,
would have seemed to me like the denial of a debt.—Coleridge.
7. To set off an appositive noun or an appositive adjective, with its modifiers.
Thus,—

I have had the most amusing letter from Hogg, the Ettrick minstrel.

There was an impression upon the public mind, natural enough from the continually
augmenting velocity of the mail, but quite erroneous, that an outside seat on this
class of carriages was a post of danger.—De Quincey.

Note 1. Many participial and other adjective phrases come under this head. Thus,—

The genius, seeing me indulge myself on this melancholy prospect, told me I had
dwelt long enough upon it.—Addison.

Note 2. If a noun and its appositive are so closely connected as to form one idea,
no comma is used. Thus,—

My friend Jackson lives in San Francisco.

Note 3. An intensive pronoun (myself, etc.) is not separated by a comma from the
substantive which it emphasizes.

Note 4. A series of words or phrases in apposition with a single substantive is

sometimes set off, as a whole, by a comma and a dash.

8. To set off a subordinate clause, especially one introduced by a descriptive

relative. Thus,—

I am going to take a last dinner with a most agreeable family, who have been my
only neighbors ever since I have lived at Weston.—Cowper.

Note. No comma is used before a restrictive relative. Thus,—

I want to know many things which only you can tell me.

Perhaps I am the only man in England who can boast of such good fortune.
9. To set off a phrase containing a nominative absolute. Thus,—

They had some difficulty in passing the ferry at the riverside, the ferryman being
afraid of them.—Defoe.

10. To set off however, nevertheless, moreover, etc., and introductory phrases like
in the first place, on the one hand, etc.

11. To set off a parenthetical expression. For this purpose commas, dashes, or
marks of parenthesis may be used.

When the parenthetical matter is brief or closely related to the rest of the
sentence, it is generally set off by commas. Thus,—

I exercised a piece of hypocrisy for which, I hope, you will hold me excused.—
Thackeray.

When it is longer and more independent, it is generally marked off by dashes, or

enclosed in marks of parenthesis. The latter are less frequently used at present
than formerly.

The connection of the mail with the state and the executive government—a connection
obvious, but yet not strictly defined—gave to the whole mail establishment an
official grandeur.—De Quincey.

Note. Brackets are used to indicate insertions that are not part of the text.

III

The clauses of a compound sentence may be separated by colons, semicolons, or

commas.

1. The colon is used—

a. To show that the second of two clauses repeats the substance of the first in
another form, or defines the first as an appositive defines a noun. Thus,—

This was the practice of the Grecian stage. But Terence made an innovation in the
Roman: all his plays have double actions.—Dryden.
b. To separate two groups of clauses one or both of which contain a semicolon.
Thus,—

At that time, news such as we had heard might have been long in penetrating so far
into the recesses of the mountains; but now, as you know, the approach is easy, and
the communication, in summer time, almost hourly: nor is this strange, for
travellers after pleasure are become not less active, and more numerous, than those
who formerly left their homes for purposes of gain.—Wordsworth.

Note. The colon is less used now than formerly. The tendency is to use a semicolon
or to begin a new sentence.

2. The semicolon is used when the clauses are of the same general nature and
contribute to the same general effect, especially if one or more of them contain
commas. Thus,—

The sky was cloudless; the sun shone out bright and warm; the songs of birds, and
hum of myriads of summer insects filled the air; and the cottage garden, crowded
with every rich and beautiful tint, sparkled in the heavy dew like beds of
glittering jewels.—Dickens.

3. The comma may be used when the clauses are short and simple (see p. 307).

Note. The choice between colon, semicolon, and comma is determined in many cases by
the writer’s feeling of the closer or the looser connection of the ideas expressed
by the several clauses, and is to some extent a matter of taste.

IV

1. In a complex sentence, the dependent clause is generally separated from the main
clause by a comma. But when the dependent clause is short and the connection close,
the comma may be omitted.

Note. A descriptive relative clause is preceded by a comma, a restrictive relative

clause is not (see p. 70).

2. The clauses of a series, when in the same dependent construction, are often
separated by semicolons to give more emphasis to each. Thus,—

[Mrs. Battle] was none of your lukewarm gamesters, your half-and-half players, who
have no objection to take a hand if you want one to make up a rubber; who affirm
that they have no pleasure in winning; that they like to win one game and lose
another; that they can while away an hour very agreeably at a card table, but are
indifferent whether they play or no; and will desire an adversary who has slipped a
wrong card, to take it up and play another.—Lamb.

1. A direct quotation is enclosed in quotation marks.

Note. If the quotation stands by itself and is printed in different type, the marks
may be omitted.

2. A quotation within a quotation is usually enclosed in single quotation marks.

3. In a quotation consisting of several paragraphs, quotation marks are put at the

beginning of each paragraph and at the end of the last.

Note. For the punctuation before a quotation, see p. 307.

4. When a book, poem, or the like, is referred to, the title may be enclosed in
quotation marks or italicized.

VI

1. Sudden changes in thought and feeling or breaks in speech are indicated by

dashes. Thus,—

Eh!—what—why—upon my life, and so it is—Charley, my boy, so it’s you, is it?—Lever.

2. Parenthetical expressions may be set off by dashes (see p. 308).

3. A colon, or colon and dash, may precede an enumeration, a direct quotation, or a

statement formally introduced,—especially with as follows, namely, and the like.
Before an enumeration a comma and a dash may be used. Thus,—

There are eight parts of speech:—nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs,

prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. Or—

There are eight parts of speech,—nouns, pronouns, etc.

4. The dash is sometimes used to strengthen a comma (as in the last paragraph but
one).
VII

1. The apostrophe is used—

a. To mark the omission of a letter or letters in contractions.

b. As a sign of the possessive or genitive.

c. To indicate the plural of letters, signs, etc.

2. The hyphen is used—

a. When the parts of a word are separated in writing.

b. Between the parts of some compound words. (See the dictionary in each case.)

RULES OF SYNTAX

1. The subject of a verb is in the nominative case (p. 41).

2. A substantive standing in the predicate, but describing or defining the subject,

agrees with the subject in case and is called a predicate nominative (p. 41).

3. A substantive used for the purpose of addressing a person directly, and not
connected with any verb, is called a vocative.

A vocative is in the nominative case, and is often called a nominative by direct

address or a vocative nominative (p. 42).

4. A substantive used as an exclamation is called an exclamatory nominative or a

nominative of exclamation (p. 42).

5. A substantive, with a participle, may express the cause, time, or circumstances

of an action.

This is called the absolute construction.

The substantive is in the nominative case and is called a nominative absolute (p.
144).

6. The possessive case denotes ownership or possession (p. 43).

7. The object of a verb or preposition is in the objective case (p. 47).

8. A substantive that completes the meaning of a transitive verb is called its

direct object, and is said to be in the objective case (p. 48).

9. A verb of asking sometimes takes two direct objects, one denoting the person and
the other the thing (p. 50).
10. Verbs of choosing, calling, naming, making, and thinking may take two objects
referring to the same person or thing.

The first of these is the direct object, and the second, which completes the sense
of the predicate, is called a predicate objective (pp. 50, 111).

11. Some verbs of giving, telling, refusing, and the like, may take two objects, a
direct object and an indirect object.

The indirect object denotes the person or thing toward whom or toward which is
directed the action expressed by the rest of the predicate (p. 50).

12. A verb that is regularly intransitive sometimes takes as object a noun whose
meaning closely resembles its own.

A noun in this construction is called the cognate object of the verb and is in the
objective case (p. 52).

13. A noun, or a group of words consisting of a noun and its modifiers, may be used
adverbially. Such a noun is called an adverbial objective (p. 53).

14. An appositive is in the same case as the substantive which it limits (p. 42).

15. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender, number, and person (p. 55).

16. Relative pronouns connect dependent clauses with main clauses by referring
directly to a substantive in the main clause.

This substantive is the antecedent of the relative (p. 66).

A relative pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender, number, and person.

The case of a relative pronoun has nothing to do with its antecedent, but depends
on the construction of its own clause (p. 68).

17. A relative pronoun in the objective case is often omitted (p. 69).

18. The relative pronoun what is equivalent to that which, and has a double
construction:—(1) the construction of the omitted or implied antecedent that; (2)
the construction of the relative which (p. 71).

19. The compound relative pronouns may include or imply their own antecedents and
hence may have a double construction (p. 72).

The compound relatives are sometimes used without an antecedent expressed or

implied (p. 72).

20. An adjective is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits

(pp. 5, 75).

21. Adjectives may be classified, according to their position in the sentence, as

attributive, appositive, and predicate adjectives (p. 76).

1. An attributive adjective is closely attached to its noun and regularly precedes

it.

2. An appositive adjective is added to its noun to explain it, like a noun in

apposition.
3. A predicate adjective completes the meaning of the predicate verb, but describes
or limits the subject.

For the use of an adjective as predicate objective, see § 488.

22. The comparative degree, not the superlative, is used in comparing two persons
or things.

The superlative is used in comparing one person or thing with two or more (p. 88).

23. Relative adverbs introduce subordinate clauses and are similar in their use to
relative pronouns (p. 86).

24. A verb must agree with its subject in number and person (p. 97).

25. A compound subject with and usually takes a verb in the plural number (p. 100).

26. A compound subject with or or nor takes a verb in the singular number if the
substantives are singular (p. 100).

27. Nouns that are plural in form but singular in sense commonly take a verb in the
singular number (p. 101).

28. Collective nouns take sometimes a singular and sometimes a plural verb.

When the persons or things denoted are thought of as individuals, the plural should
be used. When the collection is regarded as a unit, the singular should be used (p.
101).

29. A verb is in the active voice when it represents the subject as the doer of an
act (p. 107).

30. A verb is in the passive voice when it represents the subject as the receiver
or the product of an action (p. 107).

The object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive, and the subject
of the active verb becomes in the passive an adverbial phrase modifying the
predicate verb (p. 110).

31. When a verb takes both a direct and an indirect object, one of the two is often
retained after the passive, the other becoming the subject (p. 112).

32. The indicative is the mood of simple assertion or interrogation, but it is used
in other constructions also (p. 115).

33. The imperative is the mood of command or request (p. 115).

34. The subject of an imperative is seldom expressed unless it is emphatic.

The subject, when expressed, may precede the imperative: as,—You go, You read (p.
117).

35. The subjunctive mood is used in certain special constructions of wish,

condition, and the like (pp. 115, 118).

For particulars and examples, see pp. 119–123.

For modal auxiliaries, see pp. 124–132.

36. An infinitive, with or without a complement or modifiers, may be used as the
subject of a sentence, as a predicate nominative, or as an appositive (pp. 134,
135).

37. An infinitive may be used as the object of the prepositions but, except, about,
(p. 135).

38. The infinitive may be used as a nominative of exclamation (p. 136).

39. An infinitive may modify a verb by completing its meaning, or by expressing the
purpose of the action (p. 137).

40. An infinitive may be used as an adjective modifier of a noun or as an adverbial

modifier of an adjective.

In this use the infinitive is said to depend on the word which it modifies (p.
136).

41. A kind of clause, consisting of a substantive in the objective case followed by

an infinitive, may be used as the object of certain verbs.

Such clauses are called infinitive clauses, and the substantive is said to be the
subject of the infinitive.

The subject of an infinitive is in the objective case.

Infinitive clauses are used (1) after verbs of wishing, commanding, advising, and
the like, and (2) after some verbs of believing, declaring, and perceiving (p.
138).

An infinitive clause may be the object of the preposition for.

An infinitive clause with for may be used as a subject, as a predicate nominative,

or as the object of a preposition (pp. 138–139).

42. The participle is a verb-form which has no subject, but which partakes of the
nature of an adjective and expresses action or state in such a way as to describe
or limit a substantive (pp. 12, 140).

43. A participle is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits

(pp. 12, 142).

44. A participle should not be used without some substantive to which it may belong
(p. 142).

45. An infinitive or a participle, like any other verb-form, may take an object if
its meaning allows (pp. 134, 143).

46. Infinitives and participles, like other verb-forms, may be modified by adverbs,
adverbial phrases, or adverbial clauses (pp. 134, 142).

47. Verbal (or participial) nouns in -ing have the form of present participles, but
the construction of nouns (p. 145).

48. Verbal nouns in -ing have certain properties of the verb (p. 146).

1. Verbal nouns in -ing may take a direct or an indirect object if their meaning
allows.
2. A verbal noun in -ing may take an adverbial modifier.

But verbal nouns in -ing, like other nouns, may be modified by adjectives. 49. A
noun in -ing may be used as an adjective, or as the adjective element in a compound
noun (p. 146).

50. The substantive which follows a preposition is called its object and is in the
objective case (p. 148).

51. A coördinate conjunction connects words or groups of words that are independent
of each other (p. 151).

52. A subordinate conjunction connects a subordinate clause with the clause on

which it depends (p. 151).

53. Interjections usually have no grammatical connection with the phrases or

sentences in which they stand.

Sometimes, however, a substantive is connected with an interjection by means of a

preposition (p. 155).

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

English is a member of the great Indo-European Family of languages, which is so

called because it includes well-nigh all the languages of Europe and the most
important of those found in India. Within this family, English belongs to the
Teutonic (or Germanic) Group, which contains also German, Dutch, the Scandinavian
tongues (Icelandic, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish), and some others.

English of the oldest period is called either Anglo-Saxon or Old English. This was
the speech of certain piratical tribes whose home was in northern Germany, on the
eastern and southern shores of the North Sea, but who invaded Britain about A.D.
450, and subdued the Celtic inhabitants of the island in a series of fierce wars.
The most considerable of the invading tribes were the Angles and the Saxons. Their
dominion was well assured by the beginning of the seventh century, and their
language, which they usually called “English” (that is, “the tongue of the
Angles”), gradually spread through England and most of Scotland. In Wales, however,
the native Britons have maintained their own Celtic speech to the present day; and
in the Scottish Highlands, Gaelic—which is akin to Welsh and practically identical
with the native language of Ireland—is still extensively used.

At the time of the invasion, the Angles and Saxons were heathen, and the Britons,
who had been for four centuries under the sway of the Roman Empire, were
Christians, and much more highly civilized than their conquerors. Indeed, they had
adopted many features of Roman culture, and Latin was spoken to some extent, at
least in the larger towns. By the end of the seventh century, however, the Anglo-
Saxons also had embraced Christianity and had made remarkable advances in
literature and learning. The language of the Britons exerted but slight influence
upon that of the Anglo-Saxons. The Celtic words in English are few in number, and
most of them were borrowed in comparatively recent times.

The Norman Conquest (1066) marks a highly significant date in the history of our
language. The Normans were a Scandinavian tribe who had been in possession of
Normandy (in northern France) for about a hundred and fifty years. They had
abandoned their native tongue, and spoke a dialect of French. From 1066 to about
the year 1400, two languages were therefore common in England,—English, which was
employed by the vast majority of the people, and French, which was the language of
the court and the higher orders. French, however, was never a serious rival of
English for supremacy in the island. It was the speech of a class, not of the
nation, and its use gradually died out, except as an accomplishment. By the time of
Chaucer (who was born about 1340 and died in 1400), it was clear that the English
tongue was henceforth to be regarded as the only natural language for Englishmen,
whether they were of Anglo-Saxon or of Norman origin.

Still, the Norman conquest had a profound influence upon English. It is not true—
though often asserted—that the multitude of French words which our language
contains were derived from the Norman dialect. Comparatively few of them came into
English until after 1300, when Normandy had been lost to the English crown for a
hundred years. Since 1300 we have borrowed freely—not from Norman, however, but
from Central (or Parisian) French, which had become the standard to which the
English descendants of the Normans endeavored to conform. The effect of the
Conquest, then, was not to fill English with Norman terms. It was rather to bring
England into close social and literary relations with France, and thus to
facilitate the adoption of words and constructions from Central French.

Further, since literature was in the middle ages dependent in the main upon private
patronage, the existence of a ruling class whose interest was in French,
discouraged the maintenance of any national or general standard of English
composition. Every English writer had recourse to his local dialect, and one
dialect was felt to be as good as another.

By 1350, however, the dialect of London and the vicinity had come, apparently, to
be regarded as somewhat more elegant and polished than the others. All that was
needed was the appearance of some writer of supreme genius to whom this dialect
should be native. Chaucer was such a writer, for he was born in London. To be sure,
Chaucer did not “make modern English.” None the less, he was a powerful agent in
settling the language. Since his time, at all events, the fact of a “standard of
literary usage” has been undisputed. Dialects still exist, but they are not
regarded as authoritative. Educated speakers and writers of English, the world
over, use the language with substantial uniformity.69

Meantime, however, the English of the Anglo-Saxons had undergone many changes
before Chaucer was born. Most of its inflections had been lost, and still others
have been discarded since. Further, there had been extensive borrowing from French
and Latin, and this continued throughout the fourteenth century. The habit, once
formed, has proved lasting. Our vocabulary has received contributions from many
languages, and is still receiving them. Greek may be mentioned in particular as the
source of many words, especially in the various departments of science. But French
and Latin remain the chief foreign elements in English.

In the following extract from Scott, most of the words printed in Roman type are of
Anglo-Saxon origin, whereas the italicized words are derived from Latin or French.

It was not until evening was nearly closed that Ivanhoe was restored to
consciousness of his situation. He awoke from a broken slumber, under the confused
impressions which are naturally attendant on the recovery from a state of
insensibility. He was unable for some time to recall exactly to memory the
circumstances which had preceded his fall in the lists, or to make out any
connected chain of the events in which he had been engaged upon the yesterday. A
sense of wounds and injury, joined to great weakness and exhaustion, was mingled
with the recollection of blows dealt and received, of steeds rushing upon each
other, overthrowing and overthrown, of shouts and clashing of arms, and all the
heady tumult of a confused fight. An effort to draw aside the curtain of his couch
was in some degree successful, although rendered difficult by the pain of his
wound.

English has also adopted a good many Scandinavian words, though they form no such
proportion of its vocabulary as French or Latin. Danish and Norwegian pirates began
to harry the coast in the eighth century. Permanent settlements followed, as well
as wars of conquest, and for about thirty years (1013–1042) a Danish family
occupied the English throne. These events explain the Scandinavian element in our
language.

Despite the freedom with which English has adopted words from abroad, it is still
essentially a Germanic speech. Its structure is still the native structure. The
borrowings have enriched its vocabulary, but have had comparatively little effect
upon its syntax. The foreign words have been naturalized, and their presence in no
wise interferes with the unity and general consistency of the English language. It
is a strange error to regard English as a combination of Anglo-Saxon and Norman
French. As for the loss or decay of inflections, that is not due to a mixture of
dialects. It is a natural tendency, which may be seen, for example, in Dutch and
Danish, though there was no Norman Conquest in Holland or Denmark. The loss,
indeed, is really a gain, for it is progress in the direction of simplicity.

The Anglo-Saxon or Old English Period comes down to about a century, or a century
and a half, after the Norman Conquest. Its extreme limit may be set at 1200. The
period from 1200 to 1500 is usually known as the Middle English Period. From 1500
to the present time may be regarded as the Modern Period, though within these
boundaries English has changed enormously in pronunciation and in vocabulary, very
largely in syntax, and to some extent in inflection. The almost complete
abandonment of the subjunctive in common speech is one of the latest of these
changes. This, too, is in the direction of simplicity.

The people of Great Britain have long been famous as travellers, explorers, and
colonizers. Their language, once the dialect (or dialects) of a handful of Germanic
adventurers, has spread to all parts of the world, so that now it is not merely the
language of England, but, to a considerable extent, that of Scotland, Ireland,
North America, India, Australasia, and South Africa. In this vast area, numerous
varieties of pronunciation and of idiom of course occur, but, on the whole, the
uniformity of the language is surprisingly well preserved.

FOOTNOTES

1 For a brief history of the English language, see p. 316.↑

2 Compare pp. 316–317.↑

3 In this book, well-established colloquial idioms or constructions are mentioned

from time to time, but always with a note as to their actual status in the
language.↑

4 In this book, several old forms and constructions which the student is constantly
encountering in the English classics are treated in their proper places,—always
with an indication of their difference from the modern standard.↑

5 In the technical language of grammar an adjective is said to describe a

substantive when it describes the object which the substantive denotes.↑

6 Definitive adjectives are often called limiting adjectives. All adjectives,

however, limit, even those that also describe.↑

7 The usual brief definition of a verb is, “A verb is a word which asserts.” But
this definition in strictness applies only to verbs in declarative sentences.↑

8 For full inflection see pp. 300–301.↑

9 Compound complex sentences are also called complex compound sentences. For
further treatment of such sentences, see pp. 187, 190, 215–216.↑

10 Vixen is really formed from fox (compare the German Füchsin from Fuchs).↑

11 Halo, memento, zero also form a plural in es (haloes, etc.).↑

12 This list is intended for reference.↑

13 The English word animalcule (plural animalcules) is preferable. The plural

animalculæ is erroneous.↑

14 Messrs. is an abbreviation of the French messieurs.↑

15 When such nouns as chemistry refer to textbooks, they may be used in the plural:
as,—“Bring your chemistries to-morrow.”↑

16 This section is intended chiefly for reference.↑

17 Note the ambiguity to the ear though not to the eye.↑

18 The only exception is in reflexive action, where the object is a compound

personal pronoun (“Charles deceived himself”). See § 126.↑

19 The pupil should not “supply nouns” in such sentences as these. For example, it
is unscientific to expand the first sentence into “This [morning] is a fine
morning,” and then to parse this as an adjective. It is even more objectionable to
expand the fifth sentence by inserting thing or the like after this. The plan of
“supplying” unexpressed words (as being “understood”) tends to confuse real
distinctions of language, and should never be resorted to when it can be avoided.↑

20 The negative not (§ 190, 4) is merely a shortened form of naught.↑

21 Because of their use as connectives, relative pronouns are sometimes called

conjunctive pronouns.↑

22 For indirect questions, see § 441.↑

23 In some of these cases the comparative and superlative are really different
words from the positive.↑

24 The four classes are not absolute, for the same adverb may be used in different
senses and thus belong to different classes. Sometimes, too, there is room for
difference of opinion. Thus in the fourth and fifth examples under 1, terribly and
surprisingly are equivalent to “in a terrible (or surprising) manner,” and
therefore are classified as adverbs of manner; but they may also be regarded as
adverbs of degree.↑

25 Many comparatives and superlatives in er and est that are no longer allowable in
prose are still used in poetry.↑

26 Many grammarians regard is and the noun or adjective that follows it (is money,
etc.) as the simple predicate; but the nomenclature here adopted is equally
scientific and more convenient.↑

27 The word tense is simply an English form of the French word for time.↑

28 The past tense is often called the preterite (from a Latin word meaning “gone
by”). Preterite is in some ways a better name for the tense than past, since both
the perfect and the pluperfect tenses also refer to past time.↑

29 Silent final e is not counted as an ending.↑

30 Notice also the change from v to f before t.↑

31 The ending ed indicates tense, not person or number.↑

32 The second person singular is often given as “Thou walkest or You walk,” but it
is simpler to regard You walk in this use as a plural in a singular sense (§ 224).↑

33 This rule is not absolute. Sometimes the distinction is unimportant, and the
feeling of the moment often determines the number of the verb.↑

34 So I can strike, etc.↑

35 So I could strike, etc.↑

36 So I can have struck, etc.↑

37 So I could have struck, etc.↑

38 For the so-called infinitive clause, in which the infinitive has a subject of a
peculiar kind, see §§ 324–328.↑

39 After verbs of wishing, etc., they express purpose (§ 403); after verbs of
believing, etc., they are in indirect discourse (§ 431).↑

40 The only exceptions are trifling differences in spelling.↑

41 Coördinate conjunctions are also called coördinating, and subordinate

conjunctions are also called subordinating.↑

42 Compare the exclamatory sentence (§ 3) and the exclamatory nominative (§ 88,

4).↑

43 Including clauses of manner and degree (§§ 428–429).↑

44 By “if-clause” is meant the protasis, whatever the conjunction.↑

45 Clauses introduced by as are often called clauses of manner.↑

46 Such sentences are elliptical in origin. Thus, “The man acts as if he were
crazy” is equivalent to “The man acts as [he would act] if he were crazy.” But it
is not necessary to supply the ellipsis in analyzing.↑
47 In analyzing, the direct quotation may be regarded as the object of the verb of
saying, etc. (or the subject, if that verb is passive); and if it forms a complete
sentence, this may be analyzed as if it stood by itself. It is not proper to regard
the direct quotation as a subordinate clause.↑

48 See pp. 102–105, 127–132.↑

49 Instead of compound complex, the term complex compound is often used. The terms
are synonymous, both meaning “compound in general structure, but complex in one or
more members.”↑

50 Or parse the nominatives according to the models in § 112.↑

51 For exercises in the use of the comparative and the superlative, see pp. 249–
250, 252.↑

52 The omission of a form from the list, then, does not necessarily indicate that
it is wrong or even objectionable. There is considerable diversity of usage with
regard to the strong verbs, and to state the facts at length would take much space.
An attempt to include archaic, poetical, and rare forms in the same list with the
usual modern forms is sure to mislead the pupil. Hence the list here presented is
confined to forms about whose correctness there can be no difference of opinion.
Archaic and poetical tense-forms are treated later (pp. 297–299).↑

53 Born is used only in the passive sense of “born into the world.”↑

54 The adjective form is bereaved: as, “The bereaved father.”↑

55 Cleave, “to adhere,” has cleaved in both the past tense and the past participle,
and also an archaic past form clave.↑

56 The archaic participle gotten is used in the compounds begotten and forgotten,
and as an adjective (“ill-gotten gains”). Many good speakers also use it instead of
the past participle got, but got is the accepted modern form.↑

57 Hanged is used only of execution by hanging.↑

58 Usage varies with the context. We say, “The crew hove the cargo overboard,” but
NOT “She hove a sigh.”↑

59 Load has loaded in both the past tense and the past participle. Laden is
sometimes used as the past participle of load.↑

60 Lie, “to tell a falsehood,” has lied in both the past tense and the past
participle.↑

61 So both light, “to kindle,” and light, “to alight.” The verb alight has usually
alighted in both the past tense and the past participle.↑

62 Seethe, intransitive, has usually seethed in both the past tense and the past
participle. It is in rather common literary use.↑

63 Stricken is also used as a participle in a figurative sense. Thus we say, “The

community was stricken with pestilence,”—but “The dog was struck with a stick.”↑

64 It is a remnant of the old past plural. In Anglo-Saxon the principal parts of

begin were: present, beginne; past, began; past plural, begunnon; past participle,
begunnen.↑
65 The adjectives are usually pronounced blessèd, cursèd. Compare also the
adjective accursèd.↑

66 Both forms are in good use.↑

67 Both forms are in good use. The adjective is pronounced learnèd.↑

68 The main rules of punctuation are well fixed and depend on important
distinctions in sentence structure and consequently in thought. In detail, however,
there is much variety of usage, and care should be taken not to insist on such
uniformity in the pupils’ practice as is not found in the printed books which they
use. If young writers can be induced to indicate the ends of their sentences
properly, much has been accomplished.↑

69 It is not meant, of course, that an American or Australian of the present day

should exert himself to imitate the speech of a modern Londoner. The point is, that
what we now call “English” is, in most respects, the direct descendant of the
London dialect of the fourteenth century.↑

INDEX

[References are to pages; f. signifies “and following page”; ff. signifies “and
following pages.”]

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

A for on (a-fishing), 147, 149.

A or an, 77 ff.; distributive, 79.

About, with infinitive, 105, 135.

Absolute construction, 144. See Nominative.

Absolute use of transitive verbs, 92.

Abstract nouns, 29 f.

Accusative, 52.

Action, nouns in -ing, 145 ff.

Active voice, 107 ff. See Passive.

Adjective, 5, 75 ff.; descriptive and definitive, 5, 75 f.;

proper, 75;

compound, 75;
pronominal, 76 (cf. 62 ff.);

attributive, appositive, predicate, 76 f.;

articles, 77 ff;

comparison, 79 ff., 88 f.;

numerals, 89 f.;

noun as adjective, adjective as noun, 9, 78;

participle as, 143;

adjective in exclamations, 155 f.;

as modifier of subject, 192 f.

See Adjective pronoun, Predicate adjective.

Adjective clauses, 20, 66, 86, 157 f.; place or time, 163 f.;

as modifiers of subject, 192 f.;

of complement, 206.

Adjective phrases, 16, 157; comparison of, 89;

as modifiers of subject, 192 f.;

as complements, 204;

as modifiers of modifiers, 207.

Adjective pronouns, 62 ff.; demonstrative, 62 ff.;

indefinite, 64 f.

Adverb, defined, 7; classification, forms, and use, 83 ff.;

relative or conjunctive, 86;

interrogative, 86;

comparison, 87 ff.;

numeral, 89 f.;

in exclamations, 155 f.;

as modifier, 196 f., 206, 208.

Adverbial clauses, 20 f., 86, 158 f.; place or time, 163 f.;

causal, 164;

concessive, 164 f.;

purpose or result, 166 f.;

conditional, 167 ff.;

comparison, degree, manner, 173;

indirect question, 180;

as modifiers of predicate, 196 f.;

of complement, 206;

of modifiers, 207 f.

Adverbial objective, 53; clause as, 158 f.;

as modifier, 198.

Adverbial phrases, 16, 53, 142, 158; numeral, 90;

as modifiers of predicate, 196 f., 198 ff.;

of complement, 206;

of modifiers, 207 f.

Advising, verbs of, with infinitive clause, 138.

Affirmative, 85.

A-fishing, etc., 147, 149.

After, preposition, 148; relative adverb, 86, 157, 164.

Agreement, of predicate nominative with subject, 41, 57 f.; of appositive, 42, 47,
53, 57;

of pronoun with antecedent, 55, 65;

of relative with antecedent, 68, 102;

of verb with subject, 97, 100 ff.

All, 65.

Alternative conditions, 168; questions, 179.

Although. See Though.

Analysis, 183 ff.; structure of sentences, 183 ff.;

analysis, with models, 188 ff.;

simple sentences, 188;

compound, 188 f.;

complex, 189 f.;

compound complex, 190;

modifiers, 191 ff.;

complements, 200 ff.;

modifiers of complements and of modifiers, 205 ff.;

independent elements, 209;

combinations of clauses, 210 ff.;

elliptical sentences, 224 ff.

See further under these several heads.

Anglo-Saxon, xv, 316 f.

Animals, names of, gender, 32; pronouns, 69.

Another, 64 f.

Antecedent of pronoun, 4; agreement, 55, 65, 68, 102;

unexpressed, 71 ff.;

what, 71;

compound relatives, 72 f.

Any, anything, 64 f.

Apodosis, 168.

Apostrophe, 43 ff., 56, 311.

Appear, with predicate nominative or adjective, 6 f., 76, 93.

Apposition, 42. See Appositive.

Appositive, case of, 42, 47, 53, 57; with possessive, 47;

infinitive as, 134 f.;

clause as, 159 ff., 167, 174, 180, 196;

appositive as modifier, 195 f., 207.

Appositive adjective, 76.

Appositive phrase, 195.

Archaisms, xvii. See Old.

Articles, 77 ff.; generic, 77;

repeated, 78;
with verbal noun, 147.

As, relative pronoun, 67; relative adverb, 86, 153;

conjunction, 153;

in concession, 165;

in clauses of degree, 173.

As if, as though, 122, 153, 173; as to, with infinitive, 167.

Asking, verb of, two objects, 50; retained object, 112;

with indirect question, 179 ff. (cf. 160).

Assertion, 2, 5, 13.

Attribute. See Predicate adjective, Predicate objective.

Attributive adjective, 76.

Aught, naught, 65.

Authorship, 43.

Auxiliary verbs, 6, 91; in future, 102 ff.;

in compound tenses, 106;

in passive, 108 ff.;

in progressive form, 113 f.;

in emphatic form, 114;

replacing subjunctive, 123;

in potential verb-phrases, 124 ff.

Be, 6 f., 93; conjugation, 99, 118 f., 300 f.;

auxiliary of passive, 108 ff.;

of progressive form, 113;

ellipsis of, 114, 144, 164 f., 169, 224 f.;

predicate pronoun after, 139.

See Predicate nominative.

Become, with predicate nominative or adjective, 6 f., 76, 93.

Before, preposition, 148; relative adverb, 86, 157, 163 f.;

with subjunctive, 122;

with should, 130.

Believing, verbs of, with infinitive clause, 138.

Biblical style. See Solemn.

Bid, with infinitive, 138.

Both, pronoun, 64.

Both ... and, 15, 153.

But, adverb, 135.

But, coördinate conjunction, 152; subordinate, 153 f.;

elliptical constructions, 154.

But, preposition, 148; with infinitive, 135.

Calling, verbs of, two objects, 50; predicate nominative after passive, 111.
Can, could, 124 ff., 299.

Capital letters, 27 ff., 75; rules, 305.

Cardinal numerals, 89 f.

Case, 40 ff.; nominative, 40 ff.;

possessive, 43 ff.;

objective, 47 ff.;

of appositives, 42, 47, 53, 57.

See Pronouns.

Cause, clauses of, 164; nominative absolute, 144.

Chaucer, xv, 43, 49, 85, 317 f.

Choosing, verbs of, two objects, 50; predicate nominative after passive, 111.

Clauses, independent and subordinate, 16 ff.; as parts of speech, 19 ff., 157 ff.;

infinitive, 137 ff.;

simple, compound, complex, 210 ff.;

combination of, 210 ff.

See Adjective, Adverbial, Noun, Infinitive clause.

Clauses, subordinate, classified according to meaning, 163 ff.; place and time, 163
f.;

cause, 164;
concession, 164 f.;

purpose and result, 166 f.;

conditional, 167 ff.;

comparison and manner, 173;

indirect discourse, 173 ff.;

indirect questions, 179 ff.

Cognate object, 52; it as, 58;

as modifier, 199.

Collective nouns, 29 f.; verbs with, 101 f.

Colloquial forms and constructions, xvi, 38, 57 ff., 61, 69, 100, 112, 120, 149,
155.

Colon, 309 f.

Color, adjectives of, 84.

Combinations of clauses, 210 ff.

Come, have (or am) come, 107.

Comma, 70, 306 ff.

Command, with shall or will, 105, 118; as condition, 169;

verbs of, with infinitive clause, 138;

with noun clause, 160, 167.

See Imperative.

Common gender, 31.

Common nouns, 27 ff.; personification, 28 f.

Comparative and superlative, of adjectives, 79 ff., 88 f.; of adverbs, 87 ff.;

use, 88 f.;

comparative with the, 86.

Comparison, clauses of, 173.

Comparison of adjectives, 79 ff., 88 f.; of adverbs, 87 ff.;

use of, 88 f.

Complementary infinitive, 137.

Complementary object, 50. See Predicate objective.

Complements. See Object, Predicate objective, Predicate nominative, Predicate

adjective.

Complements, classified, 200 ff.; direct object, 201;

predicate objective, 202;

predicate nominative, 202 f.;

predicate adjective, 203 f.

Complements, modifiers of, 205 f.

Complete predicate. See Predicate.

Complete predication, 200.

Complete subject. See Subject.

Complete tenses, 106 f.

Complete verbs, 200.

Complex clauses, 18, 187, 211 f., 215 f., 219 ff.

Complex compound. See Compound complex.

Complex sentences, 17 ff., 186; analyzed, 189 f.;

varieties of, 216 ff.

Compound adjectives, 75.

Compound clauses, 151, 186, 210 ff.

Compound complex sentences, 18, 187, 215 f.; analyzed, 190, 222 f.

Compound conjunctions, 153.

Compound nouns, 30, 146 f.; plural, 36;

possessive, 46 f.

Compound personal pronouns, 60 ff.; intensive and reflexive, 61 f.;

relatives, 72 f.

Compound predicate, 15, 184 f., 212 f.

Compound sentences, 17 ff., 185; analyzed, 188 f.;

elaboration of, 213 f.

Compound subject, 15, 184 f., 212 f.; agreement, 100 f.

Compound tenses, 106 f.

Concerning, 142, 149.

Concession, moods in, 120 ff.; should and would in, 123, 131;

clauses of, 164 ff.

Conclusion, 168.

Conditional clauses and sentences, moods in, 120 ff., 170 ff.; forms and meaning,
167 ff.;

classification, 169 ff.;

past and present, 170 f.;

non-committal and contrary to fact, 170 f.;

future, 171 f.;

shall, will, should, would, 130 f.

Conjugation, 25, 94 ff.; indicative present and past, 98 f.;

future, 102;

active and passive, 108 ff.;

progressive, 113 f.;

potential verb-phrases, 124 f.;

tables of, 300 ff.

Conjunction, defined, 8; classification and use, 151 ff.;

coördinate or coördinating, 151 f.;

subordinate or subordinating, 151, 153 f.;

correlative, 153 f.;

adverb, preposition, and, 152 f.;

and adverb, 150.

Conjunctive adverbs and pronouns. See Relative.

Considering, 142, 149.

Construction, xiv, 25 ff.

Contractions: it’s, 56; I’ll, we’ll, 104;

let’s, 120;

may n’t, ought n’t, 126;

I’d, we’d, 130.

Contrary to fact, conditions, 170 f.

Coördinate (coördinating) conjunctions, 151 f.

Coördinate clauses, 17 ff., 185 ff., 210 ff.

Coördination in sentences, 210 ff. See Coördinate.

Copula. See Be.

Copulative verbs, 6 f., 76, 93. See Be.

Correlative conjunctions, 153 f.

Could. See Can.

Dare, 137, 299.

Dash, 310.

Dative, 52, 60.

Declarative sentences, 2.

Declaring, verbs of, with infinitive clause, 138.

Declension of nouns, 40; of personal pronouns, 55 f.;

of self-pronouns, 60;

of demonstratives, 63;

of relatives, 67;

of compound relatives, 72;

of interrogatives, 73.
Defective verbs, 299.

Definite article, 77 ff.

Definitive adjectives, 5, 75 f.

Degree, adverbs of, 84; clauses of, 173.

See Comparison.

Deity, words for the, 305.

Demonstrative pronouns and adjectives, 62 ff.

Dependent. See Subordinate.

Descriptive adjectives, 4, 75; relatives, 70 f.

Desiring, verbs of, with infinitive, 137; with noun clause, 160, 167.

Did. See Do.

Direct address, nominative in, 42; independent element, 209.

Direct discourse, 174 ff.

Direct object. See Object.

Direct quotations, 173 f.; questions, 179.

Do, did, in questions, 114; in emphatic verb-phrases, 114;

in imperative, 117;

as substitute for some other verb, 114.

Double comparison, 88; conditions, 168.

Doubting, verb of, with indirect question, 179 (cf. 160).

Each, each other, 64 f.

Editorial we, 57.

Either, 64; either ... or, 15, 153.

Elder, eldest, 81.

Elements. See Subject, Predicate, Modifiers, Complements, Independent.

Ellipsis, understood words, etc., 3, 47, 58, 63, 69, 71, 114, 117, 19 f., 121 f.,
133, 144, 149, 153 f., 155, 160, 164 f., 169, 173, 175, 224 ff.

Elliptical sentences, 224 ff.

’em, 57.

Emphasis, superlative of, 88.

Emphatic verb-phrases, 114; imperative, 117.

-en, plural ending of nouns, 35; old plural ending of verbs, 99.

Endings, in inflection, 25; gender, 33;

number, 34 ff.;

case, 40;

possessive, 43 f.;

comparison, 80 ff., 87;

adverbs, 83 ff.;

tense, 95 f.;
personal endings, 97 f.

English language, xi ff.; history of, 316 ff.

Errors of speech, 37, 45, 56, 58, 60, 62, 64 f., 74, 77, 88, 102 ff., 126, 128 ff.,
133 ff., 139, 147.

Even if, 153, 164 f.

Every, everybody, everything, 64 f.

Except, with infinitive, 135.

Exclamation, nominative in, 42, 57, 156; objective me, 60;

infinitive, 136;

various parts of speech, 155 f.;

phrases, 155 f.;

clauses, 169;

as independent element, 209.

See Interjection.

Exclamation point, 155, 306.

Exclamatory sentences, 2 f., 74; phrases, 155 f.;

expressions, 155 f., 209.

See Exclamation, Interjection.

Exercises, 227–290. See Table of Contents, v.

Exhortations, 120.

Expectation, subjunctive, 122 f.; should, 130.

Expletive. See It, There.

Extent, possessive of, 46.

Eyne, 35.

Feel, with predicate adjective, 77; with infinitive, 136.

Feminine. See Gender.

Few, 65.

Figures, plural of, 36.

For, conjunction, 152.

For, preposition, 148, 152; with infinitive, 135;

with infinitive clause, 139.

Foreign plurals, 37.

Fractional parts, 90.

Future conditions, 171 f.

Future perfect tense, 106.

Future tense, 94, 102 ff. See Shall, will.

Gender, 31 ff.; of nouns and pronouns, 31;

special rules for nouns, 32 ff.;

of pronouns, 56;

of relatives, 67 ff.

See Personification.
Generally speaking, 142.

Generic article, 77.

Genitive. See Possessive.

Gerund, 146.

Giving, verbs of, direct and indirect object, 50; retained object, 112.

Go. See Motion.

Going to, 105.

Grammar, nature and principles of, xi ff.

Granted that, 168.

Habitual action, 127.

Had rather, etc., 123; had to, 126.

Half, 102.

Have, had, 6, 95; auxiliary in compound tenses, 106 ff., 141.

He, 56; for he or she, 65.

Hear, with infinitive, 136.

Hem, old pronoun, 57.

His, as neuter, 56.

Hosen, 35.

How, 86.

However, 152; in concessions, 165.

Hyphen, 30, 311.

I’d, we’d, 130.

Idioms, nature of, xv.

If, 153; in conditions, 168 ff.;

in wishes, 169;

in indirect questions, 179.

Ill, 81, 87.

I’ll, we’ll, 104.

Imperative mood, 116 ff.; in exclamations, 156;

as a condition, 169.

Imperative sentences, 2 f., 116 ff.; subject of, 2, 117.

Impersonal it, 58. See It.

In case that, 153; in order that, 153, 166;

in order to, 167.

Incomplete predication, 200; verbs, 200.

Indefinite article, 77 ff.; pronouns and adjectives, 64 f.;

nouns, 65;

relatives (whoever, etc.), 72 f.

Independent clauses, 17 f. See Clauses.

Independent elements, 209.

Independent participles, 142.

Indicative mood, 115 f.; variety of use, 116; in statements and questions of fact,
116;

in commands, 105, 118;

in concessions, 121;

in conditions, 170, 172.

Indirect discourse, 173 ff.; tenses in, 175;

passive, 175 f.; shall, should, will, would, 177 f.

Indirect object, 50 f.; retained with passive, 112;

of participial nouns, 146;

as modifier, 199.

Indirect questions, 179 ff.; infinitive in, 181;

subjunctive in, 181;

shall, should, will, would, 182.

Indirect quotations, 173 ff.

Infinitive, 11 ff., 132 ff.; forms, 107, 133;

object and modifiers, 134;

uses, 134 ff.;

as noun, 11 ff., 134;

as object, 135;

as nominative of exclamation, 136;

as modifier, 136 f., 194, 197 f.;

with see, hear, feel, 136;

complementary, 137;

of purpose, 137, 167;

in verb-phrases, 12;

in future, 102;

in emphatic forms, 114, 117;

in potential verb-phrases, 124 ff.;

with ought, tenses, 126;

in indirect questions, 181;

in verb-phrases, see Future, Future perfect, Emphatic, Potential.

Infinitive clause, 137 ff.; as object, 138 f.;

as subject, 139;

predicate pronoun in, 139;

expressing purpose, 167;

indirect discourse, 175.

Infinitive phrase, 194.

Inflection, nature and function of, xiii f., 25; summary of, 26;

of nouns, 30 ff.;

of pronouns, 55 ff.;

of adjectives, 79 ff.;
of verbs, 94 ff.;

lists of verb-forms, 291 ff.

-ing, verbal nouns in, 145 ff. See Participial nouns.

Intensive pronouns, 61 f.

Interjections, defined, 8; use, 155 f.;

as independent elements, 209.

Interrogation point, 306.

Interrogative adverbs, 86; with clauses, 157;

in indirect questions, 179;

with infinitive, 181.

Interrogative pronouns, 73 f.; as adjectives, 74;

with prepositions, 150;

with clauses, 157;

in indirect questions, 179 ff.;

with infinitive, 181.

Interrogative sentences, 2 f.; order in, 3;

do, did in, 114;

direct and indirect questions, 179 ff.

Intransitive verbs, 48 f., 92 f.; voice, 111;

in passive with preposition, 111.

Inverted order, 3, 85, 121 f., 161.

Irregular verbs, 95, 99; participles, 141;

lists, 291 ff.

Is. See Be.

It, 56; impersonal, 58;

expletive, 58, 135, 161, 175 f.;

cognate object, 58.

Kind, sort, 64.

Kine, 35.

Knowing, verbs of, indirect discourse, 174; indirect question, 179.

Language, nature of, xi ff.; English, 316 ff.

Less, least, 81, 87.

Lest, with subjunctive, 122; purpose, 122, 166.

Let, with infinitive, 138; let us, 120.

Letters, plural of, 36.

Like, should like, 129.

Like, with objective, 52.

Limiting adjectives, 5. See Definitive.

Look, with predicate adjective, 77.

Main clause, 17 f.; analysis, 184 ff., 213 ff.;

compound, 216 f.

Majesty, plural of, 57.

Make, with infinitive, 138.

Making, verbs of, two objects, 50; predicate nominative after passive, 111.

-man, words ending in, plural of, 35.

Manner, adverbs of, 83; clauses of, 173.

Many, 65.

Masculine. See Gender.

May, might, auxiliary, 120 ff.; replacing subjunctive, 123;

form, 299.

Measure or extent, possessive of, 46.

Meseems, methinks, 60.

Might, auxiliary, 123 ff.; replacing subjunctive, 123;

might better, 123.

See May.
Modal auxiliaries, use and meaning, 124 ff.

Mode. See Mood.

Models for parsing, analysis, 54, 74, 82, 188 ff., 243, 250 f., 262, 270. See
Exercises.

Modifiers, 7; classified, 191 ff.;

of subject, 192 ff.;

adjectives, adjective phrases, adjective clauses, 192 f.;

participles, 193 f.;

infinitives, 194;

possessives, 195;

appositives, 195 f.;

of predicate, 196 ff.;

adverbs, adverbial phrases, adverbial clauses, 196 f.;

infinitives, 197 f.;

adverbial objectives, 198;

nominative absolute, 198 f.;

indirect object, 199;

cognate object, 199.

Modifiers of complements, 205 f.

Modifiers of modifiers, 207 f.

Mood, 115 ff.; indicative, 115 f.;

imperative, 116 ff.;

subjunctive, 118 ff.;

potential, 124.

See Indicative, Subjunctive, etc.

More, most, in comparison, 81, 87 ff.

-most, superlative suffix, 82.

Motion, verbs of, with have or be, 107; ellipsis, 225.

Must, auxiliary, 124 ff., 299.

My, mine, 59.

Naming, verbs of, two objects, 50; predicate nominative after passive, 111.

Naught, not, 65.

Near, with objective, 52.

Negative, neither, 64, 152; none, 64;

not, 65;

no, 85;

statements and questions, 114;

commands, 117;

purpose or result, 166 f.;

condition, 168.

Neither, pronoun, 64; conjunction, with nor, 15, 152 ff.;

number with, 100.

Neuter. See Gender.

Next, 52, 82, 87.

Nigh, next, 82.

No, yes, 85.

Nominative case, 41 f.; subject, 41;

predicate, 41;

direct address (vocative), 42;

in exclamation, 42;

absolute, 144, 198 f.

Non-committal conditions, 170 f.

None, 64.

Nor, neither ... nor, number with, 100.

Not, 65.

Notwithstanding, preposition or conjunction, 152, 154.

Noun, defined, 4; classification, 27 ff.;

common and proper, 27 ff.;

abstract and collective, 29 f.;

compound, 30, 36, 47, 146 f.;

inflection, 30 ff.;

gender, 31 ff.;

number, 34 ff.;

person, 39;

case, 40 ff.;

numeral, 89 f.;

verbal (participial), 145 ff.

See Infinitive.

Noun clauses, 20, 159 ff.; construction, as subject, object, etc., 159 ff.;

purpose and result, 166 f.;

indirect discourse, 174 ff.;

indirect questions, 180 ff.;

analysis, 190;

as complement, 201 ff.;

direct object, 201;

predicate objective, 202;

predicate nominative, 203.

Noun-phrases, 16, 28; possessive of, 47;

verbal noun-phrases, 146.

Number, a (or the), 101.

Number of nouns, 34 ff.; of pronouns, 56 f., 60, 63 ff., 67 f., 72;

of verbs, 97 ff., 100 ff.;

agreement in, 55, 65, 68, 97, 100 ff.

Numerals, 89 f.

O or oh, 8, 155; in wishes, 155.

Object, of preposition, 8, 47, 148; of verb, direct, 48 ff.;

predicate objective, 50;

indirect, 50 f.;

for whom, 51;

cognate, 52;

retained, 112;
of infinitive, 134;

of verbal (participial) noun, 146 f.;

infinitive as, 135;

infinitive clause as, 138 f.;

noun-clause as, 159 ff., 167, 174 ff., 180 f.

See Complements, Modifiers.

Object clauses. See Noun clauses.

Objective attribute, 50.

Objective case, 47 ff.; of service, 51 f.;

adverbial, 53;

in apposition, 53;

of pronouns, 55 f., 60, 63, 67, 69, 72, 73 f.;

in exclamation, 60;

subject of infinitive, 138 f.

See Object.

Objective complement, 50. See Predicate objective.

Obsolete words, etc., xvi f. See Old.

Of mine, 47, 59.

Of-phrase, 45.

Old or poetical forms and constructions, 28 f., 32, 35, 39, 43, 45, 52, 56 ff., 59
ff., 62 f., 67, 69, 73, 78, 82, 84 f., 88, 90, 95 ff., 99, 100, 105, 114, 116 f.,
118, 120, 122, 124, 126, 135, 149, 154, 225, 293, 297 ff.

On condition that, 168.

One, one’s, one’s self, 60, 65; one another, 64 f.

Or, either ... or, 15, 153 f.; number with or, nor, 100.

Order. See Inverted.

Orders, will in, 105. See Command.

Ordinal numerals, 89 f.

Other, another, 64 f.

Ought, 126 f.

Ourself, 60.

Owe, ought, 126, 299.

Own, 61.

Pains, 101.

Parsing, models for, 54, 74, 82, 243, 250 f., 262, 270.

Part, portion, 102.

Participial nouns, 145 ff.; object of, 146 f.;

modifiers of, 146;

as adjective, 146 f.;

with article, 147.

Participial phrase, 194.

Participles, 11 f., 140 ff.; present, past, perfect, 12, 106 f., 140 f.;

constructions, 142 ff.;

object and modifiers of, 142 f.;

as prepositions, 142, 149;

as adjectives, 143;

with nominative absolute, 145;

as modifiers, 193 f., 205.

Parts of speech, defined, 3 ff.; same word as different, 9 ff.;

substitutes for, 15 ff. (see Phrases, Clauses);

inflection and syntax, 25 ff.

See Noun, Pronoun, etc.

Passive voice, 107 ff.; form of, 108 ff.;

use of, 110 ff.;

predicate nominative with, 111;

retained object with, 112;

in progressive form, 114;

in imperative, 117;

in subjunctive, 119;

intransitive verbs with preposition, 111;

passive distinguished from be with participle used as adjective, 143;

clause as retained object, 160;

indirect discourse, 175 f.

Past conditions, 169 ff.; non-committal, 170 f.;

contrary to fact, 171.

Past participle, 106, 140 f.; as predicate adjective, 143.

Past perfect tense, 106, 109; subjunctive, 121 f., 171;

progressive, 125;
in conditions, 121, 170 f.;

in indirect discourse, 175.

Past tense, 94 ff.; personal endings, 97 ff.;

passive, 108;

progressive, 113 f.;

emphatic, 114;

subjunctive, 118, 121 ff., 171 f.;

indicative and subjunctive in conditions, 170 ff.;

in indirect discourse, 175.

Pending, 142, 149.

Per, per cent, etc., 79, 149.

Perceiving, verbs of, with infinitive clause, 138; indirect discourse, 174;

indirect question, 179.

Perfect infinitive, 107, 133; with ought, 126;

participle, 107, 140 f.

Perfect (or present perfect) tense, 106.

Period, 306.

Permission, 125 f., 129.

Person of substantives, 39; of pronouns, 55 ff.;

of relatives, 68;

of verbs, 97 ff., 100 ff.

Personal construction, 176.

Personal endings, 97 f.

Personal pronouns, 55 ff.; inflection, 55 ff.;

gender and number, 56 f.;

case, 57 ff.;

self-pronouns, 60 ff.;

as predicate nominative, 41.

Personification, 28 f., 32.

Phrases, 16; kinds of, 16 (see Noun-phrases, Adjective phrases, Adverbial phrases,
Verb-phrases);

as prepositions, 149;

as conjunctions, 153;

exclamatory, 155;

in analysis, 191 ff.;

as modifiers of subject, 192 f.; of predicate, 196 f.;

as complements, 204;

as modifiers of complements, 205 f.; of other modifiers, 207 f.

See Progressive, Emphatic, Potential, Appositive, Infinitive, Participial,

Prepositional, Verbal noun-phrases.

Place and time, adverbs of, 83 ff.; clauses of, 163 f.

Pluperfect tense, 106, 109; subjunctive, 121 f., 171;

progressive, 125;

in conditions, 121, 170 f.;

in indirect discourse, 175.

Plural of nouns, 34 ff.; irregular, 35 ff.;

of compounds, 36;

of foreign nouns, 37;

of proper names and titles, 35, 38;

of possessive, 43 f.;

of pronouns, 56 f., 60, 62 ff.;

of relatives, 67 f.;

of verbs, 97 ff.;

plural of majesty, 57.

Poetical forms and constructions, xvii. See Old.

Portion, part, 102.

Positive degree, 79, 87.

Possessive case of nouns, 43 ff.; use, 45 ff.;

of measure, 46;

of compound nouns and of phrases, 46 f.;

apposition with, 47;

of personal pronouns, 55 f., 59;

of definite pronouns, 65;

of relatives, 67, 69, 72;

of interrogatives, 73;

possessive nouns modified, 207.

Possessive modifiers, 195, 205, 207.

Possessive pronouns, 55 f., 59; my, mine, etc., use of, 59;

one’s, 65;

whose, 67, 69, 72, 73.

Potential verb-phrases, 124 ff.; mood, 124 ff.

Pray, 58.

Prayers, subjunctive, 119 f.

Predicate, 2; inverted order, 3, 85, 121 f., 161;

simple and complete, 14 f., 183 f.;

compound, 15, 184 f., 212 f.;

possessive in, 59;

analysis, 183 ff.;

modifiers of, 196 ff.;

complements, 200 ff.

See Complements, Modifiers.

Predicate adjective, 76 f., 93; participle as, 143;

analysis, 203 f.;

as complement, 203 f.;

phrase as, 204;

modifiers of, 206.

Predicate nominative, 41, 49, 93; of pronouns, 58;

after passive, 111;

infinitive as, 134 f.;

infinitive clause as, 139;

noun clause as, 159 f., 174, 180;

in analysis, 202 f.;

as complement, 202 f.;

modifiers of, 205 f.

Predicate objective, 50, 111; adjective as, 50;

in analysis, 202;

as complement, 202;

modified, 205.

Predicate pronoun after to be, 139.

Predication, complete and incomplete, 200.

Preposition, defined, 8; list and uses, 148 ff.;

object of, 8, 47, 150 ff.;

with intransitive verb, 111;

with passive, 111;

phrase used as, 149;

at end of clause, 149;

following the object, 149;

omitted, 149;

participle as, 149;

infinitive as object of, 135;

clause as object of, 161, 180.

Prepositional phrases, 16, 148.

Present conditions, 170 ff.; non-committal, 170 f.;

contrary to fact, 171.

Present infinitive, 133; with ought, 126.

Present participle, 12, 140 f.; in verb-phrases, 13, 113 f., 130 f.;

with nominative absolute, 144.

Present perfect tense, 106.

Present tense form, 94; personal endings, 97 f.;

conjugation, 98 f.;

in future sense, 105;

in future conditions, 172;

passive, 108;

progressive, 113 f.;

emphatic, 114;

imperative, 116 f.;

subjunctive, 118 f., 120 ff.;

indicative and subjunctive in conditions, 170 f.;

participle, 12, 144 ff.;

infinitive, 133.
Preterite, 94. See Past.

Preterite-present verbs, 299.

Principal clause. See Main clause.

Principal parts, 107; list, 291 ff.

Prithee, 58.

Progressive verb-phrases, 113 f.; in subjunctive, 119.

Prohibition, 117.

Pronominal adjectives. See Adjective pronouns; Demonstrative, Indefinite, Relative,

Interrogative.

Pronoun defined, 4; antecedent of, 4;

classification, forms, and uses, 55 ff.;

predicate nominative, 41, 58.

See Personal, Adjective, Demonstrative, Indefinite, Relative, Interrogative,

Intensive, Reflexive, Reciprocal, Gender.

Pronoun, predicate, after to be, 139.

Proper nouns, 27 ff.; plural, 35, 38;

possessive, 44;

adjectives, 75.

Prophecy, shall, 105.

Protasis, 168.

Provided (that), 153, 168.

Punctuation, rules of, 306 ff.

Purpose, subjunctive and indicative, 122 f.; infinitive of, 137, 167;
clauses of, 166 f.;

infinitive clause, 167.

Questions, 3 f.; shall and will in, 102 ff.;

should and would in, 127 ff.;

do, did, 114;

may, 126;

as condition, 169;

direct and indirect, 179 ff.

See Interrogative.

Quotation marks, 310.

Quotations, direct and indirect, 173 ff.

Rather, 87; had rather, 123.

Reciprocal pronouns, 64 f.

Reflexive pronouns, 61; simple personal pronouns as, 61.

Refusing, verbs of, direct and indirect object, 50; retained object, 112.

Regular verbs, 95 ff.; participles, 141.

Relative adjectives, 73.

Relative adverbs, 86; with subjunctive, 122;

introducing clauses, 157 f.;

place and time, 164;

concession, 165;

conditions, 169.

Relative pronouns, 66 ff.; forms, 67;

gender, 67 ff.;

agreement, 68, 102;

case, 68 f., 139;

omitted, 69;

descriptive and restrictive, 70 f.;

what, 71;

compound relatives, 72 f.;

relatives introducing clauses, 66, 157 f.;

place and time, 163 f.;

concession, 131, 165;

condition, 131, 169.

Restrictive relatives, 70 f.

Result, clause of, 166 f.; infinitive, 167;

negative, 167.

Retained object, 112; clause as, 160.

Royal we, 57, 60.

Same (the) as, 67.

Saying. See Telling.

See, with infinitive, 136.

Seem, with predicate nominative or adjective, 6 f., 76, 93; it seems that, 176.

Self-pronouns, 60 ff.

Semicolon, 309 f.

Sentences, 1 ff.; kinds of, 2 f.;

parts of speech in, 3 ff., 13 ff.;

essential elements in, 2, 14;

simple and complete subject and predicate, 14 f.;

clauses in, 16 ff.;

simple, compound, complex, 17 ff.;

compound complex, 18.

Sentences, analysis, 183 ff.; structure and elements, 183;

of simple sentences, 184 f.;

of compound, 185;

of complex, 186;

of compound and complex clauses, 186 f.;

of compound complex sentences, 187;

models for analysis of simple, compound, complex, compound complex sentences, 188
ff.;

modifiers, 191 ff.;

complements, 200 ff.;

modifiers of complements and of modifiers, 205 ff.;

independent elements, 209;

combinations of clauses making sentences of various forms, 210 ff.;

special complications, 220 ff.;

elliptical sentences, 224 ff.

See Subject, Compound, Complex, Modifiers, etc.

Sequence of tenses, 175, 179.

Service, objective of, 51 f.

Several, 65.

Shakspere, forms and constructions in, 35, 39, 47, 56, 57, 59, 60, 62, 63, 67, 69,
88, 90, 126, 149, 154, 166, 169, 171, 225.

Shall and will, 102 ff.; in assertions and questions, 102 ff.;

in subordinate clauses, 130 ff.;

indirect discourse, 177 f.;

indirect questions, 182;

forms, 299.

See Should.

Ship, gender, 32.

Shoon, 35.

Should and would, in simple sentences and independent clauses, 127 ff.; in
subordinate clauses, 130 ff.;

in indirect discourse, 177 f.;

in indirect questions, 182.

See Shall.

Should and would, special senses, 126 f.; replacing subjunctive, 123;
in clauses of purpose, 130;

concessions, 131;

in conditional sentences, 131, 171 f.

Signs, plural of, 36.

Simple clauses. See Clauses.

Simple sentences, 17 ff., 184 f.; analyzed, 188 f.;

elaboration of, 212 f.

See Sentences.

Since, adverb, preposition, conjunction, 86, 153.

Singular. See Number.

Smell, with predicate adjective, 77.

So as to, 167; so that, 153, 166.

Solemn (or Biblical) style, xvii, 56 f., 60, 69, 90, 95, 98 f., 105, 117, 120, 122,
172.

Some, 64; somewhat, 65.

Sort, kind, 64.

Sound, with predicate adjective, 77.

Split infinitive, 134.

Still, yet, adverbs or conjunctions, 152.

Strong verbs, 95, 99; participles, 141;

list, 291 ff.

Style and grammar, xvi f.

Subject, 2; inverted order, 3;

omitted, 3, 58, 114, 117, 121, 164 f., 169, 224 ff.;

simple and complete, 14 f.;

compound, 15, 184 f.;

infinitive as, 11, 134 f.;

clause as, 20, 139, 159 f., 174 f., 180, 190;

case, 41;

agreement with verb, 97, 100 ff.;

modifiers of, 192 ff.;

subject of infinitive, 138.

See Predicate nominative.

Subject and predicate, 2, 13 ff., 183 ff., 191 ff.

Subject complement, 41. See Predicate nominative.

Subjunctive mood, 115 f., 118 ff.; forms, 118 f.;

uses, 119 ff.;

in wishes, etc., 119 f.;

concessions, 120 f.;

conditions, 120 ff., 170 ff.;

clauses of purpose or expectation, 122, 166;

with as if, 122, 173;

in indirect questions, 181;

auxiliaries replacing subjunctive, 123.

Subordinate clauses, 17 ff.; as parts of speech, 19 ff., 157 ff.;

analysis, 186 ff., 189 ff.;

combinations of, 210; variety of use, 216 ff.;

special complications, 220 ff.

See Noun, Adjective, Adverbial, Indicative, Subjunctive.

Subordinate clauses, meanings of, 163 ff.; place and time, 163 f.;

cause, 164;

concession, 164 f.;

purpose and result, 166 f.;

conditional, 167 ff.;

comparison and manner, 173;

indirect discourse, 173 ff.;

indirect questions, 179 ff.

Subordinate (or subordinating) conjunctions, 151, 153 f., 157.

Substantive, 4. See Noun, Pronoun.

Substantive clauses. See Noun clauses.

Such, 64; such ... as, 67.

Superlative of emphasis, 88. See Comparison.

Suppose, supposing, 168.

Syntax, xiv, 25 ff.; summary of rules, 311 ff.

Taste, with predicate adjective, 77.

Telling, verbs of, direct and indirect object, 50; retained object, 112;

object clause, 160;

indirect discourse, 174.

Tense, 94 ff. See Present, Past, Future, Compound tenses.

Tenses, use in conditions, 121, 170 ff.; with ought, 126;

in indirect discourse, 175, 177 ff.;

in indirect questions, 179, 182.

Termination. See Endings.

Than, 87; case after, 173;

clauses, 173.

That, conjunction with subordinate clause, 20 f., 132, 137, 153, 157 ff., 160 ff.;
in clauses of purpose, 122 f., 130, 166 f.;

result, 166 f.;

indirect discourse, 174 ff.;

omitted, 153, 160, 175, 225.

That, demonstrative, 62 ff.; relative, 67 ff.;

omitted, 69.

The, article, 77 ff.; abbreviated to ye, 57;

the which, 67;

adverb with comparative, 86.

Then, adverb or conjunction, 152.

There, expletive, 85.

Thereof, therewith, etc., 60.

They, indefinite use, 57.

Thinking, verbs of, two objects, 50; predicate nominative after passive, 111;

object clause, 160;

indirect discourse, 174;

indirect question, 179.

This, these, 62 ff.

Thou, ye, you, 56 f.

Though, although, 21; mood after, 120 f.

See Concession.

Till, until, relative adverb, 86; with subjunctive, 122 f.;

with should, 123, 130;

preposition, 149.

Time, adverbs of, 83; clauses of, 163 f.;

nominative absolute, 144.

Titles, plural, 38.

To, with infinitive, 11, 132 ff.; standing for infinitive, 133;

expressing purpose, 167;

to let, 136;

to the end that, 166.

Too ... to, 167.

Transition, 152.

Transitive verbs, 48 ff., 92; used absolutely, 92;

passive use of, 110 ff.

See Object.

Unless, 121 ff., 168.

Unlike, objective with, 52.

Until. See Till.

Usage and grammar, xv ff.

Verb, 5 ff.; inflection and syntax, 91 ff.;

classification, 91 ff.;

inflection, 94 ff., 102 ff.;

person and number, 97 ff.;

agreement with subject, 97, 100 ff.;

voice, 107 ff.;

progressive form, 113 f.;

emphatic form, 114;

mood, 115 ff.;

potential verb-phrases, 124 ff.;

infinitive, 11 f., 132 ff.;

participles, 11 f., 140 ff.;

lists of verbs, 291 ff.

See Predicate, Transitive, Tense, etc.

Verbal noun in -ing, 145 ff. See Participial nouns.

Verbal noun-phrases, 146.

Verb-phrases, 5, 16, 91; to supply inflection, see Future, Complete tenses,

Passive, Progressive, Potential, Subjunctive.

Vocal organs, xi.

Vocabulary of English, 318 f.

Vocative (direct address), nominative, 42; as independent element, 209.

Voice, 107 ff. See Passive.

We, indefinite use, 57; royal and editorial we, 57.

Weak verbs, 95 ff., 98 f.; participles, 141;

lists, 291 ff.

We’d, 130.

Well, 81, 87.

We’ll, 104.

Were to, 172.

What, relative, 71; double construction, 71, 73;

as adjective, 73;

interrogative, 73 f.;

as adjective, 74;

in exclamatory sentences, 74;

interjection, 74.

Whatever, whatsoever, 72 f.; in concession, 165;

in conditions, 169.

Whatso, 73.

When, whenever, 86; in conditions, 169.

Whence, 86.

Where, wherever, 86.

Whereof, wherefrom, etc., 69.

Whether, whether ... or, 153, 168, 179.

Which, relative, 67 ff.; gender, 67 ff.;

for who, whom, 69;

as adjective, 73;

the which, 67;

interrogative, 73;

as adjective, 74.

Whichever, 72 f.

While, noun, adverb, conjunction, 86, 153.

Whither, 86.

Who, whose, whom, relative, 66 ff.; gender, 67 ff.;

interrogative, 73 f., 150.

Whoever, whosoever, whoso, 72 f.; in concession, 165;

in condition, 169.

Why, 86, 179.

Will, in orders, 105; in future, see Shall.

Wish, subjunctive in, 119 f., 123; may, 125 f.;

verbs of, with infinitive or infinitive clause, 137 f.;

with object clause, 160, 167;

O in a wish, 155;

if, 169.

Words, nature and use of, xi ff.

Wot, wist, 299.

Would, in wishes, 120; habitual action, 127;

would better (rather), 123.

See Should.

Written and spoken language, xi ff.

Ye, old uses, 57; abbreviation, 57.

Yes, no, 85.

Yet, still, adverbs or conjunctions, 152.

Yon, yond, yonder, 63.

You and thou, 56 f.; indefinite you, 57.

Transcriber’s Notes

Variant spelling and hyphenation have been preserved as printed; simple

typographical errors have been corrected. Punctuation has been standardised, and
unbalanced quotation marks and parentheses have been repaired.

The following changes have also been made:

Page vi, Contents:

Person 39 238 changed to

Person 39 236

Page 26:

Number (Verb agrees with Subject) [was printed with a brace spanning Number and
Person]

Page 98, Personal Endings:

[repeated no-ending in each cell instead of replicating the book’s row-spanning

braces]

Page 258 [changed word order]:

If the verb is active, change it to the passive, and make such other changes as may
be necessary. If the verb is active, change it to the passive.

If the verb is active, change it to the passive, and make such other changes as may
be necessary. If the verb is passive, change it to the active.

Footnote 66:

[The table spanned pages 298 to 299, and the footnote was repeated across the page
break; the transcriber omitted duplicate note.]

All changes are also noted in the source code: search <!--TN:

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