UNIT-II [T1,T2][No. of Hrs.

11]

SYLLABUS: 2G Networks: Second Generation digital, Wireless Systems: GSM, IS_136 (D-
AMPS), IS-95 CDMA. Global system for Mobile Communication (GSM) system overview:
GSM Architecture, Mobility Management, Network signaling, mobile management, voice signal
processing and coding.
Spread Spectrum Systems-Cellular code Division Access Systems-Principle, Power Control,
effects of multipath propagation on codedivision multiple access.

OBJECTIVE: How digital cellular is implemented including GSM. The principles and operation of the
different spectrum-sharing technologies: first-generation FDMA, second-generation GSM and CDMA.

Sl. No. TOPICS TO BE COVERED

4 2G Networks:
4.1 Second Generation Digital Wireless Systems
4.2 GSM
4.3 IS_136 (D-AMPS)
4.4 IS-95 CDMA
4.5 Global system for Mobile Communication (GSM) system overview
4.6 GSM Architecture
4.7 Mobility Management
4.8 Network Signalling
4.9 Mobile Management
4.10 Voice Signal Processing and Coding
5 Spread Spectrum Systems
5.1 Cellular code Division Access Systems-Principle,
5.2 Power Control
5.3 Effects of multipath propagation on codedivision multiple access.
 2. 2G Networks:

2G (or 2-G) is short for second-generation cellular network. 2G cellular networks were
commercially launched on the GSM standard in Finland by Radiolinja (now part of Elisa Oyj) in
1991.
Three primary benefits of 2G networks were:

1. Phone conversations were digitally encrypted.

2. Significantly more efficient use of the radio frequency spectrum enabling more users per
frequency band.
3. Data services for mobile, starting with SMS text messages.
2G technologies enabled the various networks to provide the services such as text messages,
picture messages, and MMS (multimedia messages). All text messages sent over 2G are digitally
encrypted, allowing the transfer of data in such a way that only the intended receiver can receive
and read it.
After 2G was launched, the previous mobile wireless network systems were retroactively dubbed
1G. While radio signals on 1G networks are analog, radio signals on 2G networks are digital.
Both systems use digital signaling to connect the radio towers (which listen to the devices) to the
rest of the mobile system.
With General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), 2G offers a theoretical maximum transfer speed of
40 kbit/s.With EDGE (Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution), there is a theoretical
maximum transfer speed of 384 kbit/s.

2.1 Second Generation Digital Wireless Systems:

2G: Digital Networks

In the 1990s, the 'second generation' (2G) mobile phone systems emerged, primarily using
theGSM standard. These 2G phone systems differed from the previous generation in their use of
digital transmission instead of analog transmission, and also by the introduction of advanced and
fast phone-to-network signaling. The rise in mobile phone usage as a result of 2G was explosive
and this era also saw the advent of prepaid mobile phones.

The second generation introduced a new variant to communication, as SMS text messaging
became possible, initially on GSM networks and eventually on all digital networks. Soon SMS
became the communication method of preference for the youth. Many advanced markets the
general public prefers sending text messages to placing voice calls.

Some benefits of 2G were Digital signals require consume less battery power,so it helps mobile
batteries to last long. Digital coding improves the voice clarity and reduces noise in the line.
Digital signals are considered environment friendly. Digital encryption has provided secrecy and
safety to the data and voice calls.But The use of 2G technology requires strong digital signals to
help mobile phones work properly.

“2.5G” using GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) technology is a cellular wireless
technology developed in between its predecessor, 2G, and its successor, 3G. GPRS could
provide data rates from 56 kbit/s up to 115 kbit/s. It can be used for services such as Wireless
Application Protocol (WAP) access, Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS), and for Internet
communication services such as email and World Wide Web access.

GPRS Diagram

2.75– EDGE is an abbreviation for Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution. EDGE technology
is an extended version of GSM. It allows the clear and fast transmission of data and information
up to 384kbit/s speed.

EDGE Diagram
2.2. GSM:

GSM (Global System for Mobile communication) is a digital mobile network that is widely used
by mobile phone users in Europe and other parts of the world. GSM uses a variation of time
division multiple access (TDMA) and is the most widely used of the three
digital wireless telephony technologies: TDMA, GSM and code-division multiple
access (CDMA). GSM digitizes and compresses data, then sends it down a channel with two
other streams of user data, each in its own time slot. It operates at either the 900 megahertz
(MHz) or 1,800 MHz frequency band.

GSM, together with other technologies, is part of the evolution of wireless mobile
telecommunications that includes High-Speed Circuit-Switched Data (HSCSD), General Packet
Radio Service (GPRS), Enhanced Data GSM Environment (EDGE) and Universal Mobile
Telecommunications Service (UMTS).

GSM Architecture:
A GSM network consists of the following components:
 A Mobile Station: It is the mobile phone which consists of the transceiver, the display and
the processor and is controlled by a SIM card operating over the network.
 Base Station Subsystem: It acts as an interface between the mobile station and the network
subsystem. It consists of the Base Transceiver Station which contains the radio transceivers
and handles the protocols for communication with mobiles. It also consists of the Base
 Station Controller which controls the Base Transceiver station and acts as a interface between
the mobile station and mobile switching centre.
 Network Subsystem: It provides the basic network connection to the mobile stations. The
basic part of the Network Subsystem is the Mobile Service Switching Centre which provides
access to different networks like ISDN, PSTN etc. It also consists of the Home Location
Register and the Visitor Location Register which provides the call routing and roaming
capabilities of GSM. It also contains the Equipment Identity Register which maintains an
account of all the mobile equipments wherein each mobile is identified by its own IMEI
number. IMEI stands for International Mobile Equipment Identity.

Features of GSM Module:

 Improved spectrum efficiency
 International roaming
 Compatibility with integrated services digital network (ISDN)
 Support for new services.
 SIM phonebook management
 Fixed dialing number (FDN)
 Real time clock with alarm management
 High-quality speech
 Uses encryption to make phone calls more secure
 Short message service (SMS)

2.3. IS_136 (D-AMPS):

IS-54 and IS-136 are second-generation (2G) mobile phone systems, known as Digital AMPS
(D-AMPS), and a further development of the North American 1G mobile system Advanced
Mobile Phone System (AMPS). It was once prevalent throughout the Americas, particularly in
the United States and Canada since the first commercial network was deployed in 1993. D-
AMPS is considered end-of-life, and existing networks have mostly been replaced by
GSM/GPRS or CDMA2000 technologies.
This system is most often referred to as TDMA. That name is based on the abbreviation for time
division multiple access, a common multiple access technique which is used in most 2G
standards, including GSM, as well as in IS-54 and IS-136. However, D-AMPS has been
competing against GSM and systems based on code division multiple access (CDMA) for
adoption by the network carriers, although it is now being phased out in favor of GSM/GPRS
and CDMA2000 technology.
D-AMPS uses existing AMPS channels and allows for smooth transition between digital and
analog systems in the same area.Capacity was increased over the preceding analog design by
dividing each 30 kHz channel pair into three time slots (hence time division) and digitally
compressing the voice data, yielding three times the call capacity in a single cell. A digital
system also made calls more secure in the beginning, as analogue scanners could not access
digital signals. Calls were encrypted, using CMEA, which was later found to be weak.
IS-136 added a number of features, including text messaging, circuit switched data (CSD), and
an improved compression protocol. SMS and CSD were both available as part of the GSM
protocol, and IS-136 implemented them in a nearly identical fashion.
Former large IS-136 networks, including AT&T in the United States, and Rogers Wireless in
Canada, have upgraded their existing IS-136 networks to GSM/GPRS. Rogers Wireless removed
all 1900 MHz IS-136 in 2003, and has done the same with its 800 MHz spectrum as the
equipment failed. Rogers deactivated its IS-136 network (along with AMPS) on May 31, 2007.
AT&T soon followed in February 2008, shutting down both TDMA and AMPS.
Alltel, who primarily uses CDMA2000 technology but acquired a TDMA network from Western
Wireless, shut down its TDMA and AMPS networks in September 2008. US Cellular, which
now also primarily uses CDMA2000 technology, shut down its TDMA network in February
2009.
IS-54 is the first mobile communication system which had provision for security, and the first to
employ TDMA technology.
IS-136 expands the capability of IS-54B to include:

 Sleep mode for decreased battery usage during non-talk times.

 Public, private, and semi-private cells such as picocells in office buildings and personal
base stations
 Short Message Service (SMS) for both point-to-point and broadcast information
 Greatly improved security (using DCCH and authentication)
Basic Features of IS-136:
 Time Slots per Channel: 6
 Users per Channel: 3 (full rate), 6 (half rate), 9 (future)
 Modulation: Digital: Pi/4 DQPSK, Nyquist Filter factor = 0.35
 Analog: FM
 Data Structure: TDMA
 Speech Coding: VSELP (vector sum excited linear predictive) 8 kbps
 Modulation Data Rate: 24,300 symbols per second (1 symbol = 2 bits)
 EIA/TIA Standards: IS-136.1 and IS-136.2 for system
 The Control Channels:
  IS-136 has both digital (DCCH) and analog (ACC) control channels.
 The ACC controls the analog transmissions and guarantees backward compatibility with
systems such as AMPS and IS-54B.
 The DCCH controls digital transmissions and enables the specialized features of IS-136.

A mobile station (cell phone) on an ACC has an idle mode. During this state, the mobile waits
for messages from the base station, or it can originate a call.

A mobile on a DCCH has a similar state, called camping. Refer to Transactions for transactions
which can be processed during the idle and camping states.

4.4 IS-95 CDMA :

Interim Standard 95 (IS-95) was the first ever CDMA-based digital cellular technology.It was
developed by Qualcomm and later adopted as a standard by the Telecommunications Industry
Association in TIA/EIA/IS-95 release published in 1995. The proprietary name for IS-95 is
CDMA One.
It is a 2G mobile telecommunications standard that uses CDMA, a multiple access scheme for
digital radio, to send voice, data and signaling data (such as a dialed telephone number) between
mobile telephones and cell sites.
CDMA or "code division multiple access" is a digital radio system that transmits streams of bits
(PN codes).CDMA permits several radios to share the same frequencies. Unlike TDMA "time
division multiple access", a competing system used in 2GGSM, all radios can be active all the
time, because network capacity does not directly limit the number of active radios. Since larger
numbers of phones can be served by smaller numbers of cell-sites, CDMA-based standards have
a significant economic advantage over TDMA-based standards, or the oldest cellular standards
that used frequency-division multiplexing.

CDMA (code division multiple access) is a second-generation digital mobile telephone standard
which takes a different approach to the other, competing standards: GSM (Global System for
Mobile Communications) and TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access). Where GSM and
TDMA divide the available bandwidth into 'channels' using a combination of frequency bands
and time-slices, CDMA spreads the signal over a wide bandwidth, identifying each channel
using unique digital codes. This means it can provide greater bandwidth efficiency, and hence a
greater potential number of channels.

Despite being mostly confined to the US, CDMA systems accounted for roughly 12% of digital
subscribers worldwide in June 2002. CDMA shares the 1900MHz frequency bands with GSM in
the US but, as mentioned above, spreads each channel across a wider spectrum.
CDMA is currently incompatible with TDMA and GSM, and since most networks are confined
to the US, it does not cater for global roaming.The best features of all three standards are being
brought together to allow inter-operability for the third-generation networks, such as UMTS
(Universal Mobile Telecommunication System) using the IMT-2000 standard.

IS-95 CDMA

PN Sequence

The PN sequenc is generated by the pseudo-random noise generator. It is simply a binary linear
feedback shift register, consisting of XOR gates and a shift register. This PN generator has the
ability to create a sequence identical for both the transmitter and the receiver, and retaining the
desirable properties of the noise randomness bit sequence.
A PN sequence has many features such as having an almost equal number of zeros and ones,
very low correlation between shifted versions of the sequence, and very low cross-correlation
with other signals such as interference and noise. However, it is able to correlate well with itself
and its inverse. Another important aspect is the autocorrelation of the sequence as it determines
the ability to synchronize and lock the spreading code for the received signal. This fight
effectively effects the multiple interference and improves the SNR. M-sequences, Gold codes,
and Kasami sequences are the examples of this class of sequences.
 A Pseudo-random Noise (PN) sequence is a sequence of binary numbers, e.g. ±1, which
appears to be random; but it is in fact, perfectly deterministic.

PN sequences are used for two types of PN spread spectrum techniques −

o Direct Signal Spread Spectrum (DS-SS) and
 o Frequency Hop spread Spectrum (FH-SS).

 If ‘u’ uses PSK for modulating the PN sequence, it results in DS-SS.

 If ‘u’ uses FSK for modulating the PN sequence, it results in FH-SS.

4.6 GSM Architecture:

Follwings are the main components of GSM architecture

Mobile Station (MS)

MS grant access to the GSM network. It is main component of GSM architecture.It contains the
following two components.
1. Mobile Equipment (ME)
2. Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)

Mobile Equipment (ME)

There are number of mobile equipment being used for this architecture. These can be dispositive
portable, mounted on vehicle, held in the hand. Every device has the sound only identified from
a IMEI. These mobile devices are responsible for voice and data transmission simultaneously. It
works at power level 0.8 – 20 W.
Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)

It permits the user whom it sends and who receives calls and to receive others of the subscribed
services. It is main part of gsm GSM architecture. Number details of definition of network like
main Ki, algorithms kc, and A3, A5, and A8. A word of order or a PIN is protecting near. It can
move of the telephone so that it is called by telephone and it contains the key information to
activate the telephone.

Base Transceiver Station (BTS)

The station of receiving transmitter lowers code, calculates multiplex, modulates and introduces
the signals of RF to the antenna. It makes the method of the frequency jump, communicates with
the movable station and BSC. It consists of the units of receiving transmitter (TRx). The LOW
SULFUR CONTENT provides the insurance by radio of GSM in a cell. It implies the radio that
it transmits and that receives equipment and the treatment of the signals associate in GSM
architecture.
Base Station Controller (BSC)

The controller of basic station controls the resources by radio for the LOW SULFUR
CONTENT. He assigns to the frequency and the sections of time for all the ` s of thousandth in
his sector. He also directs the installation of call, functionality of adaptation. He provides to the
delivery for each thousandth and the communication CAM and the LOW SULFUR CONTENT.
BSC also provides the management of the resources by radio. It assigns and it releases to
frequencies and sections of time for all the thousandth in his sector. One takes control
frequencies between cells again.

Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

With air interface BSS provides MS and NSS (Network Station Subsystem). BSS consists of
following elements.
 One or more BTS
 One BSC
 One TRAU (Transcoding Rate and Adaptation Unit)

Main Switching Center (MSC)

The center of main commutation is the heart of the net. The communication between the GSM
and of other nets controls. Draft the function of system of call and the commutation, the advance
of call, the information of invoicing and the collection of base. It is also plays important role
in GSM architecture.
Gateway MSC

The MSC with an interface to other network like Public Switched Telephone (PSTN) is called
gateway main switching center.

Home Location Register (HLR)

A HLR contains given customer as given of account, account position; the preferences
customer, devices have undersigned with to the customer, the current situation of the customer,
etc the data conserved in HLR for the several types of nets are similar but they differ in some
details.

Visitor Location Register (VLR)

A VLR is a disc, similar to a HLR, that it is used by the nets you furnish to the profiles of taken
of temporality for the customers (those are out of their central field). These data of VLR are low
on the searched data customer of a HLR.

Authentication Center (AUC)

AUC look after not in favor of robber or thief during air interface. It keeps the authentication
keys and granted the security triplets. It is normally linked with the HLR.
Equipment Identity Register (EIR)

GSM MS is possible to operate any valid GSM SIM. An opportunity exists for black market and
stolen equipment. To combat this problem EIR is introduce and track such equipment.

4.7 Mobility Management :

Mobility management consists of two related functions: location management and call
routing. Location management is the process of identifying the physical location of the user so
that calls directed to that user can be routed to that location. Location management is also
responsible for verifying the authenticity of users accessing the network. Routing consists of
setting up a route through the network over which data directed to a particular user is sent, and
dynamically reconfiguring the route as the user location changes. In cellular systems location
management and routing are coordinated by the base stations or the central mobile telephone
switching office (MTSO), whereas on the Internet these functions are handled by the Mobile
Internetworking Routing Protocol (Mobile IP).
The location management and routing protocols in Mobile IP and in cellular systems are
somewhat different, but they both use local and remote databases for user tracking,
authentication, and call routing. In cellular systems location management and call routing are
handled by the MTSO in each city. An MTSO is connected to all base stations in its city via
high-speed communication links. The MTSO in each city maintains a home location database for
local users and a visitor location database for visiting users. Calls directed to a particular mobile
unit are routed through the public-switched telephone network to the MTSO in that mobile's
home city. When a mobile unit in the home city turns the handset on, that signal is relayed by the
local base station to the MTSO. The MTSO authenticates the ID number of the mobile and then
registers that user in its home location database. After registration, any calls addressed to that
user are sent to him by the MTSO via one of its base stations.
If a mobile is roaming in a different city, turning the handset on registers the mobile with
the MTSO in the visiting city. Specifically, the mobile's signal is picked up by a local base
station in the visiting city, which relays the signal to the visiting city's MTSO. The visiting city's
MTSO then sends a message to the MTSO in the mobile's home city requesting user
authentication and call forwarding for that user. The MTSO in the mobile's home city
authenticates the mobile's ID number, adds the location of the visiting city's MTSO to its home
location database entry for the visiting mobile, and sends a confirmation message to the visiting
city's MTSO. The visiting mobile is then registered in the visitor location database of the visiting
city's MTSO. After this process is complete, when a call for a visiting mobile arrives at that
mobile's home city, the home city MTSO sets up a circuit-switched connection with the visiting
city's MTSO along which the call is routed. This method of call routing is somewhat inefficient,
since a call must travel from its origin to the home city's MTSO and then be rerouted to the
visiting city. The MTSO also coordinates handoffs between base stations by detecting when a
mobile signal is becoming weak at its current base station and finding the neighboring base
station with the best connection to that mobile.

4.8 Network Signalling :

SS7 is a set of telephony signaling protocols that are used to set up most of the world’s
public switched telephone network (PSTN) telephone calls. SS7 primarily sets up and tears down
telephone calls, but other uses include number translation, prepaid billing mechanisms, local
number portability, short message service (SMS), and a variety of mass-market services.
A worldwide standard for telecommunications defined by the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T).
The SS7 standard defines the procedures and protocol by which network elements in the
public switched telephone network (PSTN) exchange information over a digital signaling
network to enable wireless (cellular) and wireline call setup, routing, and control.
Variants of SS7 American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and Bell Communications
Research (Telcordia Technologies) standards used in North America and the European
Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) standard used in Europe.
The SS7 network and protocol are used for:
• Basic call setup, management, and tear down
• Wireless services such as personal communications services (PCS), wireless roaming,
 and mobile subscriber authentication
• Local number portability (LNP)
• Toll-free (800/888) and toll (900) wireline services
• Enhanced call features such as call forwarding, calling party name/number display, and
threeway calling
• Efficient and secure worldwide telecommunications
• SMS (Short Message Service) Signaling Everything in the telecommunications
network
is based on signaling—call setup, connection, teardown, and billing.
The two forms of signaling that you are most familiar with used by Patton products are:
• Channel Associated Signaling (CAS) RBS or MFR2 are examples of CAS signaling.
Common Channel Signaling (CCS) ISDN-PRI

Signaling Links (Common channel signaling) SS7 messages are 56 or 64 kbps bidirectional
channels called (signaling links) exchanged between network elements. Signaling occurs out-of-
band on dedicated channels rather than in-band on voice channels.
SS7 is a form of common channel signaling, that provides intelligence to the network, and allows
quicker call setup and teardown—saving time and money.
Compared to in-band signaling, out-of-band signaling provides:
• Faster call setup times (compared to in-band signaling using multi-frequency (MF)
signaling tones)
• More efficient use of voice circuits
• Support for Intelligent Network (IN) services which require signaling to network
elements without voice trunks (e.g., database systems)
• Improved control over fraudulent network usage
• Lowering network operating costs by reducing SS7 links.
 4.10 Voice Signal Processing and Coding :

The radio channel is quite different from the wired channel. First, the radio channel has a distinct time-
change characteristic. The radio channel is exposed to the air, so it is vulnerable to the interferences in the air. The
signal is influenced by various interferences, multi-path fading and shadow fading, so the error bit ratio is rather
high.

To solve the problems mentioned above, a series of forward and backward(uplink & downlink) transmission
techniques are applied. The original subscriber data or signaling data are transformed before being carried by the
radio waves. And at the other end of the transmission, a reverse transforming will be done.

This can provide necessary protection to the transmitting signal. The transformation methods roughly include the
channel coding/decoding, interleaving/de-interleaving, burst formatting, encryption/decryption, and
modulation/demodulation. For the voice, to pass an analog-to-digital converter is actually a sampling process in the
rate of 8KHz,
after quantification each 125μs contains 13bit of code stream; then speech coding is performed with every 20ms as
a segment and the code transmission rate is reduced to 13Kbit/s, which becomes 22.8Kbit/s after the channel coding;
then the voice becomes a code stream at 33.8kbit/s after code interleaving, encryption and burst formatting and is
transmitted finally. The processing at the terminal is just the reverse of the above procedures.

5 Spread Spectrum Systems:

Spread spectrum multiple access (SSMA) uses signals which have a transmission bandwidth whose magnitude is
greater than the minimum required RF bandwidth.

There are two main types of spread spectrum multiple access techniques −

 Frequency hopped spread spectrum (FHSS)

 Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)
Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

This is a digital multiple access system in which the carrier frequencies of the individual users are varied in a
pseudo random fashion within a wideband channel. The digital data is broken into uniform sized bursts which is
then transmitted on different carrier frequencies.

FHSS Diagram

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

This is the most commonly used technology for CDMA. In DS-SS, the message signal is multiplied by a Pseudo
Random Noise Code. Each user is given his own code word which is orthogonal to the codes of other users and in
order to detect the user, the receiver must know the code word used by the transmitter.
The combinational sequences called as hybrid are also used as another type of spread spectrum. Time hopping is
also another type which is rarely mentioned.
Since many users can share the same spread spectrum bandwidth without interfering with one another, spread
spectrum systems become bandwidth efficient in a multiple user environment.
 5.1 Cellular code Division Access Systems-Principle :

CDMA is another pure digital technique. It is also known as spread spectrum because it takes the digitized
version of an analog signal and spreads it out over a wider bandwidth at a lower power level. This method is called
direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) as well (Fig. 4). The digitized and compressed voice signal in serial data
form is spread by processing it in an XOR circuit along with a chipping signal at a much higher frequency. In the
cdma IS-95 standard, a 1.2288-Mbit/s chipping signal spreads the digitized compressed voice at 13 kbits/s.

Spread spectrum is the technique of CDMA. The compressed and digitized voice signal is processed in an XOR
logic circuit along with a higher-frequency coded chipping signal. The result is that the digital voice is spread over a
much wider bandwidth that can be shared with other users using different codes.

The chipping signal is derived from a pseudorandom code generator that assigns a unique code to each user of the
channel. This code spreads the voice signal over a bandwidth of 1.25 MHz. The resulting signal is at a low power
level and appears more like noise. Many such signals can occupy the same channel simultaneously. For example,
using 64 unique chipping codes allows up to 64 users to occupy the same 1.25-MHz channel at the same time. At the
receiver, a correlating circuit finds and identifies a specific caller’s code and recovers it.

The third generation (3G) cell-phone technology called wideband CDMA (WCDMA) uses a similar method with
compressed voice and 3.84-Mbit/s chipping codes in a 5-MHz channel to allow multiple users to share the same
band.

5.2 Power Control :

A key characteristic of Internet of Things (IoT) devices is their ability to pass data over a low-energy wireless link.
The sensitive nature of the data that needs to be transmitted and received means measures need to be taken to secure
the link. As well as using encrypted communications, the risk of eavesdropping can be reduced by restricting the
transmit power of nodes on the network and using coding schemes that make the bits difficult to distinguish from
random noise.

As a result, RF sensitivity plays a large role in enhancing security as it allows lower power levels to be used and for
more advanced coding schemes to be employed. However, the demand for reception sensitivity places stringent
demands on the noise levels that can be tolerated within the device. Low-energy radio receivers are typically
susceptible to narrowband noise that is focused on specific frequencies, particularly as the protocols will often use
narrowband channels, making avoidance of the interferer more difficult.
Although it is possible to tune clock sources so that the main causes of internal interference avoid generating
harmonics that interfere with a particular RF transmission band, the demand for flexibility is making this harder to
achieve in practice. White-space radio systems such as Weightless demand that the RF subsystem is frequency agile
– so that at times, the receiver needs to contend with interference generated locally. As a result, the suppression of
electromagnetic interference (EMI) in the circuit design is becoming increasingly important.

A key source of EMI in any electronic system is the power subsystem. Most designs providing stable power rails at
the point of load (POL) have moved from the use of analog low-dropout (LDO) regulators to provide stable power
rails to switched-mode DC/ DC converters. Although switched-mode DC/DC converters provide high efficiency,
maximizing the energy that can be recovered from a single battery charge, their switching behavior can be a major
source of noise. The primary source is the clock used to drive the pulse-width PWM conversion circuitry.

The PWM control method takes a sample of the output voltage and subtracts this from a reference voltage to
establish a small error signal. This error signal is compared to a regular ramp signal driven by an oscillator, which
generally runs at a fixed frequency. The comparator outputs a digital output that operates the power switch. When
the circuit output voltage changes, the error signal also changes and thus cause the comparator threshold to change.
Consequently, the output pulse width also changes. This duty cycle change then moves the output voltage to reduce
the error signal to zero, which completes the control loop.

The regular pulse from PWM as the converter switches on or off in each cycle, depending on the direction of the
ramp signal, causes input noise on both line and neutral nodes at the input stage. This noise manifests itself across
the harmonics of the switching frequency, so it can easily reach up into the RF range used for transmission and
reception. One way to reduce the noise that is coupled to downstream circuits is to use EMI filters. However, these
add cost and weight to the overall system, which, in the case of small IoT and wearable devices, is often
unacceptable.

An increasingly popular alternative to adding components is to make changes to the PWM-based converter itself.
Although the pulses need to be generated on a reasonably regular basis, the capacitance on the output used to
smooth out the voltages on the power rails means that the pulses of energy do not need to be supplied at a precise
time. Instead, the clock signal that drives the PWM circuit can be modulated so that the interference related to that
clock is spread over a wider bandwidth.

The technique was first explored as a means of EMI reduction almost 20 years ago, documented by Hewlett-Packard
engineer Cornelis Hoekstra in the company’s technical journal, primarily to deal with the impact of high harmonics,
which were proving more difficult to shield against and which can adversely affect RF signals and reception quality.
Hoekstra’s paper has become the standard reference for what has become known as spread-spectrum clocking.

Hoekstra saw a greater effect with higher harmonics: “The absolute value of frequency deviation increases linearly
with harmonic number, so that spectral energy is spread over a larger range at higher harmonics, while the width of
the filter over which spectral energy is measured is fixed.”

The first schemes tried by HP were based on very simple square-wave modulation. The result – lag and overshoot in
the circuitry mean that the clock frequency would not simply shift between two discrete values but was not a direct
shift from one frequency. Despite the simplicity of the scheme, it successfully spread the peaks so that equipment
could pass the FCC radiated-emissions tests that HP was concerned about at the time.

Later attempts at spread-spectrum modulation have focused on more sophisticated clock-control techniques, using
sine, triangle wave modulation as well as random modulation. These techniques have now carried over from the
main system clock to the DC/DC converters and other power systems used in noise-sensitive applications.
 Power Control Diagram

5.3 Effects of Multipath Propagation on Code Division Multiple Access.:

In wireless communications, fading is the deviation of the signal attenuation affecting a certain propagation media.
Discoloration may vary with time, the geographical position or frequency of the radio, which is often modeled as a
random process. A fading channel is a communication channel experiencing fading.
Multipath Fading

In wireless systems, fading can be either due to multipath, called as multipath fading or due to shadowing from
obstacles affecting the wave propagation, known as shadow fading. Here in this chapter, we will discuss how
multipath fading affects the reception of signals in CDMA.

Reflection Fading

Fading in CDMA System

CDMA systems use a signal fast chip rate for spreading the spectrum. It has a high time resolution, due to which it
receives a different signal from each path separately. The RAKE receiver prevents signal degradation by summing
all the signals.

Because CDMA has high time-resolution, different paths delay the CDMA signals, which can be
discriminated. Therefore, energy from all paths can be summed by adjusting their phases and path delays. This is a
principle of RAKE receiver. By using a RAKE receiver, it is possible to improve the loss of the received signal due
to fading. It can ensure a stable communication environment.

In CDMA systems, multi-path propagation improves the signal quality by using RAKE receiver.