interpreting is defined, by Otto Kade, as ‘a form of Translation (in the wider sense) in which

(a) the source language text is presented only once and thus cannot be reviewed or replayed,
and (b) the target language text is produced under time pressure, with little chance
for correction and revision’

languages, translation today has several meanings:

(1) the general subject field or phenomenon (‘I studied translation at university’)
(2) the product – that is, the text that has been translated (‘they published the
Arabic translation of the report’)
(3) the process of producing the translation, otherwise known as translating
(‘translation service’).

Source text (ST) – оригінал Target text (TT) переклад

Source language (SL) Мова оригіналу Target language (TL) мова перекладу

Roman Jakobson categories are as follows:

1. intralingual translation, or ‘rewording’ перефразування – ‘an interpretation of verbal
signs by means of other signs of the same language’
2. interlingual translation, or ‘translation proper’ власне переклад – ‘an interpretation of
verbal signs by means of some other language’
3. intersemiotic translation, or ‘transmutation’ трансмутація – ‘an interpretation of verbal
signs by means of signs of non-verbal sign systems’.
semiotics, the general science of communication, through signs and sign systems, of which language is but
one

Intersemiotic translation, for example, occurs when a written text is translated into a different mode, such
as music, film or painting.
Intralingual translation would occur when we produce a summary or otherwise rewrite a text in the same
language, say a children’s version of an encyclopedia. It also occurs when we rephrase an expression in the
same language.
It is interlingual translation, between two different verbal sign systems, that has been the traditional focus
of translation studies.

Role of translate^ studies translane

Throughout history, written and spoken translations have played a crucial role in interhuman
communication, not least in providing access to important texts for scholarship and religious purposes.
As world trade has grown, so has the importance of translation.

James S. Holmes - In the English-speaking world, this discipline is now generally known as ‘translation
studies’, thanks to the

There are four very visible ways in which translation studies has become more prominent. (більш
значуще)
First, just as the demand for translation has soared, so has there been a vast expansion in specialized
translating and interpreting programmes
Second, the past decades have also seen a proliferation of conferences, books and journals on translation in
many languages.
Third, as the number of publications has increased so has the demand for general and analytical
instruments such as anthologies, databases, encyclopedias, handbooks and introductory texts. Their
number is ever-growing.
Fourth, international organizations have also prospered. In more recent years, translation studies scholars
have banded together nationally and internationally in bodies such as the Canadian Association for
Translation Studies

1.3 An early history of the discipline

Writings on the subject of translating go far back in recorded history. The practice of translation was crucial
for the early dissemination of key cultural and religious texts and concepts.
While the practice of translation is long established, the study of the field developed into an academic
discipline only in the latter part of the twentieth century. Before that, translation had often been relegated
to an element of language learning.

n fact, from the late eighteenth century to the 1960s and beyond, language learning in secondary schools in
many countries had come to be dominated by what was known as grammar-translation

Study of a work in translation was generally frowned upon once the student had acquired the necessary
skills to read the original. Grammar-translation therefore fell into increasing disrepute, particularly in many
English-language countries, with the rise of alternative forms of language teaching such as the direct
method and the communicative approach from the 1960s and 1970s.

The communicative approach emphasised learners' natural ability to learn a language and tried to recreate
'authentic' classroom conditions. It often favoured oral over written instruction, at least at the initial stage,
and generally avoided the use of learners' native language. This led to the rejection of translation in
language learning.

concept of the translation workshop. It was based on the readings and practical workshops on criticism of
the Cambridge critic I. A. Richards (1893-1979) from the 1920s. , as well as on later creative writing
workshops. Translation workshops were conceived as a platform for presenting new translations in the
target culture, as well as for discussing the subtle principles of the translation process and textual
understanding.

Another area in which translation became the subject of research was contrastive linguistics. This is the
study of two languages in contrast in an attempt to identify general and specific differences between them

1.4 The Holmes/Toury ‘map’

Теоритетич в теорії
Дискрептив як насправді
A seminal paper in the development of the field as a distinct discipline was James S. Holmes’s ‘The name
and nature of translation studies

Importantly, Holmes proposed a general concept that describes what translation studies encompasses.
the objectives of the ‘pure’ areas of research are:
(1) the description of the
(2) phenomena of translation; and (2) the establishment of general principles to explain and predict
such phenomena (translation theory).
By ‘general’, Holmes is refer-ring to those writings that seek to describe or account for every type of
translation and to make generalizations that will be relevant for translation as a whole
Partial’ theoretical studies are restricted
The descriptive branch of ‘pure’ research in Holmes’s map is known as descriptive translation studies (DTS)
(дескриптивне перекладознавство). It may examine: (1) the product; (2) the function; and (3) the
process.

 Product-oriented DTS examines existing translations. This may involve the description or analysis of
a single ST–TT pair or a comparative analysis of several TTs of the same ST (into one or more TLs).
 By function-oriented DTS, Holmes (ibid.) means the description of the ‘function [of translations] in
the recipient sociocultural situation: it is a study of contexts rather than texts’. Issues that may be
researched include which texts were translated when and where, and the influences that were
exerted.
  Process-oriented DTS in Holmes’s framework is concerned with the psychology of translation, i.e. it
is concerned with trying to find out what happens in the mind of a translator. Work from a
cognitive perspective includes think-aloud protocols

Medium-restricted theories subdivide according to translation by machine

and humans, with further subdivisions according to whether the machine/
computer is working alone (automatic machine translation) or as an aid to the
human translator (computer-assisted translation), to whether the human
translation is written or spoken and to whether spoken translation (inter-
preting) is consecutive or simultaneous.
Area-restricted theories are restricted to specific languages or groups of
languages and/or cultures. Holmes notes that language-restricted theories
are closely related to work in contras-
tive linguistics and stylistics.

Rank-restricted theories are linguistic theories that have been restricted to

a level of (normally) the word or sentence. At the time Holmes was writing, there
was already a trend towards text linguistics, i.e. analysis at the level of the text,
which has since become far more popular
Text-type restricted theories look at discourse types and genres; e.g.
literary, business and technical translation. Text-type approaches came to
prominence with the work of Reiss and Vermeer, among others, in the 1970s
The term time-restricted is, referring to theories and trans lations limited according to specific time frames
and periods. The history of translation falls into this category.
Problem-restricted theories may refer to certain problems such asequivalence

Despite this categorization, Holmes himself is at pains to point out that several different restrictions may
apply at any one time.

The ‘applied’ branch of Holmes’s framework concerns applications to the practice of translation:
 translator training: teaching methods, testing techniques, curriculum design;
 translation aids: such as dictionaries and grammars;
 translation criticism: the evaluation of translations, including the marking of student translations
and the reviews of published translations.

translation policy - the translation scholar advising on the place of translation in society. This should
include what place, if any, it should occupy in the language teaching and learning curriculum.

1.5 Developments since Holmes

1.6 The van Doorslaer ‘map’ Карта" ван Дорслера
was developed for the Benjamins Translation Studies Bibliography, In the new maps, a distinction is drawn
between ‘translation’ and ‘translation studies’, reflecting the different centres of interest of research
Translation" , is divided into:
 lingual mode (interlingual, intralingual);
 media (printed, audiovisual, electronic);
 mode (covert/overt translation, direct/indirect translation, mother tongue/ other tongue
translation, pseudo-translation, retranslation, self-translation, sight translation, etc.);
 field (political, journalistic, technical, literary, religious, scientific, commercial).
 approaches (e.g. cultural approach, linguistic approach);
 theories (e.g. general translation theory, polysystem theory);
 research methods (e.g. descriptive, empirical);
 applied translation studies (criticism, didactics, institutional environment).
 a strategy is the overall orientation of a translated text
procedure is a specific technique used at a given point in a text
1.7 Discipline, interdiscipline or multidiscipline? 1.7 Дисципліна, міждисциплінарна чи
мультидисциплінарна?
the ‘conventional’ disciplines having either a ‘primary’ or a ‘secondary’ relationship to a new interdiscipline.
translation studies (перекладознавство) has the potential for a primary relationship with disciplines such
as:
 linguistics (especially semantics, pragmatics, applied and contrastive linguis- tics, cognitive
linguistics);
 modern languages and language studies;
 comparative literature;
 cultural studies (including gender studies and postcolonial studies);
 philosophy (of language and meaning, including hermeneutics anddeconstruction and ethics);

Summary
Translation studies is an academic research area that has expanded massively
over the years. Translation was formerly studied as a language-learning method-
ology or as part of comparative literature, translation ‘workshops’ and contrastive
linguistics courses. The discipline as we now know it owes much to the work of
James S. Holmes, who proposed both a name and a structure for the field, but
the context has now advanced. The interrelated branches of theoretical, descrip-
tive and applied translation studies initially structured research. Over time the
interdisciplinarity and specialization of the subject have become more evident
and theories and models have continued to be imported from other disciplines
but also forged from within translation studies itself.
(Перекладознавство - це наукова галузь, яка значно розширилася
за останні роки. Раніше переклад вивчали як методику вивчення мови або як частину
порівняльного літературознавства, перекладацьких "майстерень", контрастивних лінгвістики..
Дисципліна, якою ми її знаємо зараз, багато в чому завдячує роботам Джеймса С. Холмса, який
запропонував як назву, так і структуру галузі, але контекст зараз розвинувся.
Взаємопов'язані галузі теоретичного, дескриптивного та прикладного перекладознавства
теоретичного, дескриптивного та прикладного перекладознавства спочатку структурували
дослідження. З часом міждисциплінарність іміждисциплінарність і спеціалізація предмета стали
більш очевидними а теорії та моделі продовжували запозичуватися з інших дисциплін але також і
зсередини самого перекладознавства.)