Geometric design of highways and railways

Geometric design of highways and railways

• refers to the design of the visible dimensionsof such features as
horizontal and vertical alignments, cross sections, super-
elevation and earthworks facilities.

Main objective:
To produce a highway with safe,efficient, and economic traffic
operations while maintaining aesthetic and environmental quality.
Geometric design of highways and railways

Highway Geometric design

The geometric design of roads is the branch of highway

engineering concerned with thepositioning of the physical elements
of the roadway according to standards and constraints.

Basic objective:
To optimize efficiency and safety while minimizingcost and
environmental damage.
Geometric design of highways and railways
Geometric design of highways and railways

Design Vehicles
A selected motor vehicle whose weight, dimensions, and
operatingcharacteristics are used to establish highway design controls to
accommodate vehicles of a designated type.

Design criteria significantly affected by the type of vehicle include:

1. Horizontal and vertical clearances
2. Alignment
3. Lane widening on curves
4. Shoulder width requirements
5. Turning roadway and intersection radii
6. Intersection sight distance
7. Acceleration criteria
Geometric design of highways and railways

Sight Distance
Sight distance is the roadway ahead that is visible to the driver. Various sight
distancecriteria exist in highway geometric design to provide drivers with
sufficient warning of potentialobstacle or conflict ahead. Future obstruction to
sight distance that may develop or beconstructed should be taken into
consideration in the initial design. Areas outside of thehighway right of way that
are not under the highway agency's jurisdiction should be consideredas points
of obstruction
Geometric design of highways and railways

Stopping Sight Distance

• distance ahead that a motorist should be able to see so that the vehicle can be
brought safely to a stop short of an obstruction or foreign object on the road.

• distance will include the driver ’s reaction or perception distance and the
distancetraveled while the brakes are being applied.

Safe stopping sight distances shall be provided continuously on all streets and
highways.The factors, which determine the minimum distance required to stop,
include:
1. Vehicle speed
2. Driver's total reaction time
3. Characteristics and conditions of the vehicle
4. Friction capabilities between the tires and the roadway surface
5. Vertical and horizontal alignment of the roadway
Geometric design of highways and railways

Railway Geometric Design

Geometric Design of Railway Track should be such as to provide maximum efficiency
inthe traffic operation with maximum safety at reasonable cost

Gradient

Any departure of track from the level is known as grade or gradient. The purpose
ofproviding gradient is provide uniform rate of rise or fall, to reduce cost of earth work,
to reachdifferent stations at different level.
Geometric design of highways and railways

Ruling gradient
The steepest gradient allowed on the track section. It determines the max
load that the locomotive can haul that section. The steep gradient needs
more powerful locomotives, smaller train loads, lower speed, resulting in
costly hauling.

§ In plains: 1 in 150 to 1 in 200

§ In hilly regions: 1 in 100 to 1 in 1502.
Geometric design of highways and railways

Momentum Gradient
The gradient on a section which are steeper than the ruling gradient
acquire sufficientmomentum to negotiate them are known as momentum
gradient.

Pusher Gradient
If the ruling gradient is so severe on a section that itneeds the help of extra
engine to pull the same load than this gradient is known as pusher ofhelper
gradient.
Geometric design of highways and railways

Gradient at stations
At stations gradient are provided sufficient low due to following reason:

1. To prevent movement of standing vehicle

2. To prevent additional resistance due to grade.
3. On Indian railways, maximum gradient permitted is 1 in 400 in station
yards
Geometric design of highways and railways

Gradient compensation on curves

If a curve is provided on a track with ruling gradient, the resistance of the
track will beincreased this curve. In order to avoid resistance beyond the
allowable limits, the gradients arereduced on curves. The reduction in
gradient is known as grade compensation for curves.

• BG track: 0.04% per degree of curve

• MG track: 0.03 % per degree of curve
• NG track: 0.02 % per degree of curve
Geometric design of highways and railways

Cross Sections
The AASHTO “Green Book” defines a roadway cross-section as “a vertical section
ofthe ground and roadway at right angles to the centreline of the roadway, including all
elementsof a highway or street from right-of-way line”. Along with the vertical alignment
(grades andvertical curves) and horizontal alignment (tangents and curves), the
roadway cross-sectionhelps to present a three-dimensional roadway model. The
principal elements of a highwaycross section consist of the travel lanes, shoulders, and
medians (for some multilanehighways). Marginal elements include median and
roadside barriers, curbs, gutters, guard rails,sidewalks, cross slope and side slopes.
The primary consideration in the design of geometriccross sections for highways,
runways, and taxiways is drainage. Details vary depending on thetype of facility and
agency.
Geometric design of highways and railways

Travel Lanes or Traffic Lanes

• portion of the roadway for the movement of vehicles, exclusive ofshoulders and
bicycle lanes.
• usually contains two or more lanes for roadway traffic.
• have a great influence on driving comfort, operational characteristics,
crashprobability and level of service.
Geometric design of highways and railways

Shoulders
• portion of the roadway contiguous with the travelled way foraccommodation of
stopped vehicles, for emergency use, and for lateral support of sub base,base and
surface courses.

Some of the more important advantages of providing shoulders are:

1. Space for the motorist to pull completely off the roadway for emergencies.
2. An escape zone to allow motorists to avoid potential accidents or reduce accident severity.
3. An aid to driver comforts by creating a sense of openness; improves highway capacity.
4. An improvement in sight distance in cut sections.
5. A provision to enhance lateral clearance for the placement of signs, guide rails, or
otherroadside appurtenances.
6. Space for pedestrians where there is no sidewalk and for bicycle usage
Geometric design of highways and railways

Medians
• section of a divided highway that separates the lanes in opposingdirections. This area is located
between the edges of opposing travel lanes (including any leftshoulders).
• most important safety features of high-speed highways in both urban and rural areas.

The principal functions of amedian are to:

1. Provide the desired freedom from the interference of opposing traffic.
2. Provide a refuge area for pedestrians and bicyclists.
3. Provide a recovery area for out-of-control vehicles.
4. Provide a stopping area in case of emergencies.
5. Provide for speed changes and storage of left turning and U turning vehicles.
6. Minimize headlight glare.
7. Provide width for future lanes.
8. Add open green space in an urban area.
9. Serve as traffic calming devices on low-speed roadways
Geometric design of highways and railways
Roadside and Median Barriers

A median barrier is defined as a longitudinal system used to prevent an errant

vehiclefrom crossing the portion of a divided highway separating the travelled ways for
traffic inopposite directions.

Roadside barriers, protect vehicles from obstacles orslopes on the roadside. They
also may be used to shield pedestrians and property from thetraffic stream.

The provision of median barriers must be considered when traffic volumes are high
and when access to multilane highways and other highways is only partially controlled.

However, when the median of a divided highway has physical characteristics that
may create unsafe conditions, such as a sudden lateral drop-off or obstacles, the
provision of a medianbarrier should be considered regardless of the traffic volume or
the median width.
Geometric design of highways and railways

Curbs and Gutters

• are raised structures made of either Portland cement concrete or
bituminousconcrete (rolled asphalt curbs) that are used mainly on urban highways to
delineate pavementedges and pedestrian walkways.

• are also used to control drainage, improve aesthetics,and reduce right of way.

• can be generally classified as either vertical or sloping.

• Vertical curbs, range in height from 6 to 8 with steep sides, and are designed to
prevent vehicles fromleaving the highway.

• Sloping curbs are designed so that vehicles can cross them if necessary.
Geometric design of highways and railways

Curb and gutter

Geometric design of highways and railways

Curbs and Gutters

In general, vertical curbs should not be used in conjunction with traffic barriers,such
as bridge railings or median and roadside barriers, because they could contribute
tovehicles rolling over the traffic barriers.

Vertical curbs should also be avoided on highways withdesign speeds greater than
40 mi/h, because at such speeds it is usually difficult for drivers toretain control of the
vehicle after an impact with the curb.
Geometric design of highways and railways

Curbs and Gutters

Gutters or drainage ditches are usually
located on the pavement side of a curb
toprovide the principal drainage facility for the
highway. They are sloped to prevent any
hazardto traffic, and they usually have cross
slopes of 5 to 8 percent and are 1 to 6 ft.
wide. Gutterscan be designed as V-type
sections or as broad, flat, rounded sections
Geometric design of highways and railways
Guard Rails
• longitudinal barriers placed on the outside of
sharp curves and atsections with high fills.

• main function is to restrain and redirect errant

vehicles and prevent them from leaving the
roadway.

• are installed at embankments higher than 8

ft.and when shoulder slopes are greater than 4:1.

• Shapes commonly used include the W beamand

the box beam. The weak post system provides
for the post to collapse on impact, with therail
deflecting and absorbing the energy due to
impact
Geometric design of highways and railways

Sidewalks
• usually provided on roads in urban areas,
but are uncommon in rural areas.

• provision of sidewalks in rural areas

should be evaluated during theplanning
process to determine sections of the road
where they are required.

Generally, sidewalks should be provided

when pedestrian traffic is high along main or
high-speed roads ineither rural or urban
areas. When shoulders are not provided on
arterials, sidewalks are necessary even
when pedestrian traffic is low.
Geometric design of highways and railways

Sidewalks

In urban areas, sidewalks should also beprovided along both sides of collector streets
that serve as pedestrian access to schools, parks,shopping centers, and transit stops,
and along collector streets in commercial areas.

Sidewalks should have a minimum clear width of 4 ft. in residential areas and a range
of 4 to 8ft. in commercial areas.

To encourage pedestrians to use sidewalks, they should have all-weather surfaces

since pedestrians will tend to use traffic lanes rather than unpaved sidewalks
Geometric design of highways and railways

Cross slope
Pavements on straight sections of two-lane and
multilane highways without medians are sloped from
the middle downward to both sides of the highway,
resulting in a transverse orcross slope, with a cross
section shape that can be curved, plane or a
combination of the two.

Plane: Slope break at crown line, Uniform slope

on each side

Rounded: Parabolic cross-section, Rounded

surface at crown lineIncreasing slope toward edges
Geometric design of highways and railways

Side slopes
• adjoin the roadway shoulder and are
located between the edge of theshoulder
and the right-of-way boundary.

• are also provided on embankments and

fills to provide stability for earthworks.
Geometric design of highways and railways

Side slopes
When being considered as a safety feature, the important sections of the cross slope
are the hinge point, the fore slope, and the toe of the slope.

1. The hinge point should be rounded since it is potentially hazardous and maycause
vehicles to become airborne while crossing it, resulting in loss of control of the
vehicle.

2. The fore slope serves principally as a recovery area, where vehicle speeds can be
reducedand other recovery manoeuvres taken to regain control of the vehicle.

3. The Toe of Slope is theintersection of fore slope with level ground or back slope and
usually within clear zone andimpacted by vehicle
Geometric design of highways and railways
Geometric design of highways and railways

Horizontal and Vertical Alignment

• The horizontal alignment of a roadway should be designed to provide motorists with

afacility for driving in a safe and comfortable manner.

• Adequate stopping sight distance should be furnished. Also, changes in direction should
be accompanied by the use of curves and superelevation when appropriate in
accordance with established guidelines.

• Some changes inalignment are slight and may not require curvature.

• The standard of alignment selected for a particular section of highway should extend
throughout the section with no sudden changes from easy to sharp curvature.
Geometric design of highways and railways

Horizontal and Vertical Alignment

Maximumcurvature should not be used in the following locations:

1. High fills or elevated structures.

2. The lack of surrounding objects reduces the driver'sperception of the roadway
alignment.
3. At or near a crest in grade
4. At or near a low point in a sag or grade
5. At the end of long tangents
6. At or near intersections, transit stops, or points of ingress or egress
7. At or near other decision points
Geometric design of highways and railways

Design of Horizontal alignment

Various design elements to be considered in the horizontal elements are

Design Speed
• The design speed is the main factor in which geometric design elements depends.
• The design speed of roads depends upon the class of the road and the terrain
Geometric design of highways and railways

Horizontal Curve
A horizontal highway curve is a curve in plan to provide change in direction to
thecentral line of a road.The centrifugal frorce on a vehicle negotiating a
horizontal curve has two factors:

1. Tendency to overturn the vehicle outwards about the outer wheels

2. Tendency to skid the vehicle laterally, outwards
Geometric design of highways and railways

Widening of Pavement on Horizontal Curves

On horizontal curves, especially when they are Less than 300m radii, it is
common to widen the pavement slightly more than the normal width. Widening
is needed for the following reasons:

a. An automobile has a rigis wheel base and only the front wheels can be
turned, whenthis vehicle takes turn to negotiate a horizontal curve, the rear
wheel do not follow thesame path as that of the front wheels. This
phenomenon is called off tracking.

b. While two vehicles cross or overtake at horizontal curve there is

psychological tendencyto maintain a greater clearance between the vehicle
for safety
Geometric design of highways and railways

Widening of Pavement on Horizontal Curves

On horizontal curves, especially when they are Less than 300m radii, it is
common to widen the pavement slightly more than the normal width. Widening
is needed for the following reasons:

c. For greater visibility at curve, the driver have tendency not to follow the
central path ofthe lane, but to use the outer side at the beginning of the curve.

d. At higher speed superelevation and lateral friction cannot counteract

centrifugal forceand skidding may occur.
Geometric design of highways and railways

Vertical Alignment
The selection of vertical alignment should be predicated to a large extent upon the
following criteria:
• Obtaining maximum sight distances.
• Limiting speed differences (particularly for trucks and buses) by reducing
magnitude andlength of grades.
• A "hidden dip" which would not be apparent to the driver must be avoided.
• Steep grades and sharp crest vertical curves should be avoided at or near
intersections.
• Flat grades and long gentle vertical curves should be used whenever possible.
Geometric design of highways and railways

Vertical Alignment
The vertical alignment of a highway influences:

1. Vehicle speed
2. Acceleration and deceleration
3. Sight distance.
4. vehicle operation cost.
5. Comfort while travelling at hight speed
Geometric design of highways and railways

Tangent Grades
• are designated according to their slopes or grades.
• the effect of a steep grade is to slow down the heavier vehicles and increase
operating costs.
• The effect of the slowing of the heavier vehicles depends on the situation,
and is often more a matter of traffic analysis than simple geometric design.
Geometric design of highways and railways

Vertical curves
• Vertical curves are required when the algebraic difference of intersecting
grades exceeds the values of maximum change in grade.

Two classifications:
1. Summit curves or crest curves
• Length of summit curve
while designing the length the parabolic summit curves, it is necessary to
consider ssdand osd separately.
length of summit curve for stopping sight distance (ssd):
Geometric design of highways and railways

Vertical curves
• Vertical curves are required when the algebraic difference of intersecting
grades exceeds the values of maximum change in grade.

Two classifications:
2. Valley curves or sag curves
The important factors to considered in valley curve design are:
a. Impact free movement of vehicles at design speed or comfort to passenger.
b. Providing adequate sight distance under head lights of vehicles for night
driving.
c. Locating lowest point of valley curve for providing suitable cross drainage
facilities
Geometric design of highways and railways

Super- elevation
In the design of highway curves, it is necessary to establish a proper
relationship between curvature of the roadway and design speed. The use of
superelevation (rotation ofthe roadway about its axis) is employed to counteract
centrifugal force and allow drivers tocomfortably and safely travel through
curves at the design speed.
Advantages of providing Super elevation:
1. Super elevation is provided to achieve the higher speed of vehicles.
2. It increases the stability of fast-moving vehicles when they pass through a horizontal curve,and it also
decreases the stresses on the foundation.
3. In the absence of super elevation on the road along curves, potholes are likely to occur atthe outer
edge of the road.
4. The Indian Road Congress (IRC) has prescribed the max value of Super Elevation is 1 in15
Geometric design of highways and railways

Although superelevation is advantageous for traffic operations, various

factors combineto make its use impractical in many built-up areas. Such
factors include:

1. Wide pavement areas

2. Need to meet grade of adjacent property
3. Surface drainage considerations
4. Frequency of cross streets, alleys, and driveway
Geometric design of highways and railways

Earthworks
Earthworks are engineering works created through the moving and/or processing ofmassive
quantities of soil or unformed rock. Earthwork is done to reconfigure the topography ofa site to
achieve the design levels. Earthwork involves cutting and filling to achieve therequired
topography.
Geometric design of highways and railways

Earthworks

• Cutting is the process of excavating earth material from a work location to achieve
thedesired topography.
• Filling is the process of moving the excavated material or additional earth material to awork
location to achieve the desired topography
Geometric design of highways and railways

Earthworks

Applications of Earthwork Typically, earthwork is done in the

following projects:

• Road works
• Railways
• Irrigation project such as canals and dams
• Other common earthwork applications are land grading to reconfigure
the topography of asite, or to stabilize slopes
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