LESSON 1 :BASIC CONCEPT OF DISASTER AND

DISASTER RISK
WIDESPREAD SITUATION OR CONDITION
When does a natural event become a hazard?  Damages to bridges, tunnels, pavements and
highway infrastructure
• Natural event becomes hazards if it poses a threat to
people.  Damages to structure like houses and various
When does a hazard become a disaster? buildings (church, office and buildings)
DISRUPTED COMMUNITY FUNCTION
• Hazards become a disaster if it hits a vulnerable
populated area.  Transportation
 Housing, business, health car
DISASTER
1. Disasters should be results of the interaction 2. VIRUS
between physical events such as earthquakes and • A virus is an infectious agent that can only
typhoons and the vulnerability of a population replicate within a host organism. Viruses can
including its infrastructure, environment, and infect a variety of living organisms, including
economy. bacteria, plants, and animals. Viruses are so
2. They are caused by natural or manmade events small that a microscope is necessary to visualize
wherein communities experience sever danger and them, and they have a very simple structure
incur loss of lives and properties causing disruption
to their social structure and to all or some of the WIDESPREAD SITUATION OR CONDITION
affected communities’ essential functions.  Community infection
3. Disasters are emergencies that cannot be handled by DISRUPTED COMMUNITY FUNCTION
those affected without outside assistance.  Businesses, transportation, health care
4. Disasters are inevitable.  School, church service
5. They are caused by unsustainable development that
has not taken account of possible hazard impacts in 3. OIL SPILL
that location. • An oil spill is the release of a liquid petroleum
6. They can be less damaging if the population has hydrocarbon into the environment, especially
better understanding of locally-experienced hazards the marine ecosystem, due to human activity,
and implements preventive or mitigating measures and is a form of pollution. The term is usually
against them. given to marine oil spills, where oil is released
into the ocean or coastal waters, but spills may
SOME COMMON CAUSES OF DISASTER AND AFFECTED also occur on land.
SOCIAL FUNCTION
1. EARTHQUAKE WIDESPREAD SITUATION OR CONDITION
• Earthquakes constitute one of the worst natural  Water pollution
hazards which often turn into disaster causing  Imbalanced ecosystem
widespread destruction and loss to human life. DISRUPTED COMMUNITY FUNCTION
• The effects of earthquake vary upon the magnitude  Fishing livelihood
and intensity.
• Earthquakes occur every now and then all round the 4. DYNAMITE FISHING
world, except in some places where earthquakes • Blast fishing, also known as dynamite fishing, is a
occur rarely. highly destructive, illegal method of catching
• The devastation of cities and towns is one of the fish which uses dynamite or other types of
effects of earthquake. explosives to send shock-waves through the
water, stunning or killing fish which are then
WHAT IS EARTHQUAKE? collected and sold.
 An Earthquake is the result of a sudden release of
energy in the earth’s crust that creates seismic WIDESPREAD SITUATION OR CONDITION
waves. The seismic activity of an area refers to the  Coral reefs destruction
frequency, type and size of earthquakes experienced  Imbalanced ecosystem
over a period of time.
DISRUPTED COMMUNITY FUNCTION 3. Capacity to cope
 Fishing livelihood
HAZARD
 Is an event of occurrence that has the potential to
cause harm to life and damage property and the
5. ILLEGAL LOGGING environment.
• Illegal logging is the harvesting, processing,
transporting, buying or selling of timber in EXPOSURE
contravention of national and international  Refers to people, property, systems or other
laws. It has a devastating impact on some of the elements present in the hazard zones.
world's most valuable remaining forests, and on VULNERABILITY
the people who live in them and rely on the  Refers to the characteristics and circumstances of a
resources that forests provide. community, system or asset that increase the
chances of suffering from a disaster.
WIDESPREAD SITUATION OR CONDITION CAPACITIES
 Deforestation  Refers to the combination of all the strengths,
 Imbalanced ecosystem attributes and resources available within a
community or organization that can be used to
DISRUPTED COMMUNITY FUNCTION handle a bad situation or a disaster.
 Various industries relying on natural resources.

6. IMPROPER GARBAGE DISPOSAL

• Improper waste disposal is the disposal of waste
in a way that has negative consequences for the
environment. Examples include littering,
hazardous waste that is dumped into the
ground, and not recycling items that should be
recycled.

WIDESPREAD SITUATION OR CONDITION

 Air, water and land pollution
DISRUPTED COMMUNITY FUNCTION
 Public health

DISASTER RISK
 is a term used to refer to the chances or probability
to suffer from the effects of a disaster. It is also used
to describe the possible losses in lives, health, status,
livelihood, assets and services that a community may
suffer in the future based on certain factors or
conditions

RISK ASSESSMENT
 Estimates the impacts that a hazard would have on
people, services, facilities and structures.

DISASTER RISK= HAZARD X EXPOSURE X VULNERABILITY

FACTORS THAT MAY INCREASE OR DECREASE DISASTER RISK

OR CHANCES OF SUFFERING FROM A DISASTER:
1. Exposure to hazard
2. Vulnerability
LESSON 2: NATURE AND EFFECTS OF DISASTER • This include collapsed or damage to the
facilities such as bridges, buildings, hospital,
TWO TYPES OF DISASTER housing, irrigation, port, power supplies,
1. Natural disaster roads, school, sewage, telecommunication
and water supply
2. Man-made disaster

NATURAL DISASTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

 Natural disasters often strike without warning, • This include destruction of animal habitat,
though most areas know what is “normal” for their environmental pollution, ozone layer
areas and prepare such occurrences. depletion, environmental degradation, loss
 Assessing is done by reviewing the history of the of biodiversity, climate change, acid change
region, looking at what weather and other disasters and global warming.
have occurred in the past.
 Some natural disasters occur with more warning 5. ECONOMIC PROBLEMS
than volcanic eruption or earthquake. As PAGASA • This includes economics shutdown,
saw in 2021 with Typhoon Odette, there is often bankruptcy, loss of labor, loss of assets and
enough warning to prepare for the disaster and loss of properties.
evacuate citizens when necessary
 Natural disasters are such things as earthquakes, HUMAN ASPECTS AFFECTED BY DISASTER
tsunamis, pandemic flu outbreaks and tornados. 1. PHYSICAL
MAN-MADE DISASTERS
• During an earthquake, falling objects, sharp
 There are some man-made disasters that occur or objects, intense ground shaking can cause
can occur with some warning such as knowing that a physical injury.
dam is weak and without proper mitigation, it will
• In a contaminated floodwater, bacteria can
break releasing a flood.
enter the body through wounds or cuts and
 However, most of the serious man-made disasters can cause illness to us.
are the result of unexpected accidents or deliberate
acts of terrorism.
2. EMOTIONAL
 For example., an oil tanker running aground or a
powerplant blowing up, and a war. • these emotions are usually triggered by
negative situations. And when the negative
 Man-made disasters include anything that a human
situation is over, these emotions usually go
being has done to cause a disasters such as acts of
away.
bioterrorism, hijackings and war.
• However, disaster can affect a person
EFFECTS OF DISASTERS IN ONE’S LIFE emotionally when the negative emotions
continue to linger even when the situation
1. HUMAN PROBLEM
has improved.
• This includes physical injury, mental health
problem, illness, disease loss of life and
forced migration. 3. PSYCHOLOGICAL
• The extreme negative conditions such as
deaths, collapsed buildings, fire incident, poor
2. PUBLIC HEALTH PROBLEM access to food and water can be very scary,
dangerous and overwhelming.
• This includes poor sanitation (access to
• These conditions can cause psychological
clean drinking water and adequate
effects which include mental stress, trauma,
wastewater disposal), increasing breeding
post-traumatic disorder to a person.
ground for infectious and emerging disease,
limited or lack of life-saving medications
and equipment, isolation from rescue and 4. SOCIO-CULTURAL
emergency healthcare services • Disaster can bring the best in people through
their habits, traditions beliefs and values.
3. DAMAGE TO INFRASTRUCTURE
 • The spirit of mutual support called “bayanihan  PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES – it pertains to the
spirit”, unique to Filipinos, take place in a mental capacity and health of an individual to deal
community during a disaster. with disasters. Age, perception, and self-capacity are
• Each member of the community participates in some of the points of considerations.
cleaning the community, rebuilding and  SOCIO-CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES – it involves
providing care to those people’s beliefs, religion, traditions, social status,
affected in his own little way and perceptions within a community with respect to
considering their response to disaster.
5. POLITICAL  ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVES – it involves income,
assets and liabilities, and economic class of an
• Disaster can affect people politically through
individual or a community in the society.
projects, policies, regulations, and laws which
will be implemented to cope with the damage  POLITICAL PERSPECTIVES – it involves structure of
caused by the distraction. the government, issues in diplomacy, etc. in dealing
with disasters.
• During a pandemic, government may issue a
community lockdown in which all people have to  BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES – it involves the role of
stay at home. All activities such as travels, social flora (plants) and fauna (animals) in the
gatherings, church services, schools, public environment, diseases, health, etc.
transportation, shopping, restaurants, and
hotels may be closed or
restricted under a community lockdown

6. ECONOMIC
• Disaster can affect people economically when
the buying and selling are interrupted. All
businesses essentially operate through
production, consumption and distribution of
goods and services.
• If a disaster like earthquake destroys major
roads for distribution of foods, then the disaster
has affected the community economically.
• If there would be an outbreak of diseases in
pigs, people may not buy pork products. This
situation affected the consumption of products
and affected the economic aspect of people
through their livelihood from selling pork
products

7. BIOLOGICAL
• Disaster can affect us biologically through the
emergence of diseasecausing virus, bacteria,
protozoa, parasite, fungus.
• Disaster can also allow certain animals to survive
in contaminated or polluted areas such as
insects which can cause illness.

 PHYSICAL PERSPECTIVES – it describes observable

objects in a building/infrastructure which include
durability of building, fire exits availability, and
absence or presence of an important objects that
would help or harm you in any ways.
LESSON 3: VULNERABILITY: ITS DEFINITION AND • Is the susceptibility of individuals,
THE VULNERABLE SECTORS IN THE SOCIETY communities, businesses and governments
to absorb the effects of a hazard event
VULNERABILITY
THE VULNERABLE SECTORS OF THE SOCIETY
 “degree of loss to each element should a hazard of a
given severity occur”- UNDP  Low Income  Occupation
 Educational Attainment
 Refers to the characteristics and circumstances of
people, community, system or properties that  Demographic Indicators
increases the chances of suffering from a disaster  Young people
 Aging People
1. SUSCEPTBILITY- Refers to your proximity and  Pregnant Women
exposure to a hazard.  People with pre-existing medical condition
2. PROXIMITY- Your physical closeness to a hazard
zone.
3. EXPOSURE -Refers to your physical presence in the
hazard zone.
4. RESILIENCE- Refers to your ability to adjust and
recover.
5. CAPACITY- All resources utilized to handle an
incident or to cope with the effects of a disaster.
6. PREPAREDNESS- Actions taken before a disaster
happens.
7. RESPONSE- Appropriate actions taken during or after
a disaster to help lessen the negative effects.

SOCIAL, ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECONOMIC FACTORS OF

VULNERABILITY

1. SOCIAL
• Below is the list of the most vulnerable
population:
a. People with disabilities
b. Children
c. Seniors
d. Medication-dependent individuals
e. Women, especially those who are single, single
parents or the unemployed
f. Ethnic minorities, aboriginal or indigenous people
g. Homeless or street people
h. Incarcerated individuals
i. Marginalized group

2. ENVIRONMENTAL
• Example: poor environmental
management, overconsumption of natural
resources, decline of risk regulating
ecosystem services, climate change
3. ECONOMIC
LESSON 4: TYPES OF VULNERABILITIES LESSON 5: THE CONCEPT OF HAZARD

TYPES OF VULNERABILITIES Hazard

1. Physical Vulnerability  “a dangerous phenomenon, substance, human
 Refers to the design and condition of a facility or activity or condition that may cause loss of life,
equipment that makes it inadequate to safe injury or other health impacts, property
standards or makes it more susceptible to a damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social
hazard. and economic disruption, or environmental
EXAMPLE: poorly designed or maintained buildings damage”- UN office of Disaster Risk Reduction
(2009)

2. Social Vulnerability
What are hazards?
 Refers to the characteristics which makes
someone or something susceptible to certain 1. Frequency of its occurrence
hazard in terms of demographic and 2. The amount, strength, and coverage of its impacts
socioeconomic profile. 3. Natural and manmade or socio natural
 This type of vulnerability also includes the
customs, beliefs, and practices of the society. Types of Hazards
EXAMPLE: Nature of Society, Demographic 1. Natural Hazards
profile, practices or customs  natural processes or phenomena
 can be described and measured based on the
3. Economic Vulnerability frequency of its occurrence.
 Refers to the system, program, activities, or 2. Geological or Geophysical Hazards
regulation of business which leads to financial
 Geological events and conditions that may cause
loss.
danger to communities and environment.
EXAMPLE: Lack of insurance for protection of assets,
lack of preparedness to disaster 3. Hydrometeorological Hazard
 These processes or phenomena involve the
4. Environmental Vulnerability earth’s atmosphere and water resources.

 Refers to the environmental degradation and  Results of water cycle

depletion of natural resources. EXAMPLE: Lack 4. Biological Hazards
of environmental regulations, Preservations and  Events and processes that have organic origin or
Environmental Laws are transported by living vectors.
5. Technological or Man-made Hazards
 Caused by technological or industrial conditions
and human activities that may cause injury,
death or other health-related effects, damage to
properties and the environment, and economic
and social disturbances.
6. Socio-natural Hazards
 Some natural events and processes may have
increased and worse occurrence as effects of
human actions
  Roman numeral rating is given to the
LESSON 6: EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS earthquake to represent its intensity
 Phivolcs Earthquake Intensity Scale (PEIS)
Earthquake
 sudden vibration on the earth’s surface due to
the release of energy from the movement of Earthquake Hazards
rocks underground. 1. Ground Shaking
Types  It is what we feel when energy built up by the
of Earthquakes application of stress to the lithosphere is
1. Tectonic Earthquake released by faulting during an earthquake.
 Where two plates interact  May result to collapse of roads, bridges,
buildings, dams, etc.
2. Volcanic Earthquake
 Movement of magma  1968 Casiguran Earthquake or Ruby Tower II-
268 occupants of the 6-storey apartment
Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology building
(Phivolcs)  1990 Luzon Earthquake- 1,600 deaths
 government agency that monitors earthquake, 2. Ground Rupture
as well as volcanic actives  Due to the movement of rocks along the fault,
Plate or tectonic plates deformation on the ground along the fault
 refer to the massive broken pieces of the planes may be seen.
lithosphere.
Fault Types of Fault
1. Normal fault
 crack or fracture on the earth’s crust
Fault line  Involves mainly downward movement of the
ground across the fault called the hanging wall.
 portion of the fault that can be traced,
2. Thrust fault
measured and mapped on the surface
Focus or hypocenter  Upward movement of the hanging wall.
 portion along the fault, deep within the earth, 3. Strike-slip fault
where an earthquake originates.  Involves a dominantly horizontal shifting of the
Epicenter ground
 portion of the earth’s surface directly above the
focus. Liquefaction
Seismic Wave  Due to the shaking of the ground, water from a
nearby source mixes with the soil.
 The energy released by the earthquake travels
as seismic waves.
How does liquefaction occur?
Two Types: 1. Vibration rearranges sand particles from a loose
arrangement of grains into more compact state.
1. P-waves
2. Once the pressure exceeds the weight of overlying
 Primary waves travel at the greatest velocity.
material, water is released and causes the sediment
2. S-waves grains to separate as they are pushed apart.
 secondary waves travel slower than P-waves. 3. Sediments become more mobile and attain a jelly -
Magnitude like consistency.
 describes the relative energy of an earthquake
as detected by seismograph. Earthquake Induced Landslide
 hindu -arabic number  When the ground shakes, it makes the rock and
Intensity the soil more loose and easier to fall down.
 Describes how strong the earthquake as felt by  Areas near hills, mountains or slopes are exposed
the people. to this hazard
Types of Landslide
1. Topples
 Occur suddenly when a massive part of very
steep slopes break loose and rotate forward
2. Rock Falls
 Involved chunks of detached rock that fall freely
for some distance or bounce and roll down the
steep slope

3. Slides
 Involved large blocks of bedrock that break free
and slide down along a planar or curved surface
4. Lateral Spreads
 Are triggered by earthquakes and affect gentle
slopes with less than 10 degrees inclination.
 Slope material loses cohesion though
liquefaction caused by the shaking during
earthquakes.
5. Flows
 Involved downslope motion of fine grained clay,
silt and fine sand made mobile by water
saturation.
 These flows include mudflows and earthflows
6. Complex Slide
 Are combinations of two or more types of
movement.
7. Tsunami
 When earthquake occur on the sea or the ocean
floor, it pushes the water creating a huge wave
called tsunami
Lesson 7: FAULTS AND VOLCANOES IN THE has higher possibility of generating strong
PHILIPPINES earthquakes.
 The WVF’s last recorded movement happened in
Finding the Epicenter of an Earthquake QUESTION: 1658; experts warn that a major earthquake,
How do you think Phivolcs determine the epicenter commonly referred to as “The Big One” could
of an earthquake? happen.
 Seismologists in Phivolcs use the method called  They say that this movement happen once in
triangulation. every 400-500 years.
The Faults and Trenches in the Philippines   With the highest possible magnitude of 7.2, it
Most of the earthquake are in red. may kill 34,000 people if residents will be caught
 Based on the size of the circles, the earthquake unprepared.
commonly have a magnitudes between 1-4;  A 5-meter buffer zone from the fault line must
 As it was noted by Phivolcs, the number these be observed when building infrastructure near
kinds of earthquakes reach from 100-150 every it. The map on the left shows the portions of
year Metro Manila that is transected by WVF.

six major trenches found on the ocean and seas that VOLCANISM AND ITS HAZARD
surround the Philippines volcano
1. Manila Trench  A volcano is an opening on the earth’s surface
2. Philippine Trench where molten rocks called lava, hot rocks, ash,
3. East Luzon Trough and gases come out.
4. Negros Trench  Most of volcanoes have mountain-like feature
5. Cotabato Trench because of the squeezing of the crust and the
6. Sulu Trench. accumulation of materials that they release.

PARTS OF VOLCANO
NOTE: 1. Main vent
 The movement on these trenches can generate  it is an opening on the earth’s crust where
tsunami. molten rocks and other volcanic materials pass
through; it is the main passage of materials form
 While there are many fault lines in the country,
the magma chamber to the surface.
they are divided into segments: the Northern
Philippine Fault, the Mindanao Fault, the Central 2. Crater
Philippine Fault and the Marikina/Valley Fault  also known as the mouth of the volcano; it is the
System. depression found at the end of the vent where
 These trenches and faults were formed mostly materials are ejected.
because of the collision of the Philippine Sea 3. Secondary vent
Plate with the Eurasian Plate.  on large volcanoes, many passageways may
 The 90–135 km-long Marikina Valley Fault form; secondary vents may branch out from the
System, one of the major fault segments, is main vent.
comprised of the East and West Valley Faults 4. Magma chamber
(EVF and WVF, respectively).  this is the storage of molten rocks deep within
 The WVF cut through the eastern portion of the volcano.
Metro Manila; it possesses a notable earthquake 5. Cone
danger to Metro Manila and its neighboring  it is the mountainous or hilly portion that
provinces. surrounds a volcano; it is formed from the
squeezing of the plates and the accumulatio of
The Big One volcanic materials. Although not all, most
 According to Department of Science and volcanoes have this feature.
Technology - Philippine Institute of Volcanology 6. Lava flow
and Seismology, an active fault which did not
have a historical ground rupturing earthquake
  molten rocks within a volcano are called magma;  long cracks in the rocks where lava and volcanic
once they are released to the surface, they are materials ooze; the crack was formed from
called lava. divergent plate movement.
7. Ash cloud
 During volcanic activity, volcanoes may release a According to Type Eruption
cloud of gas, ash and pieces of volcanic rocks 1. Magmatic
called tephra.  it is magma-driven characterized mostly by
ejection of molten rocks and pyroclastic
Types of Volcanos and Volcanic Eruption materials.
1. Active 2. Phreatic
 They erupted within the last 600 years based on  It is steam-driven. The water from a nearby
history documented by man or if it has erupted source such as aquifer (groundwater) or crater
within the last 10,000 years based on the lake is heated rapidly by magma underneath
analysis of volcanic rock deposits. Example: Mt. causing the ejection of steam carrying ash and
Mayon tephra.
2. Potentially active 3. Phreatomagmatic
 These are young-looking, or newly formed  This type of eruption is a combination of lava,
volcanoes but has no records of eruption pyroclastic materials, and steam.
whether based on historical or analytical data.
Example: Mt. Apo VOLCANIC HAZARDS
3. Inactive or dormant 1. Lava Flow
 These volcanoes have no record of eruption, and  A lava flow or simply lava is a product of the
their physical forms was changed by erosion and
quiet effusion of molten rock or magma from
weathering such as the formation of deep and
beneath a volcano.
long water channels. Although, they may still
show signs of the presence of magma within by  When a lava flow comes out of a volcanic vent,
emission of gases and presence of hot springs. its temperature ranges from 700-1200 degree
Example: Mt. Makiling Celsius.

4. Extinct 2. Volcanic Gases

 This type of volcanoes is considered unlikely to  Majority of the gas released by volcanoes is
erupt again because they do not have magma steam or water vapor which can push the rock
supply anymore. fragments violently forming pyroclastic flow,
Example: Mt. Guinsiliban ballistic projectile and ash clouds.
 It also contains toxic gases such as carbon
According to Shape and Composition monoxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide et
1. Shield Cone cetera.

 It has a wide base and gentle slope formed from  These gases form acidic solution when mixed
accumulation of after quiet eruptions; it looks with water; that is why water sources near the
like a turned over shield. volcano becomes acidic before, during, and after
eruption.
2. Cinder Cone
3. Pyroclastic Flows
 It has narrow base and steep slope formed by
the accumulation of pycroclasts or tephra (solid  If you find a slow-moving, glowing hot lava flow,
rock fragments) after violent eruptions. consider its fragmented version that is not only
as hot also but moves tremendously fast.
3. Composite or stratovolcano
 By its heat, speed and volume, none has ever
 tall, cone-shaped volcano formed from
been close to describing how dangerous
accumulation of lava and tephra due to
pyroclastic flows are.
alternating quiet and violent eruptions.
4. Ballistic Projective
4. Fissure Volcano
 This is almost like pyroclastic flow, but the
direction of ejection is upward.
  The size of tephra can be as fine as sand,
medium size like pebbles (called cinders) or
huge (called blocks and bombs).
5. Lahar
 A lahar is the process wherein wet cement-like
mixture of volcanic material and water flows
down the slopes of a volcano.
 Lahar usually carries fresh eruption material like
pyroclastic flows and tephra fall.
 It also picks older volcanic deposits along the
river channel. Even though lahars are
debrisladen, like wet concrete, these are quite
mobile.
6. Volcanic Debris Avalanche
 Is a landslide that occur in volcanic slopes.
 A debris avalanche is not your ordinary
landslide. Compared with non-volcanic
landslides, debris avalanche are faster and their
deposits more far-reaching.
LESSON 8: SIGNS AND HAZARDS MAPS OF b. What used to be white steam slowly or
VOLCANIC ERUPTION drastically change to gray to dark suggests
increasing presence of ash
Signs of Impending Volcanic Eruption c. Drying up of vegetation, drying up of streams,
water wells
1. Ground Deformation
d. Crater glow at the summit area
 refers to surface changes on a volcano, such as
e. Increasing frequency of rolling rocks from the
subsidence (sinking), tilting, or bulge formation,
summit; localized landslides not related to heavy
due to the movement of magma below the
rains
surface
f. Summit area appears to glow or becomes
 Electronic Distance Meter (EDM) to measure
incandescent at night
accurately to millimeter changes on ground if
2. Auditory
the slope for the volcano swells.
a. Hear rumbling noise
 Deformation on ground is also measured using
3. Olfactory
data of repeated measurements from
permanent Global Positioning System (GPS) a. Smell of sulfur
installed around the volcano. 4. Tactile
 Use of remote sensing images also help a. Ground movement/ volcanic earthquake
compare before and after features. increasingly become felt

Geochemistry Volcano Alert Levels

1. Alert Level 0 (Quiet or No Alert)
 Equipment/Instrument/Tools
 Direct measurement of temperature and  CRITERIA: All monitored parameters within
chemistry ground water, spring water or lakes background levels. Unremarkable level of
(using a thermometer /thermocouple, pH volcanic earthquakes occurring within the
meter) volcano area. Generally weak steam emission.
 Gas being emitted by volcanic can be measured  INTERPRETATION/RECOMMENDATION:
directly by gas monitoring equipment Quiescence; no magmatic eruption is
foreseen. However, there are hazards 1
 Collect gas and water samples from vents and
(explosions, rockfalls and landslides) that may
fumaroles and analyze in the laboratory using
suddenly occur within the fourkilometer radius
XRay Flourescence (XRF)
Permanent Danger Zone (PDZ)
 Remote monitoring/Gas monitoring equipment
(COSPEC- correlation spectrometer for FlySPEC/
ScanDOAS for SO2; and CO2 flux meter for CO2)
2. Alert Level 1 (Low Level of Volcanic Unrest)
WHAT
 CRITERIA: Slight increase in volcanic
TO OBSERVE:
earthquake and steam/gas activity. Sporadic
1. Changes in temperature
explosions from existing or new vents.
2. Water become more acidic Notable increase in the temperature of hot
3. Some gas, for example SO2 from base levels of 100 springs. Slight inflation or swelling of the
tons/day jump to 4,000 tons/days can be an edifice.
indication of unrest  INTERPRETATION/RECOMMENDATION:
Hydrothermal, magmatic, or tectonic
Seismic Activity disturbances. The source of activity is
 Seismometer is the equipment used to detect shallow, near crater or in the vicinity of
occurrence of volcanic earthquake Irosin Caldera. Entry into

Sensory Observations
1. Visual 3. Alert Level 2 (Moderate Level of Volcanic Unrest)
a. Intensified steaming activity  CRITERIA Elevated levels of any of the
following: volcanic earthquake, steam/gas
emission, ground deformation and hot spring
 temperature. Intermittent team/ash explosion pyroclastic flows, surges and/or lateral
and above baseline Sulfur Dioxide2 (SO2) blasts and widespread ashfall. 
emission rates. Increased swelling of volcanic INTERPRETATION/RECOMMENDATION:
edifice.  Life-threatening eruption producing
INTERPRETATION/RECOMMENDATION: volcanic hazards that endanger
Probable intrusion of magma at depth, communities. Additional danger areas may
which can lead to magmatic eruption. Entry be declared as eruption progresses
within PDZ must be prohibited. Other areas
within five (5) kilometers of the active vent Permanent Danger Zone (PDZ)
may be included in the danger zone.  Delineated and identified where no
permanent habitation is recommended due
possible impact
4. Alert Level 3 (High Level of Volcanic Unrest) of various hazard at any time
 CRITERIA: Sustained increases in the levels
of volcanic earthquakes, some may be
perceptible. Occurrence of lowfrequency
earthquakes, volcanic tremor, rumbling
sounds. Forceful and voluminous steam/ash
ejections. Sustained increases in SO2
emission rates, ground
deformation/swelling of the edifice. Activity
at the summit may involve dome growth
and/or lava flow, resultant rockfall. 
INTERPRETATION/RECOMMENDATION:
Magma is near or at the surface, and
activity could lead to hazardous eruption in
weeks. Danger zones may be expanded up
to eight (8) kilometers from the active
crater

5. Alert Level 4 (Hazardous Eruption Imminent)

 CRITERIA: Intensifying unrest characterized
by earthquake swarms and volcanic tremor,
many perceptible. Frequent strong ash
explosions. Sustained increase, or sudden
drop, of SO2 emission. Increasing rates of
ground deformation and swelling of the
edifice. Lava dome growth and/or lava flow
increases, with increased frequency and
volume of rockfall.
 INTERPRETATION/RECOMMENDATION:
Magmatic processes or effusive eruption
underway, which can progress into highly
hazardous eruption. Danger Zone may be
extended up to nine (9) kilometers or more
from the active crater

6. Alert Level 5 (Hazardous Eruption in Progress)

 CRITERIA: Magmatic eruption characterized
by explosive production of tall ash-laden
eruption columns, or by massive collapses
of summit lava dome. Generation of deadly